SURFACE TENSION

--- basically a molecular phenomenon ---

We all know that there are two types of molecular forces: (1) forces of adhesion and (2) forces of cohesion.
Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances and is different for different
pairs of substances, e.g., gum has a greater adhesive force than water or alcohol.
On the other hand, Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substance. As for
example, the molecules of a water droplet are held together by cohesive forces, and the especially strong
cohesive forces at the surface constitute surface tension.
The adhesive forces between water molecules and the walls of a glass tube are stronger than the cohesive
forces lead to an upward turning meniscus at the walls of the vessel and contribute to capillary action.
Molecular range: the maximum distance up to which the force of cohesion between two molecules can act
is called their molecular range, and is generally of the order of 10-7 cms in the case of solids and liquids,
being different for different substances.

Surface Tension
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension.
The molecules on the surface experience a net force in the downward direction and consequently they
cohere more strongly with them on that surface. This forms a surface "film" whose thickness equal to the
molecular range, which is under tension. This phenomenon is known as surface tension.
As for example, a water droplet is able to have this roughly round shape because all the little water
molecules on the surface of the water droplet, and here the surface might even be on the bottom of the water
droplet. They are more attracted to each other than they are to the surrounding air, so they are able to form
this type of a shape, which might have seen to a pond.
Walking on water Small insects such as the water strider can able to walk on the surface of the water
just like put a paperclip on the water. And even though this thing is actually more dense than the water and
you might expect it to sink, but because of the surface tension, which really forms something of a film on
top of the water, the thing won’t penetrate the surface, so the paperclip will float, unless you were to push
on it a little bit and it allow it to puncture the surface, and then it would actually sink, which is what you
would expect because it is actually denser.
If you were to take a cup and were to fill it all the way up to the rim and then a little bit higher, it won’t
immediately overflow. If you are very careful, you will see that you form a bulge here. And that bulges
because those individual water molecules are more attracted to each other than they are to the surrounding
air, so that allows for something of a little bulge. Obviously, if you keep pouring water, at some point, they
are gonna start overflowing because gravity’s gonna take over there. Gravity’s gonna overwhelm the surface
tension. But this bulge will actually form.
 So the surface tension is basically due to the cohesion of water. It may be defined as the force per unit
length of a line drawn in the liquid surface, acting perpendicularly to it at every point and tending to pull
the surface apart along the line.
Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes required to break a film of length
1 cm. Water at 20°C has a surface tension of 72.8 dynes/cm compared to 22.3 for ethyl alcohol and 465 for
mercury. Decrease of surface tension in water with heating

Hot water is a better

cleaning agent because the
lower surface tension
makes it a better "wetting
agent" to get into pores
and fissures rather than
bridging them with surface
tension. Soaps and
detergents further lower
the surface tension.

Explanation of surface tension (Cohesion and surface tension)

The cohesive forces between molecules wholly inside the liquid
are attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules lying
within its sphere of influence [right figure], so that there is no
resultant cohesive force on it. Those on the surface have no
neighboring atoms above and exhibit stronger attractive forces
upon their nearest neighbors on the surface. This enhancement of
the intermolecular attractive forces at the surface is called
surface tension.

Factors affecting surface tension of a liquid

i. Temperature: T is decreased by increasing the temperature.
ii. Effect of medium on a liquid surface: If the water surface is surrounded by air then T is 72 dynes/cm
but if the water surface is surrounded by water vapor then T will be 70 dynes/cm.
iii. Pollution: If the materials like oil, fat etc. are floated on the liquid surface, T will be decreased.
iv. Presence of dissolving materials: If NaCl is dissolved in the fresh water, T will be 84 dynes/cm but the
soap is dissolved in the fresh water, T will be 32 dynes/cm.
v. Electrocution: T is decreased if the liquid is electrocuted.
Free Energy of a Surface and Surface Tension

When a molecule is brought from the interior of the liquid to the surface-film, work has to be done against
the downward cohesive force acting on it, and increases the potential energy of the surface. But the liquid
surface will have the tendency to have the minimum potential energy so that a minimum number of
molecules remains on the surface of the liquid. Thus the free surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched
elastic membrane and has a tendency to contract so as to minimize its surface area. The potential energy
per unit area of the surface-film is called its surface energy.

Take a rectangular framework of wire PQRS, (right figure), with a

horizontal wire AB placed across it, free to move up and down, and form
a soap-film across AQRB, by dipping it in a soap solution. The wire AB
is pulled upwards by the surface tension of the film, acting
perpendicularly to the wire and in the plane of the film. To keep the wire
in position, therefore, a force has to be applied downwards, equal and
opposite to the upward force due to surface tension. Let this downward
force be equal to F including the weight of the wire AB, which is also
acting downwards. Then, if T be the surface tension of the film, i.e., if T
be the force per unit length of the film and l, the length of the wire AB,
the upward force acting on the wire is

AB = 𝑙𝑇 + 𝑙𝑇 = 2𝑙𝑇,
because the film has two surfaces and each has a surface tension T. Since the film is in equilibrium, it is
clear that
𝐹 = 2𝑙𝑇
Now, if the wire AB be pulled downward through a small distance x into the position A'B', then the work
done
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 = 2𝑙𝑇𝑥
And the film be extended by an area l.x on each side, so that the increase in area of that film is
∆𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑥
Therefore, according to the definition of surface energy
𝑊 2𝑙𝑇𝑥
𝐸= = =𝑇
∆𝐴 2𝑙𝑥
Thus, the surface tension of a liquid may be defined as the amount of work done in increasing the surface
area of the liquid-film by unity, or as the mechanical part of the surface energy/free energy of the liquid
film. Finally, the surface tension of a liquid is equal to the free energy of the liquid film or surface.
Pressure difference across a liquid surface-Drops and Bubbles
i. If the free surface of a liquid is plane, as shown in Fig. (i), then, the resultant force due to surface tension
on a molecule on its surface is zero, and the cohesion-pressure is, therefore, just nominal.
ii. If the free surface of the liquid be concave [Fig. (ii)], the resultant force on a molecule on the surface
would be directed upwards from the center of curvature, where the horizontal components cancel out
each other, and the cohesion-pressure is, therefore, decreased.
iii. And, finally, if the liquid surface be convex, [Fig. (iii)], the resultant force due to surface tension on
a molecule on the surface will be downwards towards the center of curvature so that the cohesion-
pressure is, in this case, increased.

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop

The molecules near the surface of a drop, which is a convex surface, experience a resultant pull inwards.
The pressure inside it must, therefore, be greater than the pressure outside it. Let this excess pressure inside
over the outside pressure the drop be p. Then, if r be the radius of the drop and T, its surface tension, we
have, considering the equilibrium of one-half of the drop say, the upper half, or the upper hemisphere, the
upward thrust on the plane face ABCD (below figure), due to the excess pressure p is equal to p.πr2.
And, force due to surface tension, acting downwards on it and round its edge, is equal to T. 2πr. Since
the hemisphere is in equilibrium, we have
𝑃. 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑇. 2𝜋𝑟
whence,
𝑃 = 2𝑇/𝑟

Excess pressure inside a liquid soap bubble

If, instead of a drop of liquid, we consider a bubble (below figure), there are two surfaces to be considered,
because it is like a spherical shell or a hollow cylinder, having an inner and an outer surface; so that, the
force due to surface tension in this case is 2𝑇. 2𝜋𝑟 , (i.e., 𝑇. 2𝜋𝑟 due to each surface). Therefore, for
equilibrium of the hemisphere, we have, in this case,
𝑃 = 4𝑇/𝑟
It will thus be seen that the excess pressure inside a
drop or a bubble is inversely proportional to its radius
(i.e., 𝑃 ∝ 1/𝑟 ); so that, the smaller the bubble, the
greater the excess
Curvature, pressure
Pressure and inside it. Tension
Surface
Excess pressure across a liquid surface
If we have a curved liquid surface taken from a balloon [below figures], which has no definite radius
because of non-spherical shape, we need to calculate the excess pressure.

If we increase the balloon like right figure shown in the above, the surface (within the curved lines) will be
increased. Before increment, the surface is ABCD (below figure) and after increment, that will be A′B′C′D′.
Let O and O′ are the centers of curvatures of AB and BC, respectively.

is

If the surface of ABCD is small, then AB cab be treated as a straight line, i.e.
AB = x, BC = y and BB′ = dz
where dz is the small shifting distance for the increased surface A′B′C′D′ from ABCD. Again,
A′B′ = x + dx, B′C′ = y + dy here dxdy is small this is why it is 0
Now the area of ABCD = xy
and the area of A′B′C′D′ = (x + dx)( y + dy) = xy + ydx + xdy + dxdy = xy + ydx + xdy
Then the increment in area, A = xdy + ydx
The increment in P.E. = Surface energy x A = T A = T ( xdy + ydx ) = Work done (1)
Let the excess pressure is P, which is responsible for the increment of A′B′C′D′ surface, then the force is
Force = 𝑃 × 𝑥𝑦. Therefore, the work done is
Work done = 𝑃 × 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑑𝑧 (2)
Relate equations (1) and (2), we have
𝑃 × 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑇 (𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦𝑑𝑥 ) (3)
Let r1 and r2 are the radius of curvatures of AB and BC, respectively. If AB treats as a straight line, then
ABO as well as A′B′O forms a triangle and we obtain from the similar triangles A′B′O and ABO
A′B′ AB A′ B ′ − AB
= =
OB′ OB OB ′ − OB
𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
⇒ = =
𝑟1 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑟1 𝑑𝑧
𝑥𝑑𝑧
∴ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑟1
Similarly,
𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑦 =
𝑟2
Placing these forms of dx and dy into (3), we have
𝑃 × 𝑥𝑦 × 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑇 (𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧/𝑟2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧/𝑟1 )
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑇 (1/𝑟1 + 1/𝑟2 )
And, if one of the surfaces be convex and the other, concave; the radii 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 of the two surfaces will
have opposite signs. In such a case, we shall have
1 1
𝑃 = 𝑇( − )
𝑟1 𝑟2
Combining the cases, therefore, we may put the general relation as
1 1
𝑃 = 𝑇( ± )
𝑟1 𝑟2

Now, let us consider a few special cases:

1) Case of a spherical surface In the case of a spherical surface, like that of a liquid drop, or an air
bubble inside a liquid, we have 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟; so that, excess pressure inside it is given by
1 1 2𝑇
𝑃 = 𝑇( + ) =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
In the case of a soap bubble, because there are two surfaces, an inner and an outer one, we have
2𝑇 4𝑇
𝑃 =2× =
𝑟 𝑟
2) Case of a cylindrical surface In this case, one of the radii is infinite, whereas the other is the same
as the radius r of the cylinder.
So that, for one single surface, 𝑃 = 𝑇/𝑟,
and for two surfaces, 𝑃 = 2𝑇/𝑟.
3) Case of a catenoid Here, the surface being one of revolution, with no difference of pressure, we
have p = 0. And, therefore,
1 1
± =0
𝑟1 𝑟2
P1. (a) Find the difference of pressure between the inside and outside of a spherical drop of water of radius
1.0 mm. Given that the surface tension of water is 73 dynes/cm. (b) A soap bubble is slowly enlarged from
a radius of 0.01 to 0.1 m. Calculate the work done in the process. Given that the surface tension of soap
solution is 26 dynes/cm.

P2. The pressure of air in a soap babble of 0.7 cm. diameter is 8 mms. of water above the atmospheric
pressure. Calculate the surface tension of the soap solution in dynes/cm.