“ELECTRICITY”

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Understand the concept of charge and its properties

 Define electric field and electric potential Understand
the concept of electric current
 Construct simple electric circuits using bulbs and
resistors
 Ohm’s law
 Understand the concept of electrical resistance and
the factors on which it depends
 Find the value of resistance of a resistors in series
and parallel combination.
 Understand heating effect of electric current and
different applications of it in daily life.
 Understand the concept of electric power and its
measurement in practical applications
  STATIC ELECTRICITY :
The charge of a body is its fundamental physical property, like mass. If a body is
charged, it experiences a force when it is placed in an external electromagnetic
field.
There are many ways to charge a body, like friction, conduction and induction. In
general, when we speak about charges, we refer to charged particles or charged
bodies.
Electric Charge:-
Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the substance or matter by virtue of
which it experiences a force when placed nearby the other substance or matter.
[in electromagnetic field]
 Properties Of Electric Charges:-
• Electric charges are added algebraically.
• Electric charge can be either a positive charge or a negative charge.
Proton is a positively charged particle and electron is a negatively charged particle.
• Like charges repel and opposite charges attract, i.e., a proton repels a proton
and attracts an electron. Similarly, an electron repels an electron and attracts a
proton.
The force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is given by Coulomb’s
law. Consider two charges q, and q, separated by a distance r. According to
Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force between q1 and q2,
• Charge is conserved, i.e., a charge can neither be created nor be destroyed, but
it can only be transferred from one body to another body. So, the total charge of
isolated system remains constant. This is also known as law of conservation of
charge.
• Charge is quantized, i.e., the charge on a body is always an integral multiple of
the charge on an electron. If a body possesses a charge Q, mathematically it can
be expressed as
Q= ne
where, n is an integer and e is charge on an electron.Electronic charge is the
smallest possible charge and it is given by e=1.6*10^{-19} C.
• A body becomes a negatively charged body when it gains electrons. Since the
electron has a finite mass, the mass of the body increases when a body becomes a
negatively charged body.
Similarly, a body becomes a positively charged body when it loses electrons; and
hence, its mass decreases.
Unit of charge: The SI unit of charge is coulomb © named after French physicist
Charles Coulomb (1736-1806).

NOTE:- The study of electricity is classified into two parts. They are
(i) static electricity (ii) current electricity.
The study of charges when they are at rest is known as static electricity,
and the study of charges while they are in motion is known as current
electricity.

 ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC FIELD

STRENGTH :
The region surrounding a charged body, where another charged body experiences
an electrostatic force, is known as an Electric Field.
If the magnitude and direction of the electric field strength is the same at all
points in the electric field, then it is a UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD.
Electric Field Lines :-
When a unit positive charge is left freely in an electric field, it moves along a path.
The path along which a unit positive charge moves in an electric field is known as
electric line of force or electric field line.
The electric lines of force always originate from a positive charge and terminate at
a negative charge. Therefore, the electric lines of forces point outwards for a
positive charge and inward for a negative charge as shown in Figure,

Properties of electric lines of force:-

• The electric field strength is more if the number of electric lines of force passing
normally through a unit area is more.
• The tangent drawn at any point on the electric line of force gives the direction of
electric field at that point.
• Electric lines of force never intersect each other. A line of force is always normal
to the surface of the conductor.
The electric lines of force do not pass through a closed conductor.
  ELECTRIC CURRENT :-
• Electric current is defined as the amount of charge flowing through the cross
section area in unit time.
In other words it is the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross section of
the conductor.

If a net charge Q which is the algebraic sum of all the electronic charges passing
through the cross-sectional area of the conductor in unit time t, then the electric
current I through the cross-section is given by –

The SI unit of electric current is coulomb per second (C s¹).

This SI unit of current is known as ampere (A), named after a French scientist,
Andre-Marie Ampere (1775-1836).
 NO OF ELECTIONS IN 1C CHARGE

ONE AMPERE:- One ampere is defined as the flow of one coulomb of charge per
second, i.e., 6.25 x 10^18 electrons passing through the cross-sectional area of
the conductor in one second.
•Ampere is a bigger unit of current. Small quantities of current, namely
milliampere (1 mA = 10^-3 A) and microampere (1 µA = 10^-6 A) are generally
used.
•Electric current is SCALAR QUANTITY.
•The device used to measure the electric current in a circuit is an ammeter. It is
always connected in series to measure the Current in a circuit.
Least Count of Ammeter:-

• The least count of an Ammeter is the smallest measurement that can be taken
accurately with it.
• The value of one division on the scale of ammeter is the least count of Ammeter.
• Lesser the least count, More the Accuracy.
 Resistance of an ideal Ammeter is Zero

 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE:-

• The space or region around a charged body within which its influence can be felt
by another charged particle is known as electric field of the charged body.

 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL :-
•• “ Electric potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done
in moving a unit positive charge from Infinity to that point in the electric field.”

Let,
‘W' be the work done in moving a charge ‘q' from infinity to a point in an electric
field, then the electric potential (V) at that point is given by-
UNIT:- SI unit of electric potential is 'Volt' and it is denoted by ‘V'.
Unit Volt/ one Volt
 Electric potential is said to be one Volt,
If one joule of work is done in moving
one coulomb of charge from infinity to
that point in an electric field.
 Electric potential is a SCALAR QUANTITY.
 Device used to measure the potential different across the conductor is called
VOLTMETER.
 Resistance oda an ideal voltmeter is infinite.

 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (VOLTAGE) :-

Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric)
potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In
a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed to move a unit
positive test charge from the first point to the second point within the electric field.
 Electric potential difference is a SCALAR QUANTITY.
 ELECTRIC CURRENT IS THE EFFECT OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
(VOLTAGE).

 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:-

 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS:-
 “Ohm’s Law”
 The relation between electric current and electric potential difference
is given by ohm’s law.
 Ohm’s law states that,
“ The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across the end of
the conductor. Provided the temperature and other physical
conditions of the conductor remains constant.”

∝
Mathematically,
Electric current Potential difference

∝ V
Or,

∝ I
I
Or, V
Or,
V = IR
Here,
‘R' is a proportionality constant which is known as resistance.

Thus, Ohm’s law can also be stated as, the ratio of potential difference across
the end of the conductor to the electric current flowing through it remains
constant.
GRAPH:-
  This plot is also known as the V-I characteristics.
 The slope of a V-I graph gives the resistance of the conductor.

 Electrical RESISTANCE:-
 Electrical resistance is the property of the conductor which oppose
the flow of charge through it.
 Resistance of a conductor may also be defined as the ratio of the
potential difference across the ends of the conductor to the electric
current flowing through the conductor.
 UNIT:- SI unit of electric resistance is “Ohm” and it is denoted by Ω.
 One Ohm:-
The resistance of a conductor is said to be one Ohm, if the potential
difference of one Volt across the end of the conductor makes a
current of one Ampere to pass through it.

 RESISTOR:-
A component used in a circuit which resist the flow of charge through it.

 The resistance of some resistors is a constant value, they are called

carbon resistors. But for some resistors the value of the resistance
can be varied, they are called variable resistors or wire wound
resistors or rheostat.
 Conductor and Insulator:-
 Different substances allow different amount of electricity to pass
through them when the potential difference across them is
maintained constant.
 That means they resist the flow of charges through them to different
extent.
  The substances which offer low resistance to the flow of electric
charges are called conductors and the substances which offer high
resistance are called insulators.
 Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Conductors:-
We know that the current through the conductor increases linearly with
the increase in potential difference across its ends. However, there are
conductors in which the variation of current can be non-linear. Based on
this variation of current, conductors can be classified into two types: the
ohmic conductors, and the non-ohmic conductors.

Ohmic Conductors:- The conductors in which the variation of electric current is

linear with respect to the potential difference applied across it known as the
ohmic conductors, i.e., the conductors obey Ohm’s law. The V-I graph is a straight
line passing through origin.
Non-Ohmic Conductors:- The conductors in which the variation of electric current
is non-linear with respect to the potential difference applied across its ends are
known as the non-ohmic conductors, i.e., the conductors that do not obey Ohm’s
law. The V-I graph is a non-linear.
Examples of Non Ohmic Conductors include semiconductors
such as Silicon and Germanium.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTANCE OF A
CONDUCTOR:-
 Length of a conductor.
 Area of cross section of the conductor.
 Temperature of the conductor.
 Nature of the material.
o Length of a conductor: The resistance of the conductor depends on its
length, i.e., as the length of the conductor increases, its resistance also
increases linearly.
Mathematically, the resistance of a conducting wire is directly proportional to its
length. If ‘R’ and ‘/’ are the resistance and length of a conductor respectively,
Then
R ∝ l
⇒

o Area of cross section of the conductor: The resistance of the conductor

depends on its area of cross-section, i.e., as the area of cross-section of the
conductor increases, its resistance decreases.
Mathematically, the resistance of a conducting wire is inversely proportional to its
area of cross-section. If 'R' and 'A' are the resistance and area of cross-section of a
conductor respectively,
Then
 R ∝ 1/A

o Temperature of the Conductor: With the increase in temperature of a

conductor, the random motion of electrons increases. As a result, the
number of collisions of electrons increases as a result of which the charge
flow rate decreases. Hence, the resistance of conductor increases with
increase in temperature.

o Nature of the material:

 Conduction is affected by availability of current carriers – typically free
electrons in metals and ions in electrolytic solutions.
 At atomic level, substances that have loosely bound valance electrons (read
metals) have ample supply of free electrons and are good conductors. Hence
have low resistance.
(Vice- Versa)
RESISTIVITY or SPECIFIC RESISTANCE :-
Thus, resistivity of the conductor can be defined as the amount of resis- tance
offered by a conductor of length 1 m and area of cross-section 1 m², such that the
current enters and leaves from its opposite faces.
A characteristic property of each material, resistivity is useful in comparing various
materials on the basis of their ability to conduct electric currents. High resistivity
designates poor conductors.
Unit :- Ohm-meter.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY:-
Conductor, Semiconductor And Insulator:-
Based on the values of resistivity, the materials can be classified into three types.
They are conductors, insulators, and semiconductors.
 Conductors: The resistivity of conductors is low, and it is in the range of 10^-8
Ω m to 10^-6 Ω m. Metals and alloys are the examples of conductors.
 Insulators: The resistivity of insulators is high, and it is in the range of 10^12
Ω m to 10^17 . Rubber and glass are the examples of insulators.

⚫ Semiconductors: The resistivity of semiconductors is moderate, i.e. in between

conductors and insulators, and it is in the range of 10^-5 Ω m to 10^5Ω m.
Silicon, tin and germanium are the examples of semiconductors. We will know
more about semiconductors later as these items have a wide range of applications
in our day-to-day lives.
 Uses of Conductors:-
 At high temperatures, alloys do not oxidise (burn). Due to this reason, the
alloy, nichrome is used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron, toasters,
etc.
 At high temperatures, pure metals oxidise. Due to this, the pure metal,
tungsten is used as filaments of electric bulbs.
 Other metals, copper and aluminium are generally used for electrical
transmission lines.

 RESISTANCE OF A COMBINATION OF
RESISTORS:- There are two methods of joining resistors, of which,
one combination will have the net resistance more than that of each
resistor in the combination; and, the other combination will have the net
resistance less than that of each resistor in the combination. These are:
(a) series combination, and
 (b) parallel combination of resistors.
 SERIES COMBINATION OF RESISTORS:-
Two or more resistors are said to be Connected in series if they are Connected
one after the Other such that the same Current flows through each resistors,
when Some potential difference is applied across the Combination.
  Disadvantages of the SERIES CIRCUIT:-
• As in case of series circuit, resistances of the electrical appliances are added up,
the equivalent resistance of the circuit increased. This reduces the current in the
circuit.
• In a series circuit, current remains the same and voltage gets divided. So, the
electrical appliances like heater and bulb Cannot be connected in series as they
need wide range of currents.
• If one of the appliances connected in series combination fails, the circuit
becomes open and none of the other components work.

We know that the fairy lights used to decorate the buildings in the event of
any celebrations, are connected in series. If one among the thousands of
bulbs get fused, the electrician must spend hours to find that fused bulb.
  PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTORS:-
Two or more resistors are said to be Connected in parallel if one end of Each
resistors is connected at one common point and other end of Each resistors are
Connected at other common point, such that the potential difference across the
resistors is Equal to the applied potential difference across the Combination of the
resistors.
  Advantages of PARALLEL CIRCUIT:-
• As in case of parallel combination, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of
the circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances, the
total resistance of the circuit decreases.
• As the voltage across all the appliances remain in parallel combination, a
required amount of current passes through each Appliance.
• If one of the appliances connected in parallel combination fails, the other
appliances will not be affected. They work Normally.
You might have observed in your homes that if a fan or TV stops working due to
some internal problem, the other appliances like bulbs, refrigerator keep working
normally. This is because all the electrical appliances in our homes are connected
in parallel combination.
 Electric Cell:-
An electric cell is a device that is used to provide a constant potential
difference across a conductor or a circuit and makes the free electrons in it
to move. The movement of these free electrons constitute current. For
example, a dry cell.
A cell provides electrical energy by converting chemical energy stored in it.
The current inside the cell is due to ions and outside the cell is due to free
electrons.
The symbol for a cell is as follows:

 Terms Related To Electric Cell:

 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE ( emf ) : The potential difference between the
terminals of a cell when it is in an open circuit (i.e., when there is no current
drawn) is called its electromotive force or emf. It is denoted by E.
Electromotive force of a cell is its characteristic property. So, it is different for
different cells. A dry cell can provide an emf of 1.5V.
 TERMINAL VOLTAGE: The potential difference between the terminals of a
cell when it is connected in a closed circuit (when current is drawn) is called
terminal voltage. It is denoted by V.
 The terminal voltage is always less than emf in a closed circuit.
 The difference between E and V is called lost voltage. This lost voltage is due
to internal resistance offered by the cell to itself to the flow of current inside
it (i.e., to the flow of ions).

 Internal RESISTANCE OF A CELL:-

We know that when a cell is connected in a circuit, the current inside the cell
is from cathode to anode (due to ions) and outside the cell, the current is
from anode to cathode (due to free electrons). This is to maintain continuity.
The electrolyte inside the cell offers certain resistance to the movement of
ions and this resistance is called internal resistance. It is denoted by ‘r'.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL:-

• Distance between electrodes
As the distance between electrodes increases, internal resistance also
increases.

• Area of cross-section of electrodes

As the area of cross-section of the electrodes increases, internal resistance
decreases.
 • Nature, concentration, and temperature of the electrolyte .
E = V + Ir

V=E-Ir
Therefore, from the above equation it is clear that the terminal voltage
depends on emf of the cell, internal resistance and external resistance. But
the emf does not depend on internal and external resistances.

When a cell is connected in the circuit, its internal resistance can be

considered in series with the resistance the circuit.

 HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT:-

When an electric current passes through a conductor (like a high resistance

wire) the conductor becomes hot after some time and produces heat. This
is called heating effect of Electric Current.
DERIVATION
 JOULE'S LAW OF HEATING:-

H = I²Rt

The last above expression is known as Joule's Law of Heating, which states
that heat produced in a resistor is
(i) directly proportional to the square of current given to the resistor,
(ii) directly proportional to the resistance for a given current, and
(iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current is flowing
through the resistor.
ELECTRIC FUSE:-
An electrical fuse is a safety device that operates to provide
protection against the overflow of current in an electrical
circuit.
The fuse wire is generally an alloy of lead and tin. It has a low melting point and
breaks the circuit if the current exceeds a safe value.
The thickness and length of the fuse wire depends on the maximum current
allowed through the circuit.
It is connected in series in the beginning of the electric circuits.
When the circuit current exceeds a specified value due to voltage fluctuations or
short-circuiting the fuse wire gets heated and melts. Thus it breaks the connection
and no current flows. This prevents damage to the appliance

 Electric Energy:-
The work done by source of electricity to maintain a current in an electrical
circuit is known as electric energy.

Consider an electric circuit through which current 'I’ flows for the time 't'
if charge 'q' flows through the circuit for time 't' then
q = It
if ‘V' be the potential difference applied across the circuit then work done to
maintain the flow of charge ‘q' through it is given by
V= W/q
W= Vq
SO,
W = VIt

this work done is equal to the electric energy consumed by the circuit therefore

E = VIt
  ELECTRIC POWER:-
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit
per unit time.
If 'E' be the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit in time 't' then
electric power 'P' is given by-

P = W/t
Or, P = E/t
Or, P = VIt/t
Or, P = VI

UNIT:- watt.
Thus electric power may also be defined as the product of potential difference
applied across the end of the conductor and electric current flowing through it.

ONE WATT:-
The power consumed by an electrical appliance which when operated at a
potential difference of one Volt carries a current of one ampere.

 COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY:-

Power = Electrical Energy

Time
Or, Electrical energy = Power x Time
Therefore unit of electrical energy = (unit of power) X (unit of time)
(Watt) x (Second)
Ws
Watt second is electrical energy consumed by a device of power I watt
in ‘1’ second. As this unit is very small, the higher units of electrical
energy are used. They are watt-hour (Wh) and kilowatt-hour (kWh),

One watt-hour is defined as the electrical energy consumed in one

hour, by an electrical device whose power is one watt, i.e., the power
of the device should be one watt and it should be used for one hour
and the energy consumed during this time interval is known as one
watt-hour.
One kilowatt-hour is defined as the electrical energy consumed in one
hour, by an electrical device Whose power is one kilowatt and is
simply known as ‘unit’.

1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s

= 3.6 × 10^6 Ws = 3.6 × 10^6 J
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
 Therefore, one unit is defined as 3.6 MJ of electrical energy
consumed.

 Kilowatt-Hour Meter :-
 The meter used to measure the electrical energy consumed by
various electrical devices is known as kilowatt-hour meter. It is
commonly known as the household electric meter. To measure the
total electrical energy consumed, an electric meter is connected
before the main switch.
The reading taken from the electric meter, periodically, say a
month; helps to calculate the number of units consumed by the
consumer, during the month. This number multiplied by the price
per unit (one kWh) fixed by the State Electricity Board gives the
monthly electric charges which must be paid by the consumer.

1 Unit Energy (kWh) = Power (watt) x Time (h)

1000

NUMERICALS