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UNIT - 2
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Introduction:
Differential Calculus is the most important and very essential branch of
mathematics in modern mathematical science and also in applied science, engineering and
technology.
In this chapter, the concept of functions and how one can define a function have been
introduced. Later the concepts like limits continuity and differentiability have been
introduced in a way such that the concept may easily understood by students. The
differentiation of various functions like algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and
logarithmic are thoroughly discussed. Plenty of examples have been worked out and there
are many problems related to the above concepts. The concept of maxima and minima
which is also an application of differential calculus has also been introduced. A large
number of exercises on various methods are also given.
2.1 Representation of functions:
Functions:
A function is a rule that assigns to each element 𝑥 in a set 𝐴 to exactly one
element called 𝑓(𝑥) in a set 𝐵.
The set A of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The range
of 𝑓 is the set of all possible values of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 varies throughout the domain.
A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function f is called
an independent variable. A symbol that represents a number in the range of 𝑓 is called a
dependent variable. There are four ways to represent a function:
(i) Function represented Verbally
(ii) Function represented Visually
(iii) Function represented Numerically
(iv) Function represented Algebraically (ie, a function is represented by an explicit
function)

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Real valued functions:

A function, whose domain and co-domain are subsets of the set of all real
numbers, is known as real-valued function.
Explicit functions:
If 𝑥 and 𝑦 be so related that y can be expressed explicity in terms of 𝑥, then 𝑦 is
called
explicit function of 𝑥. Example: 𝑦 = 2𝑥2− 4𝑥 + 2
Implicit functions:
If 𝑥 and 𝑦 be so related that y cannot be expressed explicity in terms of 𝑥, then 𝑦 is
called implicit function of 𝑥. Example: 𝑥 3+𝑦3− 3𝑥𝑦 = 0
Piecewise function:
A piecewise function is a function which is defined by multiple sub functions,
each sub function applying to a certain interval of the main function domain.
Odd and Even functions:
If a function f satisfies 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every number 𝑥 in its domain, then 𝑓 is
called an even function. Example: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥 4, |𝑥| are even functions.
If a function f satisfies 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) for every number 𝑥 in its domain, then 𝑓
is called an odd function. Example: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥3 are odd functions.

Example:
Classify the following functions as odd or even functions:
𝒙𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
(i) 𝒙𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 (ii)
𝟏+𝒙𝟒

Solutions:
(i) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 cos 2𝑥
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 cos2(−𝑥)
= −𝑥 3 cos2𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 cos 2𝑥 is an odd function

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x2 cosx
(ii) Let 𝑓(𝑥) =
1+x4
(−𝑥)2 cos(−𝑥)
𝑓(−𝑥) =
1+(−𝑥)4

𝑥 2 cos 𝑥
= = 𝑓(𝑥)
1+𝑥 4
x2 cosx
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = is an even function.
1+x4

Graph of functions:
If 𝑓 is a function with domain D, then its graph is the set of ordered pair
{(𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥))/𝑥𝜖𝐷}.
Domain, Co-domain, Range and Image:
Let: 𝐴 → 𝐵 , then the set A is called the domain of the function and set B is called Co-
domain.
The set of all the images of all the elements of A under the function f is called the
range of f and it is denoted by 𝑓(𝐴).
Range of 𝑓 is 𝑓(𝐴) = { 𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥𝜖𝐴 }
clearly 𝑓(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐵
If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑦 is called the image of 𝑥 under 𝑓.
Example:
Find the domain and range of the function:
𝟏 𝟒
(i) 𝒇(𝒙) = (ii) 𝒇(𝒙) = (iii) 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 (iv) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 (v) 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙 𝟑−𝒙

√𝒙 + 𝟐
𝟏
(i) 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙

Solution:
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 0
⟹𝑥 =0, 𝑥−1=0⇒𝑥 = 1
Domain is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,1) ∪ (1, ∞)
Range is (0, ∞)

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𝟒
(ii) 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝟑−𝒙

Solution:
3−𝑥 =0⟹𝑥 =3
Domain is (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
Range is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
(iii) 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎
Solution:
Since square root of a negative number is not defined, 5x + 10 ≥ 0
⟹ 5𝑥 ≥ −10 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ −2
Domain is [−2 , ∞)
Range is [0, ∞)
(iv)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
Solution:
ie, 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 − 1 = 𝑥 2
Here 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑦 − 1 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑦 ≥ 1
Domain is [−∞ , ∞)
Range is [1, ∞)
(v) 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟐
Solution:
Since square root of a negative number is not defined, x + 2 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑥 ≥ −2
Domain is [−2 , ∞)
Range is [0, ∞)
Example:
𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 0
Find the domain and sketch the graph of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝟏 − 𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
Solution:
𝑥+2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = {
1−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0

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ie, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 0 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 ,𝑥 ≥ 0

x<0 -1 -2 -3 -4 … x ≥0 0 1 2 3 …

y = x+2 1 0 -1 -2 … y = 1-x 1 0 -1 -2 …

Domain is (−∞, ∞)
Example:
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function 𝒇(𝒙) = |𝒙|
Solution:
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0

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Definition:
Vertical line test for a function:
A Curve in the 𝑥𝑦-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line
intersects the curve more than once.
Note:
A circle cannot be the graph of a function. Since some vertical lines intersect the circle
twice.
Example:
Graph the following equations and explain they are not graph of functions of x.
a)|𝒚| = 𝒙b) 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐

Solution:
a) |𝒚| = 𝒙
For each positive value of x, there are two values of y.

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b) 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐
For each value of x≠ 0, there are two values of y.

Increasing and Decreasing functions:

Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let 𝑥 1 and 𝑥 2 be any two points in I.
If 𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥 1< 𝑥 2, then f is said to be increasing on I.
If 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥 1< 𝑥 2, then f is said to be decreasing on I.
Example :
(1) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is decreasing in (−∞, 0] and increasing in [0, ∞)
(2) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 is decreasing in (−∞, ∞)

Single Valued function:

A function is said to be single valued function if there corresponds only one value
for 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥. Example: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1

Multi Valued function:

A function is said to be multi valued function if there corresponds more than one value
for 𝑥 0 1 2

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 1 3 5

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) , for all 𝑥.

Example: 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 1
⟹ 𝑦 = ±√𝑥 2 + 1
Exercise:
I. Determine the following functions is even, odd or neither.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 Ans: Odd function

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2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 4 Ans: Even function

𝑥
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = Ans: Odd function
𝑥 2 +1

4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥|𝑥| Ans: Odd function

5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 Ans: Neither even nor odd
𝑥
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = Ans: Neither even nor odd
𝑥+1
2
7. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 Ans: Even function

II. Find the domain and range of the function:

𝑥+4
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = Ans: Domain (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3,3) ∪ (3, ∞) Range (−∞, ∞)
𝑥 2 −9
3
2. 𝑓(𝑡) = √2𝑡 − 1 Ans: Domain(−∞, ∞) Range [0, ∞)
1
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 Ans: Domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,5) ∪ (5, ∞) Range (0, ∞)
√𝑥 2 −5𝑥

4. 𝑓(𝑥) = √5𝑥 − 15 Ans: Domain [3, ∞) Range [0, ∞)

5. 𝑓(𝑥) = √−2𝑥 + 10 Ans: Domain (−∞, 5] Range [0, ∞)

III. Sketch the graph and find the domain and range of each functions:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 Ans: Domain (−∞, ∞) Range (−∞, ∞)
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 Ans: Domain (−∞, ∞) Range [0, ∞)

Limit of a function:
Definition:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 is near the number a, Then we writelim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→𝑎

𝐿 and say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as x approaches a, equals L.

The above definition says that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) approach as x approaches a. In other
words, the value of 𝑓(𝑥) tend to get closer and closer to L as 𝑥 gets closer and closer to a
from either side of a but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎. The alternate notation for lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is 𝑓(𝑥) →
𝑥→𝑎

𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎.

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One-sided Limits:
Left-hand limit of 𝒇(𝒙):
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 is near the number from left hand side of a, Then
we write lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and say the left-hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches a.
𝑥→𝑎

Right-hand limit of 𝒇(𝒙):

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when x is near the number from right hand side of a,
Then we write lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and say the right-hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches a.
𝑥→𝑎

Definition:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 is near the number a. Then we write
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Infinite Limits:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on both sides of ‘a’ except possibly at‘a’ itself. Then
(i) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ means that the value of 𝑓(𝑥), can be made arbitrarily large by taking 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎

to be sufficiently close to ‘a’ but not equal to a.

(ii)lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ means that the value of 𝑓(𝑥), can be made arbitrarily large negative by
𝑥→𝑎

taking 𝑥 to be sufficiently close to ‘a’ but not equal to a.

Example:
Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 + 𝟐
𝒙→𝟐

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
X f(x) x f(x)

1.9 3.71 2.1 4.31

1.99 3.9701 2.01 4.0301

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1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001

1.9999 3.99970001 2.0001 4.00030001

x<2 x>2
From the table, lim 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2 = 4
𝑥→2

Example:
𝒙𝟐 −𝟏
Find the value of 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙−𝟏

Solution:
𝐱 𝟐 −𝟏 (𝒙+𝟏)(𝒙−𝟏)
𝑓(x) = =
𝐱−𝟏 (𝒙−𝟏)

= 𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≠ 1
X f(x) x f(x)

0.9 1.9 1.1 2.1

0.99 1.99 1.01 2.01

0.999 1.999 1.001 2.001

𝑥<1 𝑥>1
We can say f(x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1.
x2 − 1
∴ lim =2
𝑥→1 x − 1

Example:
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙
Find the value of 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

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X f(x) x f(x)

±1.0 0.8415 ±0.1 0.9983

±0.5 0.9589 ±0.05 0.9996

±0.4 0.9735 ±0.01 0.9999

±0.3 0.9851 ±0.005 0.99999

±0.2 0.9933 ±0.001 0.999999

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
From the table lim = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example:
𝝅
Investigate𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
𝜋
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥

x 1 1/3 0.1 1/2 1.4 0.01

f(x) 0 0 0 0 0 0

𝜋
Our guess lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0 is wrong.
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑓 ( ) = sin nπ = 0 for any integer n.
𝑛
1
∴ 𝑓 ( ) = 0 which is not possible.
𝑛

∴ The limit does not exists.

Example:
√𝒙+𝟒 −𝟐
Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
√𝑥+4 −2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑥

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x f(x) x f(x)

-1 0.2679 1 0.2361

-0.5 0.2583 0.5 0.2426

-0.1 0.2516 0.1 0.2485

-0.05 0.2508 0.05 0.2492

-0.01 0.2502 0.01 0.2498

-0.001 0.25 0.001 0.25

√𝑥 + 4 − 2 1
∴ lim = 0.25 =
𝑥→0 𝑥 4

Exercise:
I. Using the table guess the value of the limits if it exists:
1. lim 𝑥 + 3 Ans: 5
𝑥→2
𝑥 2 −4
2. lim Ans: 4
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −6𝑥+7 1
3. lim Ans:
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 4

√𝑥+1 −1 1
4. lim Ans:
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

√𝑥 2 +9 −3 1
5. lim Ans:
𝑥→0 𝑥2 6
𝑒 𝑥 −1−𝑥
6. lim Ans: Limit does not exists.
𝑥→0 𝑥2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 3𝑥 3
7. lim Ans:
𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 5𝑥 5
1
8. lim ( 2) Ans: Limit does not exists.
𝑥→0 𝑥

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Calculating limits using limit laws:

In this topic, we use the properties of limits, called the limit laws and some of
the well known limits, to calculate the limits.
Limit laws:
Suppose that C is a constant, lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exists, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(i) lim [𝐶] = 𝐶

𝑥→𝑎

(ii) lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(iii) lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(iv)lim [ 𝐶𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐶 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(v) lim [ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥)x lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

(vi)lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

(vii) lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑛 , n is a positive integer.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

(viii) lim [ 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥)] = [ 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥)] , n is a positive integer.

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Some well known results:

𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
(i)lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
sin 𝜃
(ii) lim =1
𝜃→0 𝜃
𝑒 𝑥 −1
(iii)lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑎𝑥 −1
(iv)lim = log 𝑎 , 𝑎 > 0
𝑥→0 𝑥
log 𝑥
(v) lim =1
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

Example:
Evaluate the limit and justify each step for the following:
(i) lim (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→−1

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𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1
(ii) lim
𝑥→−2 5−3𝑥

(iii) lim √𝑢4 + 3𝑢 + 6

𝑢→−2

Solution:
(i) lim (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3) = lim (𝑥 4 − 3𝑥) lim (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= [ lim 𝑥 4 − 3 lim 𝑥]x[ lim 𝑥 2 + 5 lim 𝑥 + lim 3]

𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1

= [(−1)4 − 3(−1)][(−1)2 + 5(−1) + 3]

= 4(−1) = −4
𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1 lim (𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 −1)
(ii) lim = 𝑥→−2
𝑥→−2 5−3𝑥 lim (5−3𝑥)
𝑥→−2

(−2)3 +2(−2)2 −1
=
5−3(−2)
−8+8−1 −1
= =
5+6 11

(iii) lim √𝑢4 + 3𝑢 + 6 = √ lim (𝑢4 + 3𝑢 + 6)

𝑢→−2 𝑢→−2

= √(−2)4 + 3(−2) + 6
= √16 − 6 + 6 = √16 = 4
Theorem : 1
Limits of Polynomials:
If 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 , then lim 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑐) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑛−1 +
𝑥→𝑐

⋯ + 𝑎0 , then lim 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑐) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 .

𝑥→𝑐

Theorem : 2
Limit of Rational Functions:
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑃(𝑐)
If 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials and Q(c) ≠ 0 then lim =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑐)

Eliminating zero denominators algebraically:

If the denominator of the rational function is not zero at the limit point c then
theorem: 2 is applied.

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If the denominator is zero, cancelling common factors in the numerator and denominator
may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer at c.
Example:
(𝟑+𝒉)𝟐 −𝟗
Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

Solution:
(3+ℎ)2 −9 9+6ℎ+ℎ2 −9
lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
h(6+h)
= lim
ℎ→0 h

= lim 6 + ℎ= 6
ℎ→0

Example:
𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙+𝟒
Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ −𝟒 𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙−𝟒

Solution:
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+4 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+4)
lim = lim
𝑥→ −4 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4 𝑥→ −4 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+4)
𝑥+1
= lim
𝑥→ −4 𝑥−1
−4+1 −3 3
= = =
−4−1 −5 5

Example:
𝒙𝟒 −𝟏
Evaluate the limit if it exists 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ 𝟏 𝒙𝟑 −𝟏

Solution:
𝑥 4 −1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
lim = lim
𝑥→ 1 𝑥 3 −1 𝑥→ 1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)

(𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
= lim
𝑥→ 1 (𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
1+1+1+1 4
= =
1+1+1 3

Example:
√𝟏+𝒕−√𝟏−𝒕
Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒕→𝟎 𝒕

Solution:

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√1+𝑡−√1−𝑡 √1+𝑡−√1−𝑡 √1+𝑡+√1−𝑡

lim = lim x
𝑡→ 0 𝑡 𝑡→ 0 𝑡 √1+𝑡+√1−𝑡
2 2
(√1+𝑡) −(√1−𝑡)
= lim
𝑡→0 𝑡(√1+𝑡+√1−𝑡)
1+t−(1−t)
= lim
𝑡→0 𝑡(√1+𝑡+√1−𝑡)
2t
= lim
𝑡→0 𝑡(√1+𝑡+√1−𝑡)
2
=
√1+0+√1−0
2
= =1
2

Example:
1 1
+
Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 4 x
𝒙→−𝟒 𝟒+𝒙

Solution:
1 1 x+4
+
Lim 4 x
= lim 4x
𝑥→−4 4+𝑥 𝑥→−4 4+𝑥
1 1
= lim =
𝑥→−4 4𝑥 −16

Example:
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙+𝟔
Evaluate the limit if it exists 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ 𝟐 𝒙−𝟐

Solution:
𝑥 2 −𝑥+6 8
lim = =∞
𝑥→ 2 𝑥−2 0

So the limit does not exists.

Example:
𝒙𝟐 −𝟒𝒙
Evaluate the limit if it exists 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→ −𝟏 (𝒙−𝟒)(𝒙+𝟏)

Solution:
𝑥 2 −4𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−4)
lim (𝑥−4)(𝑥+1)
= lim
𝑥→ −1 𝑥→ −1 (𝑥−4)(𝑥+1)
𝑥
= lim
𝑥→ −1 (𝑥+1)

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−1
= =∞
0

∴ The limit does not exists.

Example:
Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦|𝒙|
𝒙→𝟎

Solution:
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
lim |𝑥| = lim +x = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟|𝑥| = 𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

lim |𝑥| = lim(−x) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟|𝑥| = −𝑥 , 𝑥 < 0

𝑥→0− 𝑥→0−

∴ lim+ |𝑥| = 0 = lim− |𝑥|

𝑥→0 𝑥→0

lim |𝑥| = 0
𝑥→0

Example:
|𝒙|
Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕.
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
|𝑥|
Let 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
|𝑥| 𝑥
lim+𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ = lim+ ( ) = lim+ (1)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
|𝑥| −𝑥
lim−𝑓(𝑥) = lim− = lim− ( ) = lim−(−1) = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim−𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0
|𝑥|
∴ lim does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example:
𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟔
Let 𝒈(𝒙) = |𝒙−𝟐|
𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕?
𝒙→𝟐

Solution:
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 −(𝑥−2)

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(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
= lim−
𝑥→2 −(𝑥−2)

= lim− −(x+3)
𝑥→2

= − (2 + 3) = −5
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim+ (𝑥−2)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
= lim+ (𝑥−2)
𝑥→2

= lim− (2+3)
𝑥→2

= 5
lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→2− 𝑥→2

∴ lim 𝑔(𝑥) does not exist.

𝑥→2

Example:
𝟏 𝟏
Find the limit if it exist 𝐥𝐢𝐦− ( − |𝒙|)
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
1 1 1 1
lim− ( − |𝑥|) = lim− ( − )
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 −𝑥
1 1
= lim− ( + )
𝑥→0𝑥 𝑥
2
= lim− ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥
2
= =∞
0

∴ Limit does not exist.

Squeeze theorem (or) Sandwich theorem (or) Pinching theorem:
Statement:
If 𝒇(𝒙) ≤ 𝒈(𝒙) ≤ 𝒉(𝒙) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝑳then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

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ie , If g(x) is squeezed in between h(x) and f(x) which have the same limit L then g(x) also
forced to have the same limit L.
Example:
𝟏
Show that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
1 1
lim 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = lim 𝑥 2 lim𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥
1
Here lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 does not exists.
𝑥→0 𝑥

∴ By applying 𝑥 → 0 Squeeze theorem,

1
−1 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 1
𝑥
1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 2
𝑥

lim (−𝑥 2 ) = 0 and lim(𝑥 2 ) = 0

𝑥→0 𝑥→0
1
By Squeeze theorem, lim 𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example:
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
Find 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽

Solution:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
lim = lim
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1
= lim ( . )
𝜃→0 𝜃 cosθ

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𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1
= lim ( ) . lim (cosθ)
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0

= 1.1 = 1
Example:
𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
Find 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝜽→𝟎 𝒙

Solution:
𝑥
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
lim = lim 2
𝜃→0 𝑥 𝜃→0 𝑥
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) (x/2)
= lim 𝑥
2
x (x/2)
𝜃→0 (2)

𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) x
2
= lim ( 𝑥 ) x (2)
𝜃→0 (2)

𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) x
2
= lim ( 𝑥 ) x lim (2)
𝜃→0 (2) 𝜃→0

=1x0=0
Example:
𝟏+𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙
Find 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝝅 (𝝅−𝟐𝒙)𝟐
𝒙→
𝟐

Solution:
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
lim𝜋 (𝜋−2𝑥)2 = lim𝜋 (𝜋−2𝑥)2
𝑥→ 𝑥→
2 2
𝜋
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛( −𝑥)
2
= lim𝜋 𝜋 2
𝑥→
2
22 ( −𝑥)
2

𝜋
2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛( −𝑥)
= lim𝜋 [ 𝜋 2 ]
𝑥→ 2 ( −𝑥)
2 2

𝜋
2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−)(𝑥− ) 1 1
2
= lim [ ] = 2 (1) =
2 𝜋 𝜋 2
(𝑥− )→0 −(𝑥− )
2 2

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Example:
𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 ( )
𝟑
Find 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟐

Solution:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 1
3 3
lim = lim 1 x ( 2)
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2( 2) 3
3
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 1
3
= lim 𝑥 2
x( 2)
𝑥→0 ( ) 3
3

2
𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) 1 1 1
3
= lim [ ] xlim (9) = 1 x =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 9 9
( )
3

Exercise:
1. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit:
𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
i) lim𝑥→2 Ans: 5
𝑥−2
𝑥 2 −9 6
ii)lim𝑥→−3 Ans:
2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+3 5

2𝑥 2 +1 3
iii) lim𝑥→2 √ Ans:
3𝑥−2 2

(𝑥+ℎ)3 −𝑥 3
iv) limℎ→0 Ans: 3𝑥 2
ℎ
(2+ℎ)3 −8
v) limℎ→0 Ans: 12
ℎ
|𝑥−2|
2. Prove that lim𝑥→2 does not exist.
𝑥−2
2𝑥+12
3. Evaluate lim𝑥→−6 Ans: 2
|𝑥+6|
𝜋
4. Show that lim𝑥→0 √𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 sin = 0
𝑥

5. Use the squeeze theorem, to show that lim𝑥→0 (𝑥 2 cos 20𝜋𝑥). Illustrate by graphing the
functions 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 cos 20𝜋𝑥, and ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 on the same screen.
VI. Using Sandwich theorem, if √5 − 2𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ √5 − 𝑥 2 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, find
lim 𝑓(𝑥) Ans:√5
𝑥→0

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