An Investigation into Arab Students’ Perceptions of Effective

EFL Teachers at University Level

Submitted by

Saleh Mohamed Saafin

To the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education

September 2005

This thesis is available for the library use on the understanding that it is copyright material
and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.

I certify that all materials in this thesis which is not my own has been identified and that no
material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any
other university.

Signature: ……………………

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 Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate Arab students‟ perceptions concerning the

teaching attitudes and behaviours that contribute to effective EFL teaching and learning in

the United Arab Emirates. Adopting an interpretative approach to the research, the data was

collected in three phases. In Phase One an interview was used. 17 university students

studying English in Intensive English programs were interviewed. In Phase Two a

questionnaire was used. 165 students responded to it. In Phase Three four students were

interviewed for further information about the effective teaching characteristics identified in

phases one and two. Findings from the study indicated that effective EFL teaching had two

main dimensions: instructional skills and human characteristics. A wide range of categories

and subcategories were classified under each dimension. Bearing in mind the descriptions

and information the respondents gave throughout the Three Phases, I started to have a new

understanding of what constituted effective English language teaching in the UAE

universities. This considered effective EFL teachers as creators of an effective learning

culture. I found that the broader picture of effective teaching that the core of the data built

highlighted the significance of a learning culture in effective English teaching. The

respondents talked about a web of instructional behaviour and practices as well as personal

and interpersonal characteristics of effective teachers and most of which revolved around the

significance of creating a learning culture that they found suitable for enhancing their

learning of English. This study contributes to the knowledge of what constitutes acceptable

teaching behaviour. The more that is known about successful EFL teaching and learning, the

more likely FL teachers, administrators, and curriculum developers benefit in teacher

preparation and evaluation.

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 Acknowledgement

It is truly right and good that I acknowledge those who were instrumental in helping

me complete this thesis. I owe deep thanks to my main supervisor Dr. Malcolm

MacDonald, School of Education and Lifelong Learning, University of Exeter for his

guidance, support, patience, energy and timely feedback. I would like to thank him for

the time and energy he spent in reading and offering suggestions to improve each

chapter.

I would also like to thank Dr. Keith Postlethwaite for his expert advice, critical and

constructive comments, support and more importantly his sincere kindness. He gave

his time to consult with me. I have learned so many things from him, and I am so

grateful for all of his help.

I would like also to thank my colleague William Feruson for his feedback on different

issues especially his useful feedback on the effective teaching categorization of

effective teaching qualities.

Finally, I would like to thank my wife for being patient, supportive and for taking care

of our children so I could write my dissertation. My special appreciation also goes to

other members of my family for their support.

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 Contents

Page

Title Page 1
Abstract 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 12

Chapter One: Introduction 13

1.1 Background and Rationale 15

1.2 The Need for Research on EFL Teacher Effectiveness in the UAE 16
1.3 Asking the Real Audience Directly 18
1.4 Statement of the Problem 19
1.5 Significance of the Study 21
1.6 The Research Questions 21
1.7 Organization of the Study 22

Chapter Two: Context of the Study 24

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Country Profile 24
2.3 Education in the UAE 25
2.3.1 School Education 25
2.3.2 Higher Education in the UAE 28
2.4 The English Language in the UAE 30
2.4.1 English Language Status 30
2.4.2 Intensive English Programs in UAE Universities and Colleges 31
2.5 Evaluating Teacher Performance 32
2.6 Summary 34

Chapter Three: Teacher Effectiveness 36

3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Teacher Effectiveness Research in General Education 36
3.3 Teacher Effectiveness Research in EF Teaching 48
3.4 Models of Teacher Evaluation 59
3.5 EFL Teacher Evaluation in the UAE 64
3.6 Defining Effective Teaching 65
3.7 Summary 67

Chapter Four: Theoretical Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching 69

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4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Theoretical Learning Perspectives 69
4.2.1 Behaviourist Perspective 70
4.2.2 Cognitive Perspective 73
4.2.3 Humanistic Perspective 75
4.2.4 The Social Constructivist Perspective 78
4.3 Approaches to EFL Teaching and Their Implications for Effective EFL Teachers 81
4.3.1 The Grammar Translation Method 82
4.3.2 The Direct Method 83
4.3.3 The Audiolingual Method 84
4.3.4 The Cognitive- Code Method 84
4.3.5 The Natural Approach 85
4.3.6 The Communicative Language Teaching 86
4.3.7 Community Language Learning 87
4.3.8 Critical Pedagogy 88
4.3.9 Beyond Methods 91
4.4 Implications of Second Language learning Research for FL Teachers 94
4.4.1 Group Work in SLA 94
4.4.2 The Re-Emergence of Grammar Instruction 95
4.4.3 Corrective Feedback in SLA Classroom 97
4.5 Summary 98

Chapter Five: Methodology 100

5.1 Introduction 100

5.2 The Research Approach Followed in the Study 101
5.3 Research Design 104
5.3.1 Sites and Samples 106
5.4 Data Collection 108
5.4.1 Phase One: Interviews 108
5.4.1.1 Conducting the interviews 111
5.4.2 Phase Two: Open – Ended Questionnaires 112
5.4.2.1 Questionnaire administration 113
5.4.3 Phase Three: Follow up Interviews 114
5.4.3.1 Conducting the follow up interviews 115
5.5 Qualitative Data Analysis 116
5.5.1 Examples of Categorization 118
5.5.2 Thematization of Categories 119
5.6 Trustworthiness of the Qualitative Data 120
5.7 Ethical Issues 122
5.8 Summary 123

Chapter Six: Theme One: Instructional Skills 125

6.1 Introduction 125

6.2 Students‟ Discourse Versus Professional Discourse 126
6.3 Teaching Approach 128
6.3.1 Using Suitable Teaching Ways 129

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 a) Using a variety of teaching ways 130
b) Using examples 134
c) Using a variety of up-to-date teaching aids 135
d) Holding students‟ attention 136
e) Asking questions 137
f) Caring for teaching words 138
g) Willing to repeat explanations 139
h) Asking students to do things they did not teach 140
i) Giving no actual teaching 141
j) Following a lecturing style 141
6.3.2 Helping Students Understand 142
a) Checking students‟ understanding 143
b) Simplifying things 144
c) Taking into consideration individual differences and students‟ level 145
d) Reviewing previous lessons 146
e) Speaking clearly at a suitable speed 146
6.3.3 Giving Interesting Classes 148
a) Selecting a diversity of speaking topics 149
b) Not following the same teaching routine 150
c) Minimizing lecturing time 151
d) Organizing competitions in the classroom 152
e) Having fun 152
6.3.4 Efficient in Testing 153
a) Giving appropriate assessment 154
b) Giving exams on a regular basis 155
c) Providing test practice 156
6.3.5 Giving Homework 157
6.3.6 Benefited Students in Learning English 158
6.3.7 Investing Class Time Efficiently 159
6.3.8 Being Well Prepared 160
6.4 Learning Resources 162
6.4.1 Giving Handouts and Worksheets 162
a) Diversity of Materials 163
b) Found to be more useful for learning English than textbooks 164
c) Containing a lot of practice 165
6.4.2 Using Computer Technology 166
6.4.3 Investing Library Resources 168
6.5 Interaction 169
6.5.1 Enabling Students to Practise Speaking English 170
a) Facilitating classroom discussions 172
b) Giving the chance for students to talk about themselves 174
c) Involving students in authentic speaking projects 175
d) Allowing students to ask and answer questions 177
e) Communicating with students in English 177
f) Correcting students‟ speaking mistakes 178
6.5.2 Making Students Work in Groups 180
6.5.3 Getting Everyone Involved 181
6.6 Management 183

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 6.6.1 Classroom Control 183
6.6.2 Punctuality 185
6.6.3 Implementation of Rules 186
6.7 Concluding Remarks 188
6.8 Summary 189

Chapter Seven: Theme Two: Human Characteristics 191

7.1 Introduction 191

7.2 Interpersonal Characteristics 191
7.2.1 Has a Friendly Manner 192
a) Building bridges between them and their students 193
b) Interacting with students outside the classroom 194
c) Informal interaction with students 195
d) Socializing with students 196
e) Treating students as friends or family members 198
f) Smiling at the students 198
g) Friendliness enhances students learning 199
7.2.2 Helps Students 201
a) Giving advice to students 201
b) Helping students in academic related issues 202
c) Helping weaker students 203
d) Giving good marks 204
e) Helping in personal matters 205
7.2.3 Encouraging Students 205
7.2.4 Flexible and Willing to Compromise 208
7.2.5 Respecting Students 211
7.2.6 Creates a Good Atmosphere 212
7.2.7 Treats Students as Equals 215
7.2.8 Listening to Students 216
7.2.9 Identifying/Meeting Students‟ Needs 217
7.3 Personal Characteristics 217
7.3.1 Has a Sense of Humour 218
7.3.2 Is Dedicated 220
7.3.3 Is Energetic 221
7.3.4 Is Patient 222
7.3.5 Is likeable 223
7.4 Summary 224

Chapter Eight: Insights for the Separate Sources of Data 225

8.1 Introduction 225

8.2 Sample Interview One from Phase One 226
8.2.1 Laila‟s Perspective of Effective EFL Teachers 227
a) Helping students understand 227
b) Being able to control the class 228
c) Making students work in groups 229
d) Having a sense of humour 229

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 e) Giving handouts and worksheets 230
8.3 Sample Interview Two from Phase One 232
8.3.1 Salim‟s Perspective of Effective EFL Teachers 232
a) Treating students in a friendly manner 232
b) Being flexible 233
c) Giving handouts and worksheets 234
8.4 Realities of Laila and Salim from Phase One 235
8.5 Sample Follow-up Interview One from Phase Three 240
8.5.1 Hala‟s Perspective on Selected Qualities of Effective EFL Teachers 240
a) Giving interesting classes 241
b) Using a variety of teaching ways 241
c) Creating a good learning atmosphere 242
d) Being flexible 243
e) Enabling students to practise English 244
8.6 Sample Follow-up Interview Two from Phase Three 245
8.6.1 Sameera‟s Perspective on Selected Qualities of Effective EFL Teachers 245
a) Enabling students to practise English 246
b) Has a sense of humour 247
c) Creating a good learning atmosphere 247
8.7 Realities of Hala and Sameera from Phase Three 249
8.8 Summary 251

Chapter Nine: Towards a Language Learning Culture 252

9.1 Introduction 252

9.2 New Understanding of Effective Teaching 254
9.3 Further Probing 257
9.4 Effective EFL Teachers as Creators of Effective Learning Culture 263
9.4.1 Instructional Theme 264
a) Diversification 264
b) Maximizing the use of English inside and outside the classroom 270
c) Classroom control 276
9.4.2 Human Theme 276
a) Teachers‟ friendliness 277
b) Teachers‟ as creators of a good learning environment 279
c) Teachers‟ flexibility 280
d) Encouraging students 283
e) Helping students inside and outside the classroom 284
9.5 Limitations of the Study 286
9.6 Implications of the Study 288
9.7 Methodological Issues 288
9.8 Recommendations for Further Research 290
9.9 Conclusion 291

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Appendices

Appendix A: Observation Forms of Classroom Instruction 295

Appendix B: Student Evaluation Forms 298
Appendix C: Permission Letter 305
Appendix D: Interview Questions of Phase One 306
Appendix E: Arabic Translation of Interview Questions of Phase One 308
Appendix F: Open Ended Questionnaire of Phase Two 310
Appendix G: Arabic Translation of the Questionnaire of Phase Two 313
Appendix H: Follow-up Interview Questions of Phase Three 316
Appendix I: Arabic Translation of the Follow-up Interview Questions of Phase Three 317
Appendix J: Key for Coding Actual Data 318
Appendix K: Sample Interview One from Phase One 320
Appendix L: Sample Interview Two from Phase One 325
Appendix M: Sample Follow-up Interview One from Phase Three 328
Appendix N: Sample Follow-up Interview Two from Phase Three 331

Bibliography 333

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 List of Tables

Page

Table 3.1: A summary of the reviewed studies on effective teaching in

general education 44

Table 3.2: Teaching behaviours and characteristics of effective teachers found

in the reviewed general education empirical and theoretical studies 45

Table 3.3: A summary of the reviewed studies on FL effective teaching 53

Table 3.4: Teaching behaviours and characteristics of effective teachers

found in the reviewed foreign language studies 54

Table 4.1: Summary of the reviewed methods‟ perceptions of effective teachers 90

Table 5.1: Numbers of male and female students from the UAE and other
Arab countries in the Three Phases 107

Table 6.1: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers identified in this study 127

Table 6.2: The categories classified under the methodology dimension and
their frequency 128

Table 6.3: The categories classified under the learning resources dimension
and their rate of frequency 162

Table 6.4: The categories classified under the interaction dimension and their
rate of frequency 170

Table 6.5: The categories classified under the management dimension and
their rate of frequency 183

Table 7.1: The categories classified under the interpersonal characteristics

dimension and their rate of frequency 192

Table 7.2: The categories classified under the personal characteristics

dimension and their rate of frequency 218

Table 8.1: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers and their frequency
from the perspective of the interviewee 4 231

Table 8.2: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers and their frequency
from the perspective of the interviewee 8 235

Table 8.3: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers that both interviewees 4
and 8 identified 236

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Table 8.4: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers that were identified by
interviewee 4 and were not mentioned by interviewee 8 236

Table 8.5: The frequency of the characteristics of effective EFL teachers that
interviewee 1 elaborated on 245

Table 8.6: The frequency of the characteristics of effective EFL teachers that
interviewee 2 elaborated on 248

Table 8.7: The qualities of effective EFL teachers and their frequencies that
interviewees 1 and 2 elaborated on 279

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 List of Figures

Page

Fig. 5.1: Methodological Framework of the Current Study 105

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 Chapter One

Introduction

This study investigates the perceptions of Arab tertiary students regarding the qualities of

effective teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL teachers) at the United Arab

Emirates (UAE) higher education institutions. Teacher characteristics and teaching

behaviours are enormously important elements in student motivation and learning. Research

findings suggest teaching practices may, in fact, impact on student achievement (Brophy,

1979; Brophy & Good, 1986; Everston, 1986; Gage, 1984a; National Board for Professional

Teaching Standards, 1994; Rosenshine & Furst 1971; Rouche & Baker, 1986; Woolfolk,

1990). The teacher is recognized as the person in the classroom who orchestrates a complex

network of classroom interactions, all of which may impact on student achievement (Gage,

1984b; Greene, 1984; Jackson, 1968; Millies, 1992; Woolfolk, 1990). However, the

relationship between teacher behaviour and student learning is very complex (Evertson &

Weade, 1991; Johansen, Collins, & Johnson, 1990). I should indicate that although the

teachers play an important role in the teaching and learning process, there are limits to their

influence. There are other factors that impact on learning such as culture as emphasized by

Vygotsky (1978) with reference to making meaning by learners. People refer to „culture‟ in

different ways depending on the context they are involved in. They may refer to it as a

„large‟ entity such as a national, religious or community cultures. They may also refer to it as

a small entity such as family, institutional or classroom cultures (Holliday, 1999). In this

research, I refer to „culture‟ as a broad entity that can be influenced by large entities such as

Arabic and Islamic culture as well as small entities such as family, classroom or university

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culture. „Culture‟ in this study encompasses all kinds of variables that affect the language

learning of students such as positions and dispositions of students and teachers, classroom

atmosphere, social contexts, real learning settings and communities outside the classroom,

ways of presenting materials, teachers‟ treatment with students, university policies and

curriculum. There has been a recent rise in the interest of culture and its impact on learning.

James & Bloomer (2001: 7) are among those who highlight the significance of culture in

learning. They suggest that “research and scholarship must recognize learning not simply as

occurring within a cultural context but as a culture practice. It must take as its focus the

practices of people in their authentic learning sites and avoid the alchemy that so readily

turns students and teachers into instances of a category, into a species, or alternatively has

them as the mere carriers of cultures or cognitive operations.” Another factor is the way

students learn things. Learners learn things in different ways; this could mean that the

teaching methods that suit one learner may not necessarily be as effective as they are for

somebody else (Williams & Burden, 1997). Other factors in learning include students‟ life

history, background, environment, the linguistic „capital‟ they bring to their learning, their

preferences, the expectations that they themselves will be influenced by; also deep seated

factors such as their gender and position in society and finally, the resources available to the

teachers, as well as the policy context of the institution within which they teach. These things

will affect learning and the teacher has little control over them; but at the same time they may

also influence students‟ perceptions of effective teaching. Moreover, teachers have different

personalities and what makes one teacher good will not be appropriate for another (Williams

& Burden, op. cit).

The identification of effective teachers is not an easy task. Attempts to identify effective

teachers and effective teaching behaviours began early in history and formal attempts

continue today (Brandt, 1992; Brophy, 1979; Council of Chief State School Officers, 1992;

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Demmon-Berger, 1986; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Research dealing with the question of what

makes a “good” teacher has appeared in the literature since 1896 (Medley, 1972).

Frequently, early studies seeking to identify effective teachers relied on informal

observations of teaching behaviours in the classroom. These informal observations were

recorded in diaries and logs (Medley, 1972). Gradually, research became concerned with the

identification of effective teachers focused on specific teaching behaviours. This research

frequently used instruments designed to provide objective measures of teaching behaviour

(Simon & Boyer, 1974). Some authors (Brandt, 1992; Flanders & Nuthall, 1972) question the

value of such research methods and stress that the objective and precise identification of

teaching behaviours is not necessarily the most appropriate way to identify and evaluate

expert and effective teaching. Apart from having to decide how to map teaching behaviour,

another problem is agreeing what will be used as outcome measures. In other words what

does an effective teacher have to produce – is it learners with high test scores, learners with a

great interest in the subject; learners able to criticize ideas in the subject, learners who apply

their learning in their lives or all of these?

1.1 Background and Rationale

English is a very important language to learn in the Arab world in general and the United

Arab Emirates (UAE) in particular. English is taught at the UAE government schools from

grade one until grade twelve after which students are entitled to join different universities and

colleges. The UAE higher education institutions established a foundation program mainly to

upgrade the level of new students and prepare them for the career programs. The vast

majority of university students are placed in an English foundation program for a year before

they can start their career programs. English teaching at the UAE universities and colleges

has two main goals. The first goal is helping students overcome language difficulties that

15
they might face in their career programs. The second goal is developing the communicative

skills of students that they need in their life. From my experience in the UAE higher

education, it is evident that there is a lack of English competence among new university

students. After sitting a placement test, the vast majority of students will have to attend an

intensive English program at their universities and colleges. They spend in average about one

year in this program. It is important to indicate here that most of the EFL teachers at the UAE

higher education institutions are not Arabs (mainly British, Americans, Canadians and

Australians) and have different backgrounds and cultures from their students. In the light of

the importance the UAE government gives to English learning, the discrepancy between the

cultures and backgrounds of teachers and students, the lack of research on effective EFL

teaching in the UAE, and the lack of English competence among students in the UAE, I

found it necessary to conduct this study on EFL effective teaching from the perspective of

Arab students in the UAE.

1.2 The Need for Research on EFL Teacher Effectiveness in the UAE

No research on effective teaching in general and EFL teaching in particular has been

conducted in the UAE (except for the study that I conducted in 1999, see 3.3 in Chapter 3).

It is worth mentioning here that the history of higher education in the UAE is recent. The

first university in the UAE was established in 1976.

In general, little research has been conducted regarding discipline-specific teaching

behaviours and attitudes of teachers (Franklin & Theall, 1995; Murray & Renaud, 1995;

Schulz, 2000). Because every teaching and learning situation is context-specific and because

disciplines differ, some teaching behaviours and attitudes are considered more effective in

one discipline than in another (Murray& Renaud, 1995). For example, lecturing may be

effective in a history course but not in a beginning foreign language course. Yet, in most

16
cases, the history teacher and FL teacher might be evaluated using the same criteria

(Sternberg & Horvath, 1995) - (cited in Teresa, 2001). FL teachers exhibit aspects of

teaching that are specific to FLs and that are not relevant to the teaching of any other

discipline. Brosh (1996) points out that FL teaching differs from teaching other subjects

“where the means of instruction is also the subject of instruction” (p. 125). For instance,

practitioners of the Communicative Approach (CA) to Language Teaching and second

language acquisition (SLA) theorists view language acquisition as occurring via a

combination of explicit and implicit means (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Rutherford &

Sharwood Smith, 1988; Scarcella & Oxford, 1992). Thus, language can be acquired as part of

a course of study, through interaction with other speakers, and indirectly through the study of

other content areas (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989; Crandall, 1987; Snow & Brinton,

1988). Knowledge of language is demonstrated by a series of interrelated competencies

(Canale & Swain, 1988; Scarcella & Oxford, 1992) that are tied not only to knowledge of the

language itself, but also to its appropriate use in a given context (Brown & Levinson, 1978;

Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986). Consequently, language teaching and its subsequent

effectiveness must be reviewed according to its own unique qualities.

Despite the shift towards a student-centred classroom, Critical Pedagogy (Freire. 1970, 1992,

1997, 1998; Shor, 1980, 1992), and communicative approaches to language teaching

(Chaudron, 1988; Richards & Lockhart, 1994; Richards & Nunan, 1990; Richards &

Rodgers, 1986; Scarcella & Oxford, 1992), novice teachers are still being prepared to

approach classroom language teaching from a general and often traditional perspective

(Gebhard, 1990; Gebhard, Gaitan, & Oprandy, 1990) that assumes an ideal language learner

rather than truly addressing individual differences and needs (Oxford, 1993).

Schrier and Hammadou (1994) indicated that in order to evaluate effective foreign language

teaching, qualities of effective teaching should first be identified, should be agreed upon as

17
being worth evaluating, should be identified on repeated occasions, and should be proved

worthwhile in many settings. It should be emphasized that I am not following a

generalization model in this study. I believe that what is deemed to be effective in the

context of my study may not necessarily be the same in other contexts. Given the various

views that I mentioned above that may influence the process of teaching and learning, it is

important to highlight the context-specific teaching that may be highly effective and may

give valuable insights on which to base major shifts in teachers' practice. In other words we

don‟t need to know that X works everywhere, we need to understand why Y works in a

particular setting and then to think creatively about what this might mean for other settings.

This will be a reflective transfer model rather than a generalization model.

1.3 Asking the Real Audience Directly

Much of the research focuses on specific teaching behaviours identified by teachers and

educational experts, but it does not focus enough on the perceptions of students on effective

teaching qualities. Good (1981) claimed that most of the research on teacher expectations

has focused on the direct effects of differential teacher behaviour toward students; however,

the research has not focused on student perceptions of teacher behaviour and student

inferences about teacher behaviour. A teacher may employ every specific behaviour

recommended by experts to increase teacher effectiveness and still not be effective with

certain groups of students or in certain situations. For example, a teacher may be funny,

smart and caring and still not be effective with certain groups of students or in certain

situations (Johnson & Roelke, 1999). To be effective, teachers need to consider the roles,

biases and general mood of their students before planning how to teach them (Crowley,

1995; McCaslin & Good, 1996). This again supports the above context specific argument

that is consistent with socio-cultural concerns about such factors as dispositions,

18
expectations, culture, way of learning, background and environment. Increasingly, teachers

are teaching prescribed curricula but not students. To be effective, teachers must be aware of

what their students want and what their students feel are important (Good & Brophy, 2001).

Therefore, in order for us to improve instruction and increase teacher effectiveness we should

ask students what they think and what they want.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

As mentioned above, there is almost no research on EFL effective teaching from the

perspective of Arab students in the UAE (except for the study that I conducted in 1999, see

3.2 in Chapter 3). There is therefore scope for investigating the characteristics of EFL

effective teaching within the UAE culture. Additionally, most teachers who teach English at

the English Foundation Programs of the UAE universities are not Arabs. They are mainly

British, Americans, Canadians or Australians. To be effective, teachers must have the ability

to teach increasing numbers of students who display educational and social characteristics

different from their own (Delpit, 1995; Good & Brophy, 2001). Many of these students have

different learning needs, cultural backgrounds, family structures, and beliefs about the value

of schooling than students in the past (Goodlad, 1990; Haberman, 1995; Koerner, 1992;

Wells, 1990). Students coming from backgrounds different from the teachers‟ exhibit a wide

range of behavioural and academic characteristics about which many practising teachers are

uninformed (Goodlad, 1990). Uninformed teachers may not be as effective as they are in

their own countries teaching students who have the same background. From my experience,

there are newly recruited teachers who were judged to be ineffective by their students and in

consequence were asked to leave the university or college by the end of their first year or

even by the end of their first semester.

19
Opportunities to develop awareness of and responses to the increasingly varied and

conflicting demands of students of the 21st century must be provided to teachers (Allington,

1991; Gotch & Bridges, 1990; Haberman, 1995). Determining student perceptions of

effective EFL teachers may increase their awareness. By asking students for their opinions,

we may be able to increase teacher awareness and improve instruction in the classroom

(McCaslin & Good, 1996). Moreover, the identification of effective teaching behaviours may

impact on the selection of individuals for teachers‟ education programs and coursework in

teachers education programs, including supervision and professional development activities

provided for preservice and practising teachers (Gross & Gross, 1985; Ornstein, 1995).

Most educational research conducted prior to 1987 focused on the relationship between

effective teaching behaviours and student academic achievement (Berliner, 1976; Brandt,

1992; Ornstein, 1986, 1995; Rosenshine, 1971). Much of this early research used student

achievement as the measure of teacher effectiveness (Gage, 1984b). Frequently, such

research was founded on a positivistic paradigm and used quantitative methods of data

collection and analyses (Borich, 1986; Shulman, 1986a). In contrast, the approach used in

the current study was to ask students to describe the teaching behaviours and attitudes of EFL

teachers from their perspective.

In order to gather information necessary to address the problem, natural in-depth interviews

in phase one and a questionnaire of open ended questions in phase two were the primary

methods of data collection. A naturalistic, qualitative study was deemed appropriate to

examine teaching behaviours because of its perceptive and interpersonal nature (Ayers, 1992;

Brandt, 1992; Stake, 1994).

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1.5 Significance of the Study

This study contributes to the knowledge of what acceptable classroom teaching behaviour is

in the UAE EFL context. The findings of this study can be of benefit to EFL teachers in

understanding what their students expect and in understanding students themselves. They

can even help curriculum designers to revise the teaching materials. Furthermore the results

of this study may have implications for teacher preparation programs and the selection of

applicants for these programs.

What makes the UAE students‟ perceptions of EFL teaching effectiveness especially

important is that the students‟ feedback on teachers‟ performance is used as a major part of

teacher evaluation in the UAE higher education institutions. The vast majority of teachers in

the UAE are contract teachers from other countries. For the purpose of improving the quality

of teaching and in an attempt to recruit the most effective teachers, the performance of

teachers is evaluated annually and student evaluation of teacher effectiveness is used to assist

managers in making decisions regarding promotions, continuity and contract renewal.

1.6 The Research Questions

Given the researcher‟s specific interest in investigating behaviours and attitudes of effective

EFL teachers, the following main research question was formulated:

How do Arab students perceive effective EFL teachers at university level?

The other subordinate questions are:

a) In what ways do cultural factors operate to influence the views of Arab students of

effective EFL teachers at university level?

b) To what extent are student perceptions of teacher effectiveness in UAE Universities

unitary or heterogeneous?

21
c) What are the implications of student perceptions of teacher effectiveness for formal

evaluation procedures of language classrooms in UAE universities?

d) What is the broader context that the overall findings might draw for making English

language learning more effective for Arab university students?

Since there is no variation in age among the participants, the age factor is not going to be

addressed in this study. As for the gender factor, I addressed this factor in my 1999 study

that I conducted on effective EFL teaching in similar locations and on participants from a

similar population using qualitative method; I found no significant differences between the

perspectives of males and females on effective EFL teaching. Therefore, I will address the

factor of culture only in this study. In chapter ten, I will highlight any participants‟ views of

effective teaching behaviours that constitute a culture.

To address the research questions, responses of students in interviews, open-ended

questionnaires and follow up interviews were examined.

1.7 Organization of the Study

This study is organized in nine chapters. The current chapter has presented an introduction to

the study including the background and rationale and has outlined the need for research on

EFL teacher effectiveness.

Chapter two provides the reader with a background about the country where the research

takes place in relation to education, the status of English and teacher performance evaluation

in the UAE universities and colleges.

Chapter three discusses the main learning theories that have different perspectives of

teaching and learning and their implications for effective English language teachers. I

22
discuss the major theoretical perspectives that have been influential in language learning an

teaching: the behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic and social constructivist.

Chapter four presents a review of the literature related to effective teaching in general

education as well as in FL teaching. It also addresses different models of teacher evaluation,

the common English teaching methods, and reviews the definitions of effective teaching.

Chapter five presents the methodology used in this study. I first justify the qualitative

approach used in this study. I then describe the data collection methods in the three phases of

the research and the data analysis procedures. At the end I discuss the credibility and

trustworthiness of this study.

Chapters six and seven report the findings of the qualitative data collected from the

interviews, questionnaires and follow up interviews. They present the themes and the

categories that I constructed on the basis of the respondents‟ responses.

Chapter eight elaborates on the voices of individual participants through samples from their

interviews in Phase One and follow-up interviews in Phase three.

Chapter nine provides a discussion of the findings based on the results presented in chapters

six and seven and the implications for further research.

23
 Chapter Two

Context of the Study

2.1 Introduction

Chapter two provides the reader with a background about the country in which the current

research study is conducted. In the first part I will talk about the general profile of the

country to give the reader an idea about the broad context of the study. In the second part I

will talk about education in the UAE. In the third part I will discuss the status of English in

the UAE. In the last part I will talk about evaluating teacher performance in the UAE

universities and colleges.

2.2. Country Profile

The UAE is a newly born country. It consists of seven emirates which are Abu Dhabi,

Dubai, Sharjah, Ras Al Khaima, Fujairah, Ajman and Umm Al Qaiwain. The rulers of these

emirates decided to establish a federation to be known as the United Arab Emirates.

Therefore, on 2 December 1972 the UAE state was declared and Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al

Nahayan became the president of the country.

The UAE is surrounded by the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the north and north

west, Saudi Arabia in the south west and Qater in the west. The UAE has approximately

83,600 square kilometers in size and 700 kilometers of coastline along the Arabian Gulf. The

UAE is mainly a desert country. It is very hot in summer; the temperature in summer reaches

48 degrees Celsius. Therefore, people in the UAE depend heavily on air-conditioning. The

24
weather is pleasant in winter; the temperature in this season reaches 30 degrees Celsius.

There is very little rain in the UAE; the average rainfall is 6.5 cm (Ghanem, 1992).

The population of the UAE has increased dramatically since oil was discovered in this

country in 1958. According to the Statistical Department of the Ministry of Planning the

population of the UAE increased from 557887 to 3,108,000 in 2000. Due to the dramatic

change in the economy of the UAE in the light of discovering oil, and due to the lack of

qualified locals, the country depends heavily on foreign manpower. Before discovering oil,

the UAE people had a hard life because of the bare nature of the land and the lack of rain.

They earned their living from pearl diving, fishing and trading activities (Rumaithi, 1980;

Ghanem, 1992). After oil was discovered in 1958, the economy of the UAE changed

dramatically. The UAE depended on oil as a single source of income during the sixties and

seventies. As a result the government managed to develop the physical and social

infrastructure of the country (Ghanem, 1992). Then the economy has diversified through

other sources such as non-oil exports and re-exports, and as a result the country started to

have very important incomes other than the oil income (Al Mansoori, 2001).

2.3 Education in the UAE

2.3.1 School Education

The age of modern education in the UAE is short; it is about forty years old. Education

before that time was traditional. It was provided in Quraan schools (Kuttab) which provided

education to people for hundreds of years; it was known for its simplicity. One teacher

(Mutawa‟a) taught a group of children who sat around him; girls as well as boys received

education at those schools. The curriculum consisted mainly of three parts: reciting the Holy

Quraan, learning how to read and write, and arithmetic. Pupils advanced according to their

25
abilities, so there were pupils with different levels of attainment in the same room. They

were supervised and promoted on an individual basis by the teacher. Modern education

began in the 1950‟s; at that time some Arab governments sponsored teachers as a part of their

aid educational programs. When the federation was established, education was given top

priority (Al Mansoori, 2001).

The leadership of the UAE aimed at modernizing the country and educating the people.

Therefore, it has given a lot of support for education and this has boosted the progress in

education here. Nowadays, the Ministry of Education (MOE) is responsible for school

education. There are mainly two types of schools: government schools and private schools.

The UAE government funds its schools through the MOE. The education system is

centralized. The MOE is responsible for drawing up policies and overall plans. The regional

educational districts are held responsible for the implementation and supervision of these

plans. In 1972 education was considered fundamental and became compulsory for

elementary level and free at all levels for Emirati children (Taryam, 1987). The MOE is

responsible for commissioning the writing of the textbooks used at all government schools.

Authors that the MOE nominates are teachers and inspectors from the UAE MOE and

university lecturers. As far as the EFL course books are concerned, British or USA experts

together with Arab practitioners who know the UAE culture very well are involved in

designing these books. English is the only foreign language that is taught in the UAE

government schools.

Government schools managed to cope with the local needs of the UAE community in terms

of providing school education for all Emiratis. According to the Education Statistical

Bulletin Ministry of Education, the number of students increased from 179,276 distributed in

395 government schools in 1985 to 300,412 distributed in 773 schools in 2003/2004. The

number of school teachers and administrators also increased from 13,320 in 1985 to 28267 in

26
2003/2004. This indicates how fast the education system in the UAE has developed. The

UAE government gives special allowances to the nationals to encourage them to join teacher

training programs and become teachers. The priority is given to UAE nationals in getting

teaching and administrative jobs in government schools. However, the national teachers are

still a minority, especially the male teachers. Teachers from different Arab countries have

been recruited by the Ministry of Education to teach in different government schools at

different levels in different places.

As for the private schools, they are self funded. Their source of income is the tuition fees

collected from the students who attend them. There is a wide range of private schools in the

country. Nowadays, admission to government schools is restricted to UAE nationals.

Another reason is that the non-national population is large and of different nationalities. To

accommodate all the non-national students and meet their cultural needs, different ethnic

schools such as Iranian, Indian, Pakistani, British and American schools have been

established in the UAE. There is an important portion of the national and non-national

people, mainly Arabs, who are interested in giving their children a high quality education, so

they send their children to some prestigious expensive schools that usually follow the British

or American curriculum and mostly have its teaching and administrative staff from England

and the USA.

The school education in the UAE consists of the following stages:

1. Kindergarten ( a stage of 1-2 years: KG1 and KG2)

2. Elementary (a six year stage)

3. Intermediate (a three year stage)

4. Secondary (a three year stage)

The students in the last two years of the secondary stage have to choose either the scientific

stream or the arts stream. Their grade average in the first secondary school is taken into

27
consideration in choosing one of these two streams. At the end of the third secondary year,

which is the last year of school education, students sit for the General Secondary Certificate

Examination (GSCE). The results of this exam are crucial in deciding the kind of university

a student is entitled to attend and the kind of specialization he/she can choose. Those

students who get less than 60% in this exam will face some difficulties in pursing their higher

education because universities and colleges in the UAE do not accept students whose grade

average is below 60%. Those who get higher grades will have a wider range of universities

and colleges to select from and will have a wider range of study fields he/she can choose

from. Due to the importance of the GSCE the results are published in the local newspapers

and through the local radio, internet and Etisalat (telecommunication) company.

2.3.2 Higher Education in the UAE

The Ministry of Higher Education is responsible for post secondary school education,

however, higher education institutions are independent in selecting and developing its

programs, hiring staff, drawing and implementing their own policies, etc. The first university

was established in the UAE in 1975. This university is called UAE University and it is

located in Al Ain city. To meet the increasing demand of qualified people for jobs in

business and technology areas, the second higher educational institution was founded in

1988. This institution is called Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT). It started with four

colleges and now it has 14 colleges in seven sites. These colleges succeeded within a few

years to establish a very good reputation among the UAE higher education institutions. This

is because the graduates of these colleges are well qualified. They face no difficulties in

getting jobs in different sectors. The employers in general in the UAE say that the (HCT)

graduates are capable of carrying out the job duties. Moreover, they say that their English

language skills are good enough to enable them function efficiently in their jobs. In the same

28
year Ajman University of Science and Technology was established in Ajman. In 1997 a very

important step was taken in developing higher education in the UAE. The University City

was founded in Sharjah. This city composes the American University of Sharjah, Sharjah

University, Sharjah Higher Colleges of Technology (which belongs to the Higher Colleges of

Technology mentioned above), Police College and Etistalat University. In 1998 Zayed

University was founded in Abu Dhabi (the capital) and it has two branches: one in Abu

Dhabi and another in Dubai. Finally, in 2003 Abu Dhabi University was founded in Abu

Dhabi.

The federal institutions (UAE University, Higher Colleges of Technology and Zayed

University) are funded by the UAE government and they are non-fee paying. The UAE

university accepts a very limited number of non-national students (mainly Arabs whose

families live in the UAE; while admission to the other two institutions is restricted to the

UAE nationals. The private universities such as Ajman University of Science and

Technology, the American University of Sharjah, the American University in Dubai and

Abu Dhabi University are self funded. They depend mainly on the tuition fees paid by the

students who join these institutions. The University of Sharjah is a local government

institution which is funded from two sources: the students‟ tuition fees and Sharjah

government. All students, nationals and non-nationals should have at least 60% average in

their general secondary school examinations in order for them to be able to apply for one of

these universities and colleges.

The higher education institutions have managed to develop a wide range of career programs

that aim at meeting the needs of the country like training nurses, computer technicians, lab

technicians, x ray specialists, office secretaries and teachers. These are mainly in the fields of

technology, engineering, computing, business and health sciences. Many educational

cooperation agreements have been reached between the UAE higher education institutions

29
and international universities and colleges in the USA, Canada, Australia, Britain and others.

For example, there is an agreement between the University of Exeter in the England and the

University of Sharjah in the UAE in the engineering field. Another example is an agreement

between Cardiff University and the University of Sharjah in the medicine field. This has

given the universities and colleges here a good opportunity to have newly well developed

career programs. Highly qualified teaching and administrative staff have been hired from all

over the world to contribute to the achievement of the mission of these institutions. A lot of

Arab students from different Arab countries - attend the non-federal UAE universities.

2.4 The English Language in the UAE

2.4.1 English Language Status

English has become a very important language in the UAE in the light of discovering oil, the

big multinational manpower in the country and the fast growth of education and economy in

the UAE. It is widely used in different places such as banks, companies, factories, shopping

centres, hospitals, airports. Most non-Arabs who work in the UAE do not know Arabic; they

use English as a tool of communication among them as well as in their communication with

Arabs, so English is used a lot in the everyday life in the UAE. It has also become

fundamental in the business field. Those who plan to start a business in this country or apply

for a job need to know English; most employers in the UAE consider fluency in English as

an important condition for getting a job; this is evident in the job advertisements in the local

newspapers. This is a significant incentive for Arab students (nationals and non-nationals) to

learn English so that they can have a good career. Being aware of the importance of this

language for having a good career, many people here, nationals and non-nationals, prefer to

send their children to the schools that have very good English programs. Most of these

30
schools are very expensive; however parents spend large amounts of money so that their

children can master English and as a result have a better chance of future career.

It is important to state that study fields such as business, computing and engineering have

very good market in the UAE, so in the universities where the current research is conducted,

the vast majority of students choose to study subjects such as management of information

systems, computer sciences, electronic and electric engineering, business administration,

accounting, etc. and shun studying academic fields. These fields are taught in English at

these universities; this is another incentive for students to learn English.

2.4.2 Intensive English Programs in UAE Universities and Colleges

As I mentioned above, there is an increasing interest in studying fields that are taught only in

English at the UAE universities and colleges, however, most new students who join these

universities are weak in English; therefore all new students sit for a placement English test

which are either in-house tests or international tests such as TOEFL. Those who get the right

score (around 500 in case of TOEFL) are exempted from the English language requirements

and start their career programs directly. In the light of these placement tests the vast majority

of the candidates are placed in one of the levels in the intensive English program (IEP) at the

university or college they apply for so that they can improve their English and be prepared to

join the career programs. The number and names of levels is different from one program to

another. They range between two and five and each level is taught for a four month

semester. One of these programs has eight levels, but each level is taught in a two month

semester. Each program has its own regulations regarding promoting students from one level

to another.

The UAE universities and colleges under investigation have established their own IEPs so

that they can meet the increasing demand of learning English. The IEPs have different

31
names in different universities. Regardless of these different names, they in general have the

same goal which is to develop the communicative English skills of students and prepare them

for their career program. In these IEPs students are mainly taught English. They study about

18 hours of English per week and usually need about one year to finish their intensive period.

The teaching materials used in the IEPs are either textbooks or in house authored materials or

both. In each level students are taught four skill courses: listening and speaking, reading,

writing and grammar. Some of the IEPs integrate writing and grammar in one course. These

skills are usually taught by different teachers. Employing technology is considered very

important in all these IPEs. Teachers are expected use computers in teaching English. Some

of these IEPs have their own computer labs and others equip their all classrooms with

computers so that students can use them whenever they have computer based tasks.

2.5 Evaluating Teacher Performance

The UAE universities and colleges under investigation have hired a lot of qualified and

experienced teachers to teach English in their IEPs; most of them are English native speakers

from Britain, USA and Canada and Australia; they are contract teachers whose performance

is evaluated every year. Shanon (2003), a director of one of the IEPs where the research

takes place, indicates that there are five reasons for conducting an evaluation of faculty

performance:

1. To manage the quality of teaching and learning in a language program;

2. To obtain information that can be used in making contract renewal decisions;

3. To provide guidance to teachers who need professional development;

4. To recognize and reward outstanding teachers;

5. To provide information for accreditation purposes.

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The performance evaluation in the IEPs under study consists of three components:

1. Self evaluation: Teachers are asked to complete a form in which they write a self-

evaluation that covers the following points:

 Classes taught in under the period of review

 Service to the English Program

 Self development

 Professional activities

2. Observation of Classroom Instruction: This is done through classroom visits. The IEPs

where the research takes place use either a detailed form that consists of a long list of

items or a descriptive form that consists of certain items (see Appendix A).

3. Student Evaluation: This is done by asking the students to complete questionnaires about

their teachers. Each of the four IEP‟s where this study was conducted uses its own

questionnaire form (see Appendix B).

As we can see the components of the evaluation performance report and the items of the

forms used in this evaluation reflect the importance of teaching effectiveness for the IEPs, in

particular the teaching effectiveness feedback collected from students. Such evaluation

performance reports give administrators insights into the effectiveness of instruction in their

programs. Decisions regarding renewing the contracts of teachers (and merit increases in

some of the IEPs) are made in the light of the annual evaluation performance report. It also

guides the teachers in need for professional development in certain areas. Since the students‟

perspective of the effectiveness of their teachers is crucial in making decisions regarding the

continuity of teachers in their jobs, teachers give students‟ opinion on their teaching

effectiveness a special consideration.

33
It is noticeable that there is no consensus among these English programs neither on the

components of the observation forms nor on the items of the questionnaires used to get

student feedback on the teacher effectiveness. Although these universities are in the same

country and their student populations are theoretically supposed to have similar aptitudes and

backgrounds and learn English under similar conditions, the teaching effectiveness tools are

not always the same. From my experience in more than one UAE university, I know that

these observation forms or questionnaires were either borrowed and adapted from different

sources or constructed by the faculty and administrators working in these centres. Students

were not consulted and as a result their perspective on effective teaching might not be

completely represented in these forms. As we will see from the literature reviewed in chapter

three, students are good raters of their teachers, so I believe that in order for these

observation forms and questionnaire forms to achieve what they are constructed for, they

should consider the perceptions of students of the effectiveness of their EFL teachers. This

is not to say that whatever students consider effective is an ideal prescription for effective

teaching and therefore it should be added to these forms, but rather I think that their

perceptions should be insightful for form constructors. I think there should be common

grounds on effective teaching between educationalists and students.

2.6 Summary

This chapter gave the reader a clear idea about the context of the study. I first talked about

the profile of the UAE in which the main features of the UAE country were presented. Then

I talked about education in the UAE and mentioned that modern education in this country is

new; it is the discovery of oil and the availability of funds that boosted the modern

educational systems. Hundreds of public and private schools have been established in the

34
last thirty years. As for higher education, several modern universities and colleges were

established.

After that, I discussed the English language status in the UAE; it is the second important

language in the country. English has become a very important language in the UAE in the

light of discovering oil and the big multinational manpower in the country and the fast

growth of education and economy in the UAE. The UAE universities and colleges under

investigation have established their own IEPs so that they can meet the increasing demand of

learning English. They have hired a lot of qualified and experienced teachers to teach

English in their IEPs. They are contract teachers and their continuity is decided in the light of

their performance evaluation which consists of self evaluation, classroom observation and

student evaluation. Although students‟ perceptions on effective teaching is important for both

teachers and IEPs, the tools constructed to collect students feedback on effective teaching

were developed by practitioners and/or adapted from other sources.

In the next chapter I am going to discuss the perspectives of the main learning theories and

there implications for effective EFL teachers.

35
 Chapter Three

Teacher Effectiveness

3.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the literature pertinent to this study. It is organized into five categories

of research: (1) teacher effectiveness research in general education; (2) teacher effectiveness

research in FL teaching; (3) models of teacher evaluation; (4) EFL teacher evaluation in the

UAE and (5) defining effective FL teaching.

3.2 Teacher Effectiveness Research in General Education

This study investigates the perceptions of Arab students of effective EFL teachers; it aims at

identifying the characteristics and teaching behaviours of effective teachers as perceived by

students. Whether or not these qualities and practices represent actual teaching effectiveness

is however hugely problematic; that is the perceptions of the respondents of this study may

not necessarily be an accurate reflection of the behaviours of their teachers. In fact, as we are

going to see in the following sections, there is no consensus on the characteristics and

behaviours of effective teaching. However, one of the important steps toward understanding

what is meant by effective teaching must be by investigating the perceptions of students who

are the „clients‟ whose learning is influenced as a result of the teaching quality. The

perceptions of other people like teachers and supervisors are also important in helping to

understand what actual teaching effectiveness is. The characteristics of teachers perceived

effective in many cases might represent actual effective teaching objectively, but in some

36
cases they might be subjective and far from reality. I believe that effective teaching may be

mainly derived from the perceptions of effective teaching. This could happen when the

perceptions of all people involved in the teaching and learning process are investigated

through a number of empirical studies that reach a high degree of consensus. In fact, it is

not only the people who are involved directly or indirectly in this teaching process decide

what makes teachers effective. There are also many other factors that can influence the

perceptions of effective teaching such as the cultural, social, political, age, gender, physical

settings of schools and classrooms factors.

The improving of learning outcomes is an important goal that teachers and educational

institutions want to achieve. Research indicates that effective teaching is one of the factors

that influence the quality of learning (Perkins & Solomon, 1989). However, in order for

practitioners and institutions to be able to invest in effective teaching so that they can

improve the learning of their students, they should first know what effective teaching means

for them. The following phenomena may be indicators of effective teaching: achieving good

exam marks; getting good feedback from students on the performance of their teachers;

getting good feedback from the supervisors who evaluate the teaching of their teachers; how

things are taught; what is taught. What is considered to be effective for a student at a certain

age may not be suitable for another at a different age. Effective teaching is not necessarily

the same for good and less capable students. What is effective in a certain location or culture

may not be considered the same for another. Effective teaching could be all of the above or

some of the above. What effective teaching is and who decides if teaching is effective or not

are important questions that educationalists and learning theorists (as we saw in chapter 4)

have been always trying to answer; however, there is no consensus on it among them as we

are going to see in this chapter.

37
In order to increase the effectiveness of teachers, it has been suggested that teaching is

research based. Muijs & Reynolds (2001) write, “… teaching needs to be firmly research

based, as only this approach will maximize the effectiveness of all teachers and the learning

and development of all learners.” One field of research has concentrated on identifying the

characteristics of effective teachers. Most researchers agree that several core teaching

behaviours must be evident if teaching is to be considered effective (Doyle, 1975; Dunkin &

Biddle, 1974; Murray, 1991; Rosenshine & Furst, 1971). In the same sense, Richards (2001)

emphasized the importance of ongoing research into effective teaching: “… the investigation

of effective teaching and learning strategies is a central and ongoing component of the

process of teaching. This is the core of a process-oriented methodology of teaching.”

Hamachek (1969) reviewed the available literature about the characteristics of good teachers.

In early studies (Hamachek, 1969) „effective teachers‟ and „good teachers‟ are synonymous.

Hamachek listed several personal characteristics of good teachers: a sense of humour, a

personal style in communicating, sense of fairness, empathy, the ability to relate students

one-to-one or in a group, and always being respectful of their students' point of view. Walter

(1990) concluded that humour in the classroom can provide relief to both teachers and

students during what frequently is very stressful experience.

McCabe (1995) examined the preferences of students regarding the teaching characteristics

of their teachers. McCabe used structured interviews to obtain the responses of 12 high

school students regarding the characteristics of the teachers that they liked the best.

According to the students, the best-liked and most effective teachers commonly utilized

humour. They were lively in their interactions with students and their presentation of content

and they engaged in a variety of instructional techniques.

Bergman and Gaitskill (1990) studied the teacher characteristics believed to be most

important to nursing students. The findings of their study led the authors to conclude that the

38
interpersonal skills of the teacher (i.e., instructor-student relationships, genuine interest in

patients, and patient care) are highly important to their clinical relationships with students.

According to Noddings (1992) classrooms need to provide family-like support to students.

Noddings asserts that those teachers governed by the ethic of caring take the time to know

students, often interacting with their students beyond the limits of the classroom and

continually manifesting high expectations of their students' capabilities and performances.

Rogers and Webb (1991) agree with Noddings (1992) that an ethic of caring is fundamental

to effective teaching. As part of the caring study, the authors conducted interviews with and

observations of elementary teachers and students. The study findings support the authors'

belief that caring should be a central concern of teacher education.

Wong and Wong (1991) indicated that there are basically three characteristics of an effective

teacher: an effective teacher has positive expectations for student success, an effective

teacher is an extremely good classroom manager and an effective teacher knows how to

design lessons for student mastery. According to Page (1992), one way that teachers can

increase their effectiveness is by engaging and encouraging dialogue in the classroom.

Lower achieving students do not get many opportunities to express themselves or to share

their opinions and feedback. Another way of improving instruction and maximizing student

achievement is that teachers should try to get to know their students on a human level by

asking questions about students' outside interests, families, and other areas outside the

classroom. A third way proposed by Page was that teachers need to replace heavy-handed

control with more ambiguity and freedom. Too much control may have the opposite effect.

Instead of concentrating on being authority figures, teachers should approach classroom

management as a process of establishing and maintaining an effective learning environment

(Gettinger, 1988; Jones, 1996; McCaslin & Good, 1992). Good and Brophy (2001) stated,

39
“Teachers are authority figures and need to require their students to conform to certain rules and

procedures. However, these rules and procedures are not ends in themselves but are means for

organizing the classroom to support teaching and learning. Thus, classroom management should be

designed to support instruction and to help students to gain in capacity for self-control” (p. 123).

Teaching is an interpersonal endeavor; in order to build better relationships with students and

colleagues, Reissman (1999) suggests that the teacher should (a) take time to ask about

extracurricular/non-school related interests and hobbies, (b) compliment others on what they

do well, (c) offer assistance to new students and teachers, (d) share ideas and opinions with

students and colleagues, and (e) spend time socializing with students and colleagues to get to

know them on another level. According to Collinson (1999) interpersonal skills go beyond

simple social skills to include empathy, trust, respect, tolerance, honesty, and political

awareness. She asserted that teacher education programs teach preservice teachers how to

communicate and collaborate with children but not adults. According to Tobin and Fraser

(1991) exemplary teachers develop and maintain a supportive, respectful, and non-

threatening classroom environment providing "safety nets" for their students.

Johnson and Roellke (1999) surveyed a group of secondary school teachers and

undergraduate education faculty members investigating perspectives of qualities of effective

teachers. Their findings showed that communication skills of teachers and attributes such as

poise and enthusiasm were reported as significant criteria for effective teaching.

Communication skills consist of interpersonal communication skills and oral communication

skills. Attributes consist of poise and enthusiasm. Johnson and Roellke indicated that

teacher education programs focus on teaching methods and not on other important areas such

as communication and personal attributes.

Medley (1979) found in an analysis of 289 empirical studies that effective and ineffective

teachers differ on a large number of actual classroom behaviours in three main areas:

40
maintenance of the learning environment, use of student time, and method of instruction.

Murray (1991) provides a review of studies on teaching effectiveness at the college-and

university-levels. Three dimensions of teaching behaviour have consistently emerged as

strong predictors of instructional outcomes: enthusiasm/expressiveness, clarity of

explanation, and rapport/interaction. Guskey and Easton (1983) investigated the

characteristics and behaviours of effective teachers. A sample of 28 professors who were

deemed to be effective was selected from six colleges. They found that effective teachers: (a)

spend considerable time planning and organizing their courses, objectives and criteria; (b)

express a positive regard for students; (c) encourage student involvement throughout lectures

and in group discussions; and (d) provide students regular feedback on their learning

progress.

In a thorough review of teacher effectiveness research Rosenshine and Furst (1971) found

that effective and ineffective teachers could be distinguished on the basis of ten variables: (a)

clarity of presentation; (b) enthusiasm; (c) variety of activities during the lesson; (d) task-

oriented and business-like behaviours in the classroom; (e) the amount of content covered by

class; (f) teachers‟ acknowledgement and encouragement of students‟ ideas during

discussion; (g) criticism of students (negatively related to achievement); (h) use of

structuring comments at the start of and during lesson; (i) use of various types of questions;

(j) probing of students‟ responses by the teacher.

In a comprehensive survey on the research on effective schooling, Blum (1984) (cited in

Richards, 2001, p. 169) summarizes effective teaching practices as follows:

a) preplanned curriculum is to guide classroom instruction;

b) teachers should have high expectations for student learning;

c) teachers should carefully orient students to lessons;

d) teachers should give clear and focused instruction;

41
e) teachers should monitor learning progress of their students;

f) teachers should teach again when students don‟t understand;

g) there should be smooth classroom routine;

h) the groups formed in the classroom should fit instructional needs;

i) class time should be used for learning;

j) standards for classroom behaviour should be high;

k) teachers should have positive personal interactions with students;

l) teachers should use incentives and rewards for students to promote excellence.

Ramsden (1992) conducted a qualitative analysis of research studies on effective teaching.

He identified six key principles of effective teaching at a university level from the teacher‟s

perspective:

a) explains things clearly;

b) gives appropriate assessment and feedback;

c) encourages independence and active engagement;

d) is willing to set clear goals and intellectual challenge;

e) is respectful for students;

f) is willing to learn from students.

Patrick & Smart (1998) conducted a study that aimed at clarifying the nature of teacher

effectiveness and developing a measure for evaluating teacher effectiveness. They conducted

the study in two phases. In the first phase 148 undergraduate students were asked to identify

the characteristics of effective teachers. In the second phase a meta-inventory was formed

from a combination of items generated from students in the qualitative phase and quantitative

items selected from existing instruments intended to measure effective teaching. This

42
inventory which consisted of 72 statements was administered on 266 undergraduate

psychology students. The students were asked to think of a teacher whom they found to be

most effective from any stage in their education. With this teacher in mind, they were asked

to rate each of the 72 items using a 5-point Likert scale. Using SPSS software, factor analysis

revealed that teacher effectiveness is multi-dimensional in nature, comprising three factors:

(1) respect for students, (2) ability to challenge students and (3) organisation and presentation

skills.

Verner (2000) conducted a qualitative study in which she investigated the qualities of

effective teaching from the perspective of 17 teachers identified as outstanding and effective

based on criteria used by the Illinois State Board of Education. Formal open-ended

interviews were used to secure information about the participating teachers and their

classroom teaching behaviour. Six themes were developed through analyses of all the data.

The participants:

a) have a passion for teaching;

b) provide support for their students during their learning process;

c) emphasize positive interpersonal dynamics in their classrooms;

d) are available to their students;

e) routinely participate in a variety of activities beyond classroom;

f) use humour in their interactions with students.

Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000) suggested that to improve student comprehension, to

increase literacy abilities, and to increase student achievement, teachers should limit lecture

time, use technology in the classroom, use cooperative learning, incorporate sustained silent

reading into the daily schedule, and use a variety of instructional methods. Berliner (1986)

indicates that flexibility is a component of teaching effectiveness and suggests that the ability

43
to quickly assess situations and respond appropriately contribute to expert teachers'

flexibility. The following table summarizes all the teaching behaviours and characteristics of

effective teachers that I found in the studies I reviewed above.

Table 3.1: A summary of the reviewed studies on effective teaching in general education
Researcher Year Kind of Study Sample Methods of ResearchInstitution
Hamachek 1969 review studies
Medley 1979 review studies
Blum 1984 review studies
Murray 1991 review studies
Ramsden 1992 review studies
Berliner 1986 theoretical
Gettinger 1988 theoretical
Walter 1990 theoretical
Tobin and 1991 theoretical
Fraser
Wong and 1991 theoretical
Wong
McCaslin & 1992 theoretical
Good
Noddings 1992 theoretical
Page 1992 theoretical
Jones 1996 theoretical
Ruddell 1997 theoretical
Collinson 1999 theoretical
Reissman 1999 theoretical
Pilgreen 2000 theoretical
Good and 2001 theoretical
Brophy
Rosenshine and 1971 empirical
Furst
Gusky and 1983 empirical 28 professors university
Easton
Bergman & 1990 empirical nursing students nursing college
Gaitskill
Rogers and 1991 empirical elementary interview and elementary
Webb teachers and classroom school
students observation
McCabe 1995 empirical 12 high school structured interview High school
students and and education
undergraduate college
faculty members
Patrick & 1998 empirical Phase 1: 148 Phase 1: Griffith
Smart undergraduate open Question University,
psychology Phase 2: Australia
students quantitative
Phase 2: 266 questionnaire
undergraduate
psychology
students
Johnson & 1999 empirical secondary school secondary
Roellke students school
Verner 2000 empirical 17 school teachers open-ended interview school

44
Table 3.1 shows a mixture of theoretical, empirical and review studies. Two empirical ones

used single research method for collecting data while the other two used two research

methods. One study only used two qualitative methods (interviews and observations) for

collecting data. The dominant research method used in these studies was interviews.

However, none of the above reviewed studies investigated the perceptions of students at a

university level using interviews as a major tool of data collection. As we are going to see in

chapter five, the interview is a very convenient tool of data collection when the research

investigates the perceptions of people. This is what I am going to do in this study; I am going

to conduct face to face interviews with university students and try to investigate their

perceptions of effective teachers‟ characteristics from them directly. In addition, Table 3.1

contains a list of studies that investigated the perceptions of different subjects: school

learners, university learners, school teachers and university teachers. Two out of six studies

investigated the perceptions of university students of effective teaching. It is noticeable that

none of these studies was conducted in an Arabic context. The reviewed studies in this table

were conducted in the period between 1969 and 2001 which is longer than the period of time

in which the reviewed FL studies were conducted in the section below. Table 3.2

summarizes the findings of these studies.

Table 3.2 Teaching behaviours and characteristics of effective teachers found in the reviewed general
education empirical and theoretical studies
1. is respectful to students (Hamachek, 1969; Collinson,1999; Tobin and
Fraser, 1991; Gusky and Easton, 1983; Ramsden,
1992; Patrick & Smart, 1998)
2. explains things clearly (Medley, 1979; Murray, 1991; Rosenshine and
Furst,1971; Blum, 1984; Ramsden, 1992; Patrick & Smart,
1998)
3. interacts with their students beyond the (Noddings, 1992; Page, 1992; Reissman 1999;
limits of the classroom Murray, 1991; Blum, 1984; Verner, 2000)
4. has interpersonal skills (Bergman and Gaitskill 1990; Reissman 1999;
Collinson 1999; Johnson and Roellke 1999; Verner,
2000)
5. has a sense of humour (Hamachek, 1969; Walter 1990, McCabe 1995;
Verner, 2000)
6. replaces heavy-handed control with more (Page, 1992; Gettinger, 1988; Jones, 1996;
ambiguity and freedom McCaslin
& Good, 1992)

45
Table 3.2: (Continued)
7. uses a variety of instructional methods (McCabe, 1995; Ruddell, 1997 and Pilgreen, 2000)
8. encourages student involvement (Hamachek, 1969; Gusky and Easton, 1983; Blum,
throughout lectures and in group 1984))
discussions
9. manifests high expectations of their (Noddings, 1992; Blum, 1984; Wong and Wong,
students' capabilities and performances 1991)
10. has enthusiasm (Johnson and Roellke 1999; Murray, 1991;
Rosenshine and Furst ,1971)
11. limits lecture time (Ruddell, 1997; Pilgreen, 2000)
12. develops a non-threatening/learning (Tobin and Fraser, 1991; Medley, 1979)
classroom environment
13. is a good classroom manager (Good and Brophy, 2001; Wong and Wong, 1991)
14. uses class time for learning (Medley, 1979; Blum, 1984)
15. uses technology in the classroom (Ruddell, 1997; Pilgreen, 2000)
16. uses cooperative learning (Ruddell, 1997; Pilgreen, 2000)
17. incorporates sustained silent reading into (Ruddell, 1997; Pilgreen, 2000)
the daily schedule
18. provides support for their students during (Noddings, 1992;Verner, 2000)
their learning process
19. plans and organizes his/her courses (Gusky and Easton, 1983; Blum, 1984)
20. has empathy (Hamachek, 1969; Collinson 1999)
21. uses incentives and rewards for students (Reissman, 1999; Blum, 1984)
to promote excellence
22. has a personal style in communicating (Hamachek, 1969;)
23. has sense of fairness Hamachek, 1969;)
24. uses a variety of activities during the (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
lesson
25. is task-oriented and business-like (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
behaviours in the classroom
26. acknowledges and encourages students‟ (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
ideas during discussion
27. uses various types of questions (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
28. probes of students‟ responses (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
29. avoids criticizing students‟ achievement (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
negatively
30. uses of structuring comments at the start of (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971)
and during the lessons
31. Provides students regular feedback on their (Gusky and Easton, 1983)
learning progress
32. teaches again when students don‟t (Blum, 1984)
understand
33. monitors learning progress of their (Blum, 1984)
students
34. has smooth classroom routine (Blum, 1984)
35. maintains high standards for classroom (Blum, 1984)
behaviour
36. orients students to lessons carefully (Blum, 1984)
37. is flexible (the ability to quickly assess (Berliner, 1986)
situations and respond appropriately)
38. cares (Rogers and Webb 1991)
39. knows how to design lessons for student (Wong and Wong, 1991)
mastery
40. encourages dialogue in the classroom so (Page, 1992)
that lower students can get more
opportunities to express themselves
41. Providing family-like support to students (Noddings, 1992)
42. gives appropriate assessment and (Ramsden, 1992)
feedback

46
Table 3.2: (Continued)
43. encourages independence and active (Ramsden, 1992)
engagement
44. is willing to set clear goals and (Ramsden, 1992)
intellectual challenge
45. is willing to learn from students (Ramsden, 1992)
46. is lively in his/her interactions with (McCabe, 1995)
students and his/her presentation of
content
47. has the ability to challenge students (Patrick & Smart, 1998)
48. shares ideas and opinions with students (Reissman, 1999)
and colleagues
49. shows trust (Collinson,1999)
50. shows honesty (Collinson,1999)
51. shows political awareness (Collinson,1999)
52. shows tolerance (Collinson,1999)
53. has oral communication skills (Johnson and Roellke 1999)
54. has a passion for teaching (Verner, 2000)
55. is available to their students (Verner, 2000)

Table 3.2 contains a wide variety of teaching practices and teachers‟ characteristics found in

the FLT studies reviewed above. It is noticeable that there is no consensus among these

studies on what makes teachers effective. However, the table shows that some qualities were

identified in more than one study:

a) is respectful to students;

b) explains things clearly;

c) interacts with their students beyond the limits of the classroom;

d) has interpersonal skills;

e) has a sense of humour;

f) replaces heavy-handed control with more ambiguity and freedom;

g) uses a variety of instructional methods;

h) encourages student involvement throughout lectures and in group discussions has

empathy;

i) manifests high expectations of their students' capabilities and performances;

j) has enthusiasm;

k) limits lecture time;

47
l) develops a non-threatening/learning classroom environment;

m) is a good classroom manager;

n) uses class time for learning;

o) uses technology in the classroom;

p) uses cooperative learning;

q) incorporates sustained silent reading into the daily schedule;

r) provides support for their students during their learning process;

s) plans and organizes his/her courses, objectives and criteria;

t) has empathy;

u) uses incentives and rewards for students to promote excellence.

About 49 % of the identified items were mentioned for more than one time in more than one

study, while 61% of the items were mentioned for one time by one of the reviewed studies.

This could be as a result of using different research methods and scales in investigating this

topic. This also could mean that more research on effective teaching is needed so that we can

validate those items that describe effective teachers from among a very long list of

characteristics and teaching practices.

3.3 Teacher Effectiveness Research in FL Teaching

Predictably, there is not as much research on discipline- specific teacher effectiveness as on

effective teaching in general education. In this section, I am not referring exclusively to the

teaching of English as a Foreign Language (EFL); I am referring to the teaching of foreign

languages generally (FL); these include English which is taught in the UAE as a foreign

language. Since this study aims at identifying the characteristics of effective FL teachers, it

48
is necessary to examine discipline- specific research on teacher effectiveness FL teaching,

where this is available.

An empirical study by Brosh (1996) identified the characteristics of effective FL teachers

from the perspective of FL teachers and students. Two hundred FL teachers of English,

French, Arabic and Hebrew and 406 ninth grade high school students from ten schools

participated in the study. Data were collected using questionnaires and interviews. The

questionnaire items were drawn from the literature and a pilot questionnaire asking students

and teachers to select from the list the most important three characteristics. Interviews were

conducted with few respondents to better understand questionnaire responses. The results

show that there is a high degree of agreement between the perceptions of teachers and

students. Both teachers and students agreed that the command of subject matter (the

teacher‟s mastery of the FL) was the most important characteristic. They also agreed that the

second most important characteristic was the teacher‟s ability to transmit knowledge in a way

that is easy to understand. However, students differ from teachers for the third priority by

emphasizing the importance of treating students fairly and equally and the teacher‟s

availability after class time; on the other hand, teachers highlighted the importance of

providing students with experiences of success.

In his research study Berlin (2000) investigates the perceptions of effective English teachers

of 47 international students in an EFL program at the University of Arizona; He interviewed

them and then asked them to complete a qualitative questionnaire. These themes are from

the voices of the students:

a) individual differences: the effective teachers of English should take into

consideration the individual differences of learners in English classes;

b) real world/diversity: students affirm the need for English teachers to make

connections to the real world;

49
c) student-teacher relationship: mutual respect, meeting students‟ expectations

regarding their personal and professional interactions and making connections to

the external world the students find themselves in;

d) humour: an essential element in the repertoire of the effective English teacher;

e) love: students recognized the importance of love and suggested that it has a

connection to learning.

Hubbard (2001) investigated 101 students‟ perceptions of effective teaching; the participants

are from six classes of eleventh grade English students in public schools in Alabama. Open-

ended questions were used for collecting data; they yielded responses in two broad

categories: the affective/emotional characteristics of effective teachers and the behavioural

characteristics of effective teachers. In the affective category, participants indicated that

effective teachers should be funny, friendly, caring, helpful, nice, respectful, interesting,

understanding, patient, easygoing, willing to compromise and have good personality. In the

behaviour category, participants indicated that effective teachers should enjoy teaching, be

dependable, take time to explain things, be strict but fair, be intellectual and smart, listen to

students, be organized and prepared, use a variety of teaching methods and activities, teach at

students‟ level and pace, and be good communicators.

Reber (2001) conducted a quantitative study in which she investigated the teaching

behaviours and attitudes of effective teachers as perceived by foreign language teachers. A

quantitative questionnaire of 80 items was used to collect the data, 457 post-secondary FL

teachers of Spanish, French, and German completed this questionnaire. The results indicated

that the twelve items that yielded the highest agreement are:

a) the effective FL teacher shows personal involvement in or enthusiasm for TL and

culture;

50
b) the effective FL teacher bases at least some parts of students‟ grades on their actual

use of the TL;

c) the effective FL teacher uses the TL competently;

d) the effective FL teacher frequently uses authentic materials to illustrate features of

the TL and culture;

e) the effective FL teacher uses small groups to help learners experience a greater

degree of involvement;

f) the teacher adjusts learning activities to meet the needs of FL students with a

variety of interests;

g) the effective FL teacher uses the TL as the predominant means of classroom

communication;

h) the effective FL teacher provides learners with concrete tasks to complete while

reading or listening to texts in the TL;

i) the effective FL teacher teaches idiomatic expressions and language routines to help

learners successfully engage in conversations in the TL;

j) the effective FL teacher gives learners a time limit to complete small group

activities;

k) the effective FL teacher provides opportunities for students to use the TL both

within and beyond the school setting;

l) in general, teachers who responded to the questionnaire agreed that interaction with

native speakers is beneficial for FL learners.

Murdoch (1997) conducted a quantitative study in which he investigated the qualities of good

teachers of English as perceived by two groups of experienced teaching professionals

working in the UAE: the first group comprised 22 Ministry of Education school supervisors;

51
the second group comprised 15 teachers, teaching on the three-level English program for all

students entering the UAE University. An extensive quantitative questionnaire of 56 items

based on an inventory of skills, behaviours and attitudes which were collected from a

different resources – teacher observation forms; teacher assessment forms; teacher training

syllabi, etc. This study highlighted the following key features of good classroom practice:

a) presents a varied package of language activities;

b) uses different approaches/techniques for presenting language items;

c) contextualizes language work in relation to students‟ interests;

d) provides „space‟ for students to interact and ask/answer questions;

e) plans carefully and flexibly;

f) develops a culture of student responsibility for language learning.

While the above study investigated the views of experienced professionals (supervisors and

teachers) of effective EFL teachers, the study of Saafin (1999) identified the characteristics

of the effective EFL teacher as perceived by Arab tertiary students attending an intensive

English program at the University of Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates. One hundred and

thirty six freshman students were asked to record the qualities of effective teachers. After

that 10 participants were selected for unstructured interviews in order to obtain more in-depth

information. The analysis revealed that the effective teacher qualities comprise two major

dimensions of effective teaching: interpersonal rapport with students and teaching and

organization skills. With regard to the interpersonal rapport with students, participants said

that the effective teacher should treat students with respect; have a sense of humour; advise

students in academic and personal matters; permit students to freely express their opinions

and ask questions; be understanding, develop a friendly relationship with students; perform

duties faithfully; be fair; be flexible; be a role model; care for students; be patient and have

52
amiable countenance. With regard to the teaching and organization skills participants said

that the teacher should provide understandable explanations; use a variety of teaching

methods; be knowledgeable about her/his subject; check for understanding and explain again

if necessary; give reasonable homework and examinations regularly; understand students in

terms of their abilities and the difficulties they face; go beyond the curriculum and gives

additional information. Table 3.3 below summarizes the reviewed studies on foreign

language teaching.

Table 3.3: A summary of the reviewed studies on FL effective teaching

Researcher Year Kind of Sample Methods of Institution
Study Research
1. Brosh 1996 empirical 200 FL teachers of English, quantitative schools
French, Arabic and Hebrew andquestionnaire
406
ninth grade high school students and interview
2. Murdoch 1997 empirical 22 Ministry of Education quantitative schools in
school supervisors and 15 questionnaire the UAE
school teachers
3. Saafin 1999 empirical One hundred and thirty six qualitative university
Arab freshman students in questionnaire in the UAE
Phase 1 and 10 in Phase 2 and interview
4. Berlin 2000 empirical 47 international students in Interview and university
an EFL program qualitative in the USA
questionnaire
5. Reber 2001 empirical 457 post-secondary quantitative Universities
FL teachers of Spanish, questionnaire in the USA
French, and German
6. Hubbard 2001 empirical 101 eleventh grade students qualitative schools in
questionnaire the USA

All the reviewed studies in Table 3.3 are empirical. However, they did not follow the same

research methods. Some of them used quantitative methods while others used qualitative

methods; while some also used a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. The

interview questions as well as the quantitative questionnaire items used in these studies were

not the same. I think that this is one of the important reasons why the results of these studies

are mostly different from each other. As a result, the findings of these studies reflected a lot

of variations in the perceptions of the subjects of these studies. Table 3.3 also shows that all

the reviewed studies were recent; they were conducted in the last 9 years. Two studies out of

53
six were conducted in an Arabic context; they are the only two studies I found among the

studies I reviewed in this chapter. Another observation is that three of the studies were

conducted at school settings, whereas the other three studies were conducted at university

settings. The table contains more studies that depended on learners‟ perceptions of effective

teaching. Three of these studies investigated the students‟ perceptions of effective teaching,

while two others investigated the perceptions of teachers and professionals. One study

investigated the perceptions of both students and teachers. This means that I will be able to

discuss the results of my study, which investigates the perceptions of learners as well, in

relation to the findings of studies most of which depended on learners‟ perceptions. The

findings of these studies are summarized in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4 Teaching behaviours and characteristics of effective teachers found in the reviewed foreign
language studies
1. has the ability of transmitting knowledge in a way (Brosh, 1996; Saafin,1999; Hubbard, 2001)
that is easy to understand
2. uses different approaches/techniques for (Murdoch, 1997; Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
presenting language items
3. shows respect (Saafin, 1999; Berlin, 2000; Hubbard, 2001)
4. develops a friendly relationship with students (Saafin, 1999; Berlin, 2000; Hubbard, 2001)
5. has a sense of humour (Saafin, 1999; Berlin, 2000; Hubbard, 2001))
6. is kind (Saafin, 1999; Berlin, 2000; Hubbard, 2001)
7. masters the foreign language (Brosh, 1996; Saafin, 1999; Reber, 2001)
8. cares for students (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
9. helps students on academic and personal matters (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
10. is understanding (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
11. is patient (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
12. is flexible/willing to compromise (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
13. is fair (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
14. is a good communicator (Berlin, 2000; Hubbard, 2001)
15. teaches at students‟ level and pace (Saafin, 1999; Hubbard, 2001)
16. presents a varied package of language activities (Murdoch, 1997; Hubbard, 2001 )
17. contextualizes language work in relation to (Murdoch, 1997; Reber, 2001)
students‟ interests
18. provides „space‟ for students to interact and (Murdoch, 1997; Saafin, 1999)
ask/answer questions
19. plans carefully and flexibly (Murdoch, 1997)
20. develops a culture of student responsibility for (Murdoch, 1997)
language learning
21. is dedicated (Saafin, 1999)
22. is a role model (Saafin, 1999)
23. checks for understanding and explains again if (Saafin, 1999)
necessary
24. gives homework and examinations regularly (Saafin, 1999)

54
Table 3.4: (Continued)
25. goes beyond the curriculum and gives additional (Saafin, 1999)
information.
26. makes connection to the real world of students (Berlin, 2000)
27. takes into consideration the individual differences (Berlin, 2000)
of learners
28. shows personal involvement in or enthusiasm for (Reber, 2001)
TL and culture
29. uses authentic materials (Reber, 2001)
30. uses small groups (Reber, 2001)
31. uses the TL as the predominant means of (Reber, 2001)
classroom communication.
32. provides learners with concrete tasks to complete (Reber, 2001)
while reading or listening to texts in the TL
33. teaches idiomatic expressions and language (Reber, 2001)
routines to help learners successfully engage in
conversations in the TL
34. provides opportunities for students to use the TL (Reber, 2001)
both within and beyond the school setting
35. is organized and prepared (Hubbard, 2001)
36. listens to students (Hubbard, 2001)
37. enjoys teaching (Hubbard, 2001)
38. is dependable (Hubbard, 2001)
39. is interesting (Hubbard, 2001)
40. has a good personality (Hubbard, 2001)
41. is easy going (Hubbard, 2001)
42. is intellectual and smart (Hubbard, 2001)
43. meet the needs of FL students with a variety of (Reber, 2001)
interests

Table 3.4 shows a list of 42 characteristics and practices of effective language teachers

identified by the reviewed studies on effective FL teaching. Some of the items were

identified by more than one study:

a) has the ability of transmitting knowledge in a way that is easy to understand;

b) uses different approaches/techniques for presenting language items;

c) shows respect;

d) develops a friendly relationship with students;

e) has a sense of humour;

f) is kind;

g) masters the foreign language;

h) cares for students;

i) helps students on academic and personal matters;

55
j) is understanding;

k) is patient;

l) is flexible/willing to compromise;

m) is fair;

n) is a good communicator;

o) teaches at students‟ level and pace;

p) presents a varied package of language activities;

q) contextualizes language work in relation to students‟ interests;

r) provides „space‟ for students to interact and ask/answer questions.

About 42% of the identified items in table 3.4 were mentioned for more than one time in

more than one study while about 58% of these items were mentioned for one time by one of

the reviewed studies. It can be clearly seen that more than half of the items in both general

education and foreign language research were identified for one time only. They were not

validated by any other studies. In order to consider these items representative of effective

teaching they should be identified by several studies. This would pave the way for being

able to construct the correct classroom observation forms as well as student evaluation

questionnaires.

Having an overall look at the Tables 3.2 and 3.4, I found the following set of teaching

behaviours and qualities are shared between effective teaching in general education and

effective FL teaching:

a) uses a variety of teaching approaches and techniques;

b) uses a variety of language activities;

c) enables students to work in groups;

d) meets students interests;

56
e) provides speaking opportunities/provide space for students to interact; and

ask/answer questions;

f) plans/prepared;

g) helps/supportive;

h) interacts with students beyond the limits of the classroom;

i) is a good communicator/personal style of communicating;

j) enjoys teaching;

k) is respectful;

l) has a sense of humour;

m) establishes friendly relationship with students;

n) is fair;

o) cares for students;

p) shows enthusiasm;

q) is patient.

The findings of the reviewed studies show that there are two effective teaching qualities that

appear to be peculiar to the UAE context. I noticed that although the characteristic

„flexibility‟ [ ٗٔٚ‫ ]ِش‬was identified in general education, international EFL and EFL in the

UAE effectiveness research, I believe that meaning of this term in the UAE research is

different. It does not mean teachers‟ flexibility in for example implementing lesson plans or

producing teaching materials. It means that EFL teachers should not be strict in

implementing the rules and policies of the universities they work for. For example, a teacher

is expected not to mark students late or absent when they come late or absent themselves

from classes as long as the students have good reasons for that. Teachers are expected to

give make up exams for those students who missed their exams for acceptable reasons.

57
Students expect this degree of flexibility from their teachers in spite of the fact that they are

inform from day one that attendance excuses are not acceptable and that there is no make up

for those students who absent themselves from classes. I think this perspective of flexibility

is a cultural issue. In the Arab culture this kind of flexibility is common and may be

desirable. Another characteristic that appeared only in the UAE EFL research was teachers‟

„dedication‟ [ ‫ ]االخالص‬in teaching. Dedication in any job is an important Islamic value in the

UAE and Arab community. This term means that people do what they are supposed to do.

When students say that teachers should be dedicated, they mean that they are expected to do

their best in teaching their students and helping them to learn. Those teachers who waste the

class time and do not exert enough effort to help learners are perceived by them as people

who are not dedicated and do not do their job.

In the light of the literature reviewed above, we can see that although there is little consensus

on what makes a teacher effective, there are some qualities that are identified more

frequently than others such as clarity of teaching, humour and classroom management. This

might indicate that these qualities appear to be universal and not confined to a certain setting.

The above sections also show that there is a little research on effective EFL teaching in the

UAE at a university level. Therefore, there is a need for an empirical study that investigates

the perceptions of Arab students of the qualities of effective EFL teachers in the UAE.

The differences in the findings of the reviewed studies in general education as well as in FL

teaching show that there is no consensus on what makes teachers effective; therefore, there is

no definition of effective teaching that is acceptable by all or most of educationalists and

practitioners. I believe that research on effective teaching is necessary; it is the major source

of information that helps us to understand effective teaching. Muijs and Reynolds (2001)

stated that.

58
“The view that teaching is purely an art and can never be a science is clearly no longer tenable, as our

knowledge on what makes for effective teaching becomes ever larger. …teaching needs to be firmly

research based, as only this approach will maximize the effectiveness of all teachers and the learning

and development of all learners” (p.211).

As for the current study, I expect that the findings will help to shed light on what makes

teachers effective. I should mention here that the study I did on effective teaching in 1999

will be very useful because it was conducted under similar conditions and used similar

research methods. If the results of the current research are strongly supported by the results

of the 1999 study, my claim then regarding the possibility of identifying what makes

effective teaching is more tangible.

3.4 Models of Teacher Evaluation

Teacher evaluation measures the quality of teaching. This is not an easy task because, as we

have seen above, there is no consensus on what exactly makes teaching effective.

Researchers have emphasized that in order to be able to measure the quality of teaching,

effective teaching behaviours must be (a) identifiable, (b) stable, and (c) reasonably

consistent across contexts (Andrew & Barnes, 1990, p. 572). In the past, teachers were

evaluated by means of paper-and-pencil tests that mainly evaluate teachers‟ knowledge, but

they rarely predict whether or not teachers will be able to demonstrate their knowledge in

their teaching performance (Hammadou, 1994). Over the past few decades teacher

evaluation fluctuated between teachers‟ knowledge of the subjects they teach and their

knowledge of the classrooms and learners (Shulman, 1986b). With the appearance of

research into effective teaching, models for evaluating effective teaching were necessary to

59
provide teachers with feedback and therefore several models of teacher evaluation exist in

teacher education (Teresa, 2001).

According to Teresa, (2001), over the past two or three decades, research in teacher

evaluation has received increased attention. Several criteria have been used in evaluating

teachers; many of the criteria and procedures used to evaluate teaching are applicable across

disciplines, and models of FL teacher evaluation are usually based on models of evaluation

used in teacher evaluation in general and in student teacher training (Jarvis, 1968; Wragg,

1970; Moskowitz, 1976; Gebhard, Gaitan, & Oprandy, 1990). Millman (1981a) notes the

following reasons teaching is evaluated: to improve teacher performance, to meet state and

institutional directives, to promote research on teaching, and to assist in selecting instructors

(p. 13).

As mentioned above, one of the original teacher evaluation techniques was done by means of

written tests and/or classroom observations; however, these tests could rarely predict future

teaching performance of teachers because they assess only the teachers‟ knowledge on the

subjects they teach. Another model was introduced by Haefele (1981) who suggests teacher

appraisal interviews as an effective component of teacher evaluation. Here, an evaluator

advises a teacher regarding improving teaching and recognizes effective teaching. Student

achievement has also been proposed as a measure of effective teaching (Millman, 1981b). In

considering student achievement, it is important to keep in mind that some factors can

influence student achievement in addition to the teacher‟s performance. These factors

include the way achievement is measured as well as individual student differences.

One of the common approaches to evaluating teaching is classroom observation. Sheal

(1989) and Evertson and Holley (1981) discuss the importance of training classroom

observers and of selecting an appropriate and valid observation form. Sheal notes that much

of the teacher observation that goes on is unsystematic and subjective. Observers are not

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always trained in observation or the use of systematic observation forms, and as a result,

observers tend to use themselves as a standard, and their observations are often

impressionistic rather than supported by data. The purposes of observation forms are to

increase observer objectivity and to increase consistency among observers.

Over 200 instruments have been developed for describing classroom behaviours as well as

classroom settings (Allwright, 1988; Borich & Madden, 1977; Chaudron, 1988; Dunkin &

Biddle, 1974; Flanders, 1970; Bellack, Kliebard, Hyman, & Smith, 1966; Wright & Nuthall,

1970). There are several types of observation forms: frequency tabulation (used to describe

objectively teacher/student behaviours in the classroom); structured description (a descriptive

narrative of what goes on in the classroom); a checklist (recording the presence or absence of

certain types of behaviour as well as an attempt to provide comprehensive, systematic, and

objective evaluation); and rating scales.

Another method of evaluating teaching is by means of student ratings of teaching (Aleamoni,

1981; Marsh & Dunkin, 1992; Murray & Renaud, 1995). One of the purposes of the ratings

of students is to evaluate the performance of teachers so that the teaching quality can be

improved. Student evaluation of teaching effectiveness has been used for a long time. Marsh

(1987) notes that students' evaluation procedures were introduced at several major US

universities in the 1920s. Measuring teaching effectiveness from the perspective of students

has been increasingly used in different educational institutions as a major component in

teacher evaluation (Waters, Kemp, & Pucci, 1988); and this trend is likely to continue in the

light of increased emphasis on teaching quality (Feldman, 1997).

Student ratings of instruction are considered to be a valid measurement of teaching quality

for three main reasons: (1) students are the main source of information about the

accomplishment of education goals, the domains of rapport, degrees of communication, and

problems between students and the teacher; (2) students (rather than an observer) are able to

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evaluate the teacher, textbooks, homework, course content, method of instruction, level of

student interest, and student attitude toward the course; (3) students can communicate

anonymously with the teacher (based on Aleamoni, 1981).

On the other hand, some teachers question the actual validity of students‟ evaluations. It is

questionable whether students can really judge the teachers and their teaching or not, given

their lack of pedagogical training and possible desire to retaliate because of bad grade. It is

worth considering that students may give good teaching a poor evaluation because it makes

greater demands on them than more traditional forms. Aleamoni (1981) cites several studies

that look at reliability in student ratings and found that if instruments are used that reflect the

institutional teaching goals, if the instrument is validated, and if the results are correctly

interpreted and used, student ratings of instruction can be an integral part of teacher

evaluation. Many researchers believe that students are capable of evaluating teachers'

performance and that their feedback can be useful in improving teaching effectiveness and

developing the course content. Ramsden (1991) believes that students are an important

source of information about teacher effectiveness, and they are capable of identifying

effective teaching characteristics from their perspective.

Jackson et al. (1999) similarly believe that students are a convenient choice for raters, and

their „candid reaction‟ can be useful in refining teaching styles and course structures. Marsh

(1987) also concludes that students are capable of distinguishing between effective teachers

and bad teachers. He contends that student evaluations are the only indicator of teaching

effectiveness whose validity has been thoroughly established. Marsh (1984) points out that

although findings are sometimes contradictory, the weight of evidence indicates that

students‟ evaluation of a teacher‟s performance is reasonably stable across items, raters and

time period. From my own personal experience and my daily interaction with students, their

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informal comments about effective teaching do indicate that they have the ability to identify

some of the traits of effective teachers.

It is also of interest that although student ratings of instruction have been shown to be stable

across items, raters, and time, they differ depending on academic discipline. Feldman (1978)

and Cashin (1990) found that student ratings are highest for arts and humanities teachers and

lowest for mathematics, science, and engineering teachers. The reasons for the differences in

ratings have not yet been determined (Franklin & Theall, 1992; Murray & Renaud, 1995).

Franklin and Theall (1992) conjectured that humanities teachers tend to stress “thought”

goals more than “fact” goals and tend to use discussion and independent projects rather than

lecturing. That student ratings of instruction vary according to discipline leads to the

assumption that there are teaching behaviours specific to various disciplines and that all

teachers behaviours found in teacher effectiveness research may not apply to every

discipline.

Teachers, educational managers and students might have different views of what effective

teaching is. Students play an important part in the teaching and learning process. They are

the ones who interact directly and regularly with teachers in classrooms and they are the most

negatively or positively affected people of bad or effective teaching. Since their opinions on

the performance of teachers is taken into consideration in the evaluations carried out in the

UAE, this study focuses only on the students‟ conceptions of effective teaching regardless of

whether or not practitioners or other stakeholders agree with their perceptions. Therefore,

the source of the criteria for effectiveness addressed in this study is the qualities and practices

of effective teachers that are rated by tertiary students. However there are of course

limitations in not making use of teachers' views.

As can be seen from the review of different models to teacher evaluation, different forms of

evaluation came from different perspectives. This section shows that there is little consensus

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about how to evaluate teachers how best to assess whether a particular teacher has those

characteristics.

3.5 EFL Teacher Evaluation in the UAE

EFL teachers in the UAE universities are mainly evaluated by their supervisors, their

students and themselves. Supervisors visit teachers‟ classroom and complete one of the

observation forms (see Appendix A). The second part of teachers‟ evaluation is that by the

end of each semester, students are asked to complete a questionnaire in which they evaluate

the effectiveness of their teachers (see Appendix B). It is made clear for the students in these

questionnaires that the purpose of these questionnaires is to evaluate the effectiveness of the

performance of teachers from the perspective of students. The third part is that teachers are

invited to evaluate themselves; they mainly talk about their strengths, achievements, areas

that they think the need to improve on and their goals for the following year (see section 2.5

in Chapter 2).

I review teacher evaluation methods because the core of these methods is based on effective

teaching behaviours. Moreover, the second question in this research asks to what extent the

qualities of effective teachers from the perspective of Arab students are addressed in the

instructors' performance evaluation in the universities and colleges where the participants

study. The students in the institutions where the current study was conducted are involved in

evaluating teachers and the feedback collected from them is used for making important

decisions regarding the continuity of teachers and their professional development plans. The

important thing is whether or not the characteristics of effective teachers used in these

evaluation forms match the perceptions of students of effective EFL teachers. Therefore, I

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believe that identifying the characteristics of effective teaching is important not only for

teacher training purposes, but also for teaching evaluation purposes.

3.6 Defining Effective Teaching

A great deal of research has investigated the characteristics of effective teaching. However,

the nature of effective teaching is still unclear. The professional literature suggests little

empirical evidence to help formulate a single definition of effective teaching (Aleamoni,

1981; Combs, 1989; Delamere, 1986; Doyle, 1977; Griffith, 1973; King, 1981; Medley,

Coker, & Soar, 1984; Nerenz & Knop, 1982; Perry & Rog, 1992; Travers, 1981) – (cited in

Teresa, 2001). Roberts (1998) indicates that there is a problem in defining good teaching,

and points out that the literature on effective teaching suggests that there is no particular set

of strategies or practices which can be claimed as effective. Patrick & Smart (1998: p. 165)

state: “While many researchers have formulated working definitions of effective teaching,

with a noticeable overlap in definitions, it is not certain that any one researcher has

effectively tapped the whole domain of effective teaching.” Studies conducted on effective

teaching have revealed some factors that are directly relevant to effective teaching but others

that are more indirectly related. The different studies appear to give somewhat different

results. Empirical studies show a discrepancy between the number of effective teaching

factors and the nature of these factors and in consequence there is no consistency in the

findings of these studies “Although students‟ perceptions of instructional quality are

generally agreed to be multidimensional in nature, less consensus has developed concerning

the number and nature of the dimensions” (Jackson et al., 1999, p. 581). Gallagher (1994)

and Nussbaum (1992) further argue that future research should aim to clarify the nature of

effective teaching.

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Hansen (1981) argues that educators and educational researchers have pursued the

identification of teaching effectiveness for a long time arguing that such identification is not

a simple thing. Like Hansen (1981) and others, Ornstein (1985) recognizes the difficulty in

identifying the components of effective teaching. He argues that the presence of so many

confounding variables, conflicting and ambiguous terminology, and disagreement about the

effects the teacher is to produce in the classroom are all obstacles to the identification of

effective teaching. Tuckman (1995) claims the lack of universal agreement about the

characteristics of effective teaching is an obstacle in their identification. He believes that

"…effective teachers are those teachers whose students learn and grow the most" (p.127).

However, he did not identify the criteria for determining student learning and growth. Good

(1979) described effective teaching as teaching that results in higher scores than expected on

achievement tests.

Less research exists on attempting to define effective teaching in the FL field (Nerenz &

Knop, 1982; Brosh, 1996). Several aspects of FL teaching are distinctly different from

teaching in other disciplines. Brosh (1996) notes that FL teaching differs from the teaching of

most other disciplines in that the “means of instruction is also the subject of instruction” (p.

125).

Met (1994) defines effective FL teaching as follows:

“Effective foreign language instruction is holistic, performance oriented, and based on constructivist

views of learning. It requires collaborative learning and practice, connects to other areas of the

curriculum, and is enhanced through explicit instruction in metacognitive and cognitive learning

strategies” (p. 87).

Another definition was given by Penner (1992) who said that effective FL teaching is “the

ability of the teacher to adequately communicate to the student and the student‟s ability an

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opportunity to respond and demonstrate some competence in reproducing what he has

learned by formulating in his own words the facts and concepts that now illuminate his

mind” (p. 16). Eble, (1988); Harris, (1981) indicated that a teacher may be well qualified to

teach; however, effective learning is not guaranteed. Thought, speech and manners are a

reflection of a teacher‟s personality and as a result teaching styles vary with the personality

of each teacher. What is taken in by the learner may not depend on the content or skill but on

the personality of the teacher or the nature of the personal relationship between the teacher

and the learner.

Effective FL teaching has been a topic of discussion ever since FLs entered the school

curriculum (Schulz, 1988). Various standards for effective FL teaching are used in different

educational institutions. Some of the characteristics and practices that are considered

effective are based on research in general education. Some other teaching behaviours and

qualities that are specific for FL teaching are not always sufficiently described. This study

aims at identifying the characteristics of effective teachers that are specific to FL teaching

based on empirical qualitative research. We rely on professional consensus to know what

constitutes good teaching and this study contributes to this consensus about what acceptable

classroom teaching behaviour is.

3.7 Summary

This review of literature has examined several areas of research that have possible

applications to effective teaching. In this Chapter I focused on five other categories in

addition to the FL effective teaching. This wide range of categories, together with the

theoretical perspectives on language learning and teaching reviewed in Chapter 4, helped in

broadening the understanding of effective teaching and gave a bigger picture of it. The five

categories I reviewed have a long list of effective teaching behaviours and characteristics.

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As we have seen in this Chapter, some of these practices and qualities are of higher

frequency rate than others. Although many researchers researched effective teaching, they

did not reach a consensus on what makes a teacher effective. Many of the reviewed studies

used different quantitative scales and ended up with different findings. It might be more

appropriate to investigate effective teaching using qualitative research methods. I also

believe that in order to be able to have a clear concept of effective teaching, a number of

effective teaching studies using qualitative methods need to be conducted under similar

research conditions. This may give researchers a better chance to investigate this

problematic subject.

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 Chapter Four

Theoretical Perspectives on Language Learning and Teaching

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, I will discuss three major themes. I will first consider four dominant

theoretical perspectives that have been influential in language learning and teaching. I will

highlight the implications of these theories for language learning and teaching. This

theoretical background also sheds light on the evolution of common teaching methods that

arose from different learning theories. Then I will talk about eight major language teaching

approaches. I will also discuss the implications of these approaches for effective teaching as

well as the shortcomings of these methods. Finally, I will talk about the implications of

second language learning research for FL teachers. The conceptual framework provided in

this chapter will assist in understanding, interpreting and making sense of the research

findings related to the characteristics of effective English language teachers.

4.2 Theoretical Learning Perspectives

This section gives a brief overview of four dominant theoretical perspectives that have been

influential in language learning and teaching: behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic and social

constructivist theories. I will highlight the implications of these theories for the behaviours

of effective English language teachers.

Teachers played different roles throughout these approaches. In the behaviourist approach,

they play a central role in the whole teaching and learning process. They orchestrate all

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learning activities and control their learners externally by encouraging and rewarding the

desired behaviours and discouraging and punishing the unwanted behaviours. This role has

changed in the other three approaches in which teachers collaborate more with their students

in their learning. It becomes the responsibility of the learner in the cognitive approach to

learn using their mental abilities. Teachers‟ teach the rules that enable students generate their

own sentences and create their own conversations. In the humanistic approach, it becomes

the responsibility of the learners to identify their weaknesses and ask their teachers for

consultations and assistance. It becomes a consultant-client relationship. The role the

teacher has changed again in the social constructivism approach in which teachers play the

role of a facilitator as well as a partner. They create the social context in which learners can

interact with others and learn. Teachers are among those people with whom learners can

interact. They are the learners‟ partners in their learning process.

4.2.1 Behaviourist Perspective

Behaviourism is an approach to psychology in which learning is explained in terms of

conditioning and association. A well known example is that of Pavlov who demonstrated

with animals that a response (salivation) which is generated by one stimulus (food) could be

produced by a second stimulus (bell) at the same time. This was known as stimulus-response

theory or classical conditioning. Experiments with animals convinced researchers of the

importance of the use of rewards and punishments to elicit the desired behaviours. These

findings were tested with human beings and became influential in teaching and learning

(Williams and Burden, 1997).

Skinner (1957) is the founder of modern behaviourism. He explained learning in terms of his

idea of operant conditioning: an individual responds to a stimulus by behaving in a certain

way. Whatever happens subsequently will affect the possibility that behaviour happen again.

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Pleasurable consequences strengthen behaviours while unpleasant consequences weaken

behaviours. In this way any behaviours could be gradually increased by reinforcing them.

Reinforcement is very important in the learning process. It increases the likelihood of the

desired behaviour occurring again and becoming a habit (Richards and Rodgers, 1986).

As far as language learning and teaching is concerned, this viewpoint implies that:

a) Learning is sequenced and hierarchical;

b) Learning occurs by accumulating bits of knowledge and therefore teachers should

break down tasks into small steps so that students can be helped to understand;

c) Motivation is external and depends on positive reinforcements (Shepard, 2000).

The behaviourist approach perceives language learning as acquiring a set of reinforced

mechanical habits (Brown, 1987). Richard and Rodgers (1986) said that as a result of the

influence of behaviourism, a set of learning principles emerged and became the

psychological foundations of audiolingualism:

a) Foreign language learning is a mechanical process of habit formation;

b) Analogy (generalization and discrimination) provides a better foundation for

language learning than analysis. Drills help learners to form correct analogies;

c) Language is primarily speech not writing. Language is learned better if speech is

presented before writing;

d) Speaking and listening are the most important language skills.

These principles link to behaviourism because they are based on the supposition that learning

a language is like learning any other behaviour and therefore drilling and repeating language

items and rewarding correct responses is the best way for learners to learn a language.

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Audiolingualism has a number of shortcomings. The language learner is viewed as „a

language- producing machine‟ Ellis (1985); and language learning is seen the same as

learning how to ride a bicycle or work a puzzle (Naremore & Robert, 1990). Learners are

not engaged in analyzing the language; the cognitive process is not given enough emphasis.

Learners can repeat the drills without attending to the meaning. There is no place for

interaction and negotiation of meaning. There is a lot of emphasis on correct responses in

audiolingualism which does not allow for learning from mistakes. Behaviourism was also

strongly criticized for concentrating on observable behaviours and overlooking the mental

processes that the learners bring to the task of learning. This made psychologists and

language acquisition researchers move on to more learning theories that are more concerned

with learners‟ creativity (Lightbown and Spada, 1993). Noam Chomsky (1959) argued that

applying technical terms like „reinforcement‟ or operant response‟ to language acquisition

was meaningless. He believed that the mind has a key role in learning. He believed that

children‟s minds are not blank slates to be filled as a result of imitating language structures,

but that they possess innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device. He believed that

children are biologically programmed for language learning and that language develops in

children in a similar way to walking or any other biological functions. He also believed that

children learn far more about L1 structures than they would be ever expected to learn based

only on the input they received from those around them. His rejection of behaviourist

language acquisition theory marked a shift from behaviourism to cognitivism. This means

that teachers can not be effective if they just deal with language as a group of behaviours that

are acquired in a mechanical manner and can be used in specific situations. Language can

not be extracted into a number of behaviours that are shaped for certain situations. Effective

teachers are to involve the mental abilities of learners and enable them to create the language

they need to communicate with others in different situations.

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4.2.2 Cognitive Perspective

In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitive approach was concerned with the mental processes

used by learners. It emphasized the role of the learner and his/her mental processes involved

in learning. Factors such as brain, perception, memory, personality and motivation were seen

as essential in learning behaviour. According to Williams and Burden (1997) one of the

approaches to of cognitive psychology is information processing. In information processing

cognitivists are concerned with the way learners take in information, process it and act

according to it. One of the human functions that became the focus of the work of

information processing was attention which affected learning. The ability to pay attention is

different from one age to another and from one person to another. Also, the amount of

attention needed for tasks is different from one task to another depending on the degree of

learners‟ familiarity with the task. The implication of this for language teachers is that they

have to take into consideration that full attention is needed when introducing a new lesson or

material that students are not familiar, while less attention is needed in doing or practising

things that they are already familiar with. Also, they should take into consideration the

relationship between the age and the ability of learners to pay attention. For example, the

older learners are the more focusing ability they have (Williams and Burden, 1997).

Another area that the cognitive approach paid attention to was memory. One of the

successful applications of memory was using the „linkword‟ method. This technique

involves relating words from the first and second languages to help learners construct a

picture in their minds and remember these words (Williams and Burden, 1997). Another

strategy for teachers to help their students memorize information is what Ausubel (1968)

calls „advance organizers‟. The teacher relates new learning to what learners already learned.

This technique is especially useful when teachers introduce new topics or ideas. However,

„advance organizers‟ work best for less able learners and may hamper the more able learners.

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The language teacher should provide incentives to help learners memorize and retrieve

information (Brown, 1987).

In the light of the criticism of information processing approaches, the concept of

constructivism was introduced in the cognitive approach. It is concerned with the ways

individuals make sense of their own world. However, it does not consider the social context

which, as we are going to see, is considered very important in social constructivism. Piaget‟s

work on child development, in which he emphasized the constructive aspect of learning,

originated the constructivist approach (Roberts, 1998). People are from birth involved in

constructing their own personal meanings from their experiences. He was interested in the

way people learn things from childhood to adulthood. His theory is based on learners

passing through a series of stages in which they make sense of the experiences in different

stages of their lives. Children can develop cognitive representations of their experience

through exploring their environment (Savage, 1998). There are two processes that underlie

the cognitive development of children: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation

involves modifying incoming information in children‟s minds so that they can fit it in with

what they already know about the world. In contrast, accommodation involves modifying

what they already know to include new information (Ellis, 1986).

One of the criticisms made of the cognitive approach is that it minimized the role of the

language teacher in the classroom which is providing suitable input to help learning take

place. Another criticism is that it put a lot of emphasis on individual development and

overlooked the social context in which learning takes place (Williams and Burden, 1997). It

deals with learners without taking into consideration the environment in which they live in.

It also overlooks the individual differences between learners.

Williams and Burden (1997) and Wong-Fillmore (1995) identified several implications of the

cognitive psychology for language teaching methodology. First, in a cognitive approach, the

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learner is considered as an active participant who is involved in the learning process of the

target language using different mental strategies and in accordance teachers should

encourage them in this learning process as active learners and not passive ones. Second,

teachers at an early stage should not expect children to sort out language rules. It is more

appropriate to provide them things in the target language that is related to their own life.

Third, teachers should match the cognitive abilities of the learners with the requirements of

any language task. Fourth, learning activities should be graded from concrete to abstract and

from simple to difficult. Fifth, children can learn a language more readily if they are engaged

in meaningful activities in which they use the target language.

4.2.3 Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology appeared in the 1950s with the establishment of the American

Association for Humanistic Psychology whose founders included Rogers and Maslow

(Roberts, 1998). The involvement of the whole person in the learning process is what

distinguishes the humanistic approach from others. Humanistic approaches emphasize the

inner world of the learner and put his/her feelings, thoughts and emotions at the forefront of

all human development. Richards and Rodgers (1986) cite Moskowitz (1978) saying that

“…, humanistic techniques engage the whole person, including the emotions and feelings as

well as linguistic knowledge and behavioural skills” (p. 114).

Rogers (1969) is a major contributor to the humanistic position. He developed his

humanistic approach in the context of psychotherapist-client relationships. That means that

in education context the teachers should deal with their students as clients who need help in

something specific. In the light of his approach the relationship between teachers and

learners should be characterized with warmth and cooperation. Besides offering students

unconditional regard, Rogers suggests that the inner world of learners should be valued so

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that they can become open to their true feelings and capable of diagnosing their illness.

According to Rogers‟ approach, in order for learning to take place, it should be seen of

personal relevance for the learners and in which they play an active role in their learning. It

involves both their feelings and cognition. Rogers‟ approach considers the whole person and

recognizes his/her autonomy and individual needs. Accordingly, the learning is to be

internally influenced and determined rather than externally controlled. To enhance learning a

friendly atmosphere should be created and students should be given the opportunity to rely

on themselves.

Another contributor to the humanistic approach is Abraham Maslow (1968) who explained

human behaviour in terms of meeting basic needs. He suggested a hierarchy of needs. He

classified these needs under two main categories: deficiency needs and being needs. The

deficiency needs contain consist of basic physiological needs, safety and security needs,

interpersonal closeness needs and self-esteem needs. These deficiency needs are related to

psychological and biological needs that human beings struggle to meet. If any of these needs

is not met, a person will not be able to carry on and attempt to meet the being needs in the

second category. If a person is for example hungry or has pain or feel insecure, he/she will

be engaged in trying to fulfill these needs. He/she is not expected to be engaged in trying to

fulfill other needs. In other words being unable to meet any of these basic needs, will hinder

a person‟s ability to meet other needs further up the hierarchy. The being needs category of

Maslow‟s hierarchy consists of cognitive needs, aesthetic needs and self-actualization needs.

These needs are of a higher level than the other needs in his hierarchy and they are related to

the fulfillment of individual potential. Maslow‟s theory has an important message for

teachers: teachers should understand that children may have fewer motivation problems

because their basic needs are not fulfilled at home or in the classroom. Therefore teachers

should help them by creating a secure environment in which children feel they belong and

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are respected by others. Teachers also should encourage learners to think (cognitive need)

and praise them for being different and creative (aesthetic needs). Moreover, teachers have to

give challenging classroom tasks to encourage curiosity to help learners know their full

potential (Williams and Burden, 1997).

Roberts (1998) indicated that the humanistic theory has influenced ELT. There was a shift in

the language acquisition theory from behaviourist views in which learners are controlled

externally by teachers to constructivist views of language learning in which teachers

collaborate with learners in determining their own learning.

As far as English language teaching approaches are concerned, four language teaching

methodologies have been developed based on the humanistic approach: the Silent way,

Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning. These

methodologies focus on the affective aspects of learning and deal with the learner as a whole

person. Moreover, according to Moskowitz (1978) the communicative approach has

common grounds with the humanistic approach. He indicated that in both of them learners

are not seen as „linguistic objects‟ but rather as persons whose human aspects and needs

should be taken into consideration. Williams and Burden (1997) summarized the

implications of humanism for language teachers include:

a) relate the subject to the learner‟s life;

b) involve the whole person in the learning process;

c) help students have self esteem;

d) involve the feelings and emotions of the learner;

e) minimize criticism that may affect learning negatively;

f) encourage learners‟ creativity;

g) allow for choice and avoid imposing things on the learner.

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 These implications emphasize the importance of learners‟ experience. Also, the development

of learners‟ personalities and encouragement of positive feelings and good learning

environment are as important as learning the foreign language itself. These are important

implications in EFL context in which meeting learners‟ needs, encouraging them and

creating a learning environment in which the learners feel secured and comfortable are as

important as the cognitive abilities of the learner.

4.2.4 The Social Constructivist Perspective

The insights of cognitive and humanistic learning approaches are recognized in the social

constructivist model. This model recognizes the constructivist view of the cognitivists and

the central role of the learner as a meaning maker. However, constructivists think that

understanding how human minds process things is not enough to explain what happens in the

learning process. Social constructivism, emphasizes the importance of the whole person in

educational settings. It also highlights the significance of social interactions between

learners, teachers and tasks in the learning process. In addition, the social constructivist

model recognizes the importance of the social context in which learning takes place. It is a

coherent framework that considers different aspects of learning and teaching process

(Williams and Burden, 1997).

Accordingly, children learn through their interaction with their teachers who are more

knowledgeable than them. The interaction between learners and teachers is expressed in

Vygotsky‟s (1978) concept of a „Zone of Proximal Development‟ (ZPD) which describes

how effective learning takes place. The ZPD represents the learning that the child already

masters or the learning that is above the learner‟s level and which he/she can master with the

help of an adult or a teacher. The role of other people with the most knowledge in helping the

learners to learn is known as mediation in the psychology of Vygotsky. Mediation refers to

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the role that important people like the teachers or the adults who help the learners to learn.

Through the interaction with more knowledgeable teachers or adults, children can acquire the

necessary cognitive, social and communicative skills that enable them to function in their

culture in socially appropriate ways (Fox, 1995).

According to Mercer (2002), a social constructivist view of the classroom is as a community

in which its members communicate and interact with each other. Both teachers and learners

are involved in co-constructing the classroom activities. In order for the students to learn a

language, they need to practise it with others in the classroom and outside the classroom in

social contexts. The social constructivist perspective considers group activities in classroom

very useful in the sense that they give learners a good chance to practise, use the language in

different ways and think collectively. However, the learners need first some guidance from

the teacher (Mercer, et al).

Social constructivists view language as a social product and not an inborn mechanism

(Pinker, 1994). Vygotsky emphasized the importance of language in the social interaction

process. According to Mercer (2002), Vygotsky believes that language is an ongoing human

activity that has a dual role both for communication and developing mental processes in

learners. The teaching and learning process of a language does not only involve the mental

workings as, but also communication or social interaction between the teacher and the

learners and among the learners themselves.

The implications of the social constructivist perspective for language teaching and learning

include:

a) Language is mainly communication and so it is not enough to know it; but rather to

use it;

b) Language teachers should encourage learners to interact with each other in pairs

and groups;

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c) Language skills are to be integrated. Vygotsky‟s approach is holistic; he rejected

the view that what is to be learned should be broken down into small sub-

components and taught as discrete items and skills (Williams and Burden, 1997);

d) Language teachers provide learners with real-life situations for communication so

that they can be familiar with the culture of the foreign language;

e) Learners have different abilities and in accordance classroom activities should

match individual differences amongst students;

f) Learning should be authentic and related to the world outside the classroom. It is

not enough to make classes more interesting. Students should be able to use

knowledge in real-world settings (Sheperd, 2000).

The features of the communicative approach are clearly reflected throughout these

implications of the social constructivist perspective for language teaching and learning. In

this way, the communicative approaches owe a lot to the social constructivist approach. The

social constructivist perspective has a considerable influence on the communicative approach

which emphasizes the importance of using the language in a meaningful interaction with

other people. Effective teachers use language to support classroom activities. They also

encourage learners to participate in dialogue.

As we can see the four learning theories discussed above have different implications for FL

teachers. In addition, it is noticed that some of the common teaching approaches like the

audiolingual approach, cognitive approach, communicative approach, were clearly based on

one of these theories. These teaching approaches, which were also established mainly by

theorists for teachers to teach languages, have also their own perspectives of effective FL

teachers. In the following section, I will discuss eight major teaching approaches and

highlight their perspectives of effective language teaching behaviours and qualities.

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4.3 Approaches to FL Teaching and Their Implications for Effective EFL Teachers

The purpose of this section is not to give a detailed description of teaching approaches but

rather in order to give an insight into desirable teacher behaviours from the perspectives of

these approaches. It will review the major methods of FL teaching in order to identify their

characteristics and the implications for the behaviours of the teacher from the perspective of

each method. This may provide insights into whether or not these methods have any bearing

upon the teacher behaviours implied by these identified as effective in this study.

It can be noticed that the role of the teacher in some of the reviewed teaching approaches

(grammar-translation method, direct method, audiolingual method and cognitive-code

method) was more central than in the ones that were introduced later (natural method,

communicative language teaching and community language learning). Although the degree

of the centrality of the teacher‟s role could vary among these methods, the teacher‟s role is

considered to be crucial in all of these methods in order to teach learners and help them to

learn the language. Learners almost rely completely in their learning on their teachers and do

what their teachers ask them to do. In the light of the principles of these methods, teachers do

not engage themselves in developing their teaching skills or reflecting on their teaching.

What is important in these methods is that teachers should master the knowledge and

transmit it to students. However, as educationalists become dissatisfied with the role of the

teacher in these methods, they became more interested in adjusting the role of the teaching

and changing the learning focus from teacher-centred learning into student-centred learning

with which they give more responsibility for learners in learning the language. In the

reviewed communicative methods (the natural approach, communicative language teaching

and community language learning), the role of both the teacher and the learner changed. The

role of the teacher becomes less central. The teacher plays the role of an advisor or a

facilitator who advises students and facilitates their learning. They may prepare the materials

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and activities, supply the necessary vocabulary for communication, help learners when

necessary and create a good learning atmosphere in the classroom. The learners‟ role in

these communicative approaches becomes more important. Student centred learning

becomes one of the important features of these approaches. In a communicative classroom,

the teacher plays the role of advisor and gives the learners the responsibility of learning the

target language. The problematic issues regarding the interpretation, application and

effectiveness of these established teaching methods will be discussed in section 4.9 „beyond

methods.‟

In this section, the following methods of FL teaching and learning will be reviewed: the

Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method, the Natural

Approach and communicative language teaching, a cognitive approach to FL teaching and

learning, the Cognitive-Code Method, and Community Language Learning.

4.3.1 The Grammar-Translation Method

The Grammar Translation Method is based on the belief that FL learning is an intellectual

process of analyzing and translating texts and memorizing vocabulary lists and explicit

grammar rules. It emphasizes explanations of grammatical points because it is based on the

view that FL learning is the acquisition of conscious knowledge about rules. The goal of FL

study under this method is that learners learn a FL in order to read its literature or to benefit

from the mental discipline and intellectual development that FL study has to offer (Stern,

1983). In order to learn a language the grammar rules of this language should be analyzed.

These rules are to be learned and followed in translating sentences and texts into and out of

the FL. Reading and writing are emphasized while listening and speaking are overlooked in

this method. Words are only taken from the reading texts and are taught through bilingual

word lists and memorization (Richards, & Rogers, 2001). Accuracy is essential and the

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student‟s native language is the language of instruction. According to Teresa (2001) effective

teachers in this method are those who know the grammar of the FL, are the authority in the

classroom and control the learning activities. Students should follow what their teachers ask

them to do so that they can learn what their teachers teach. Teachers do not necessarily have

to be proficient in the target language.

4.3.2 The Direct Method

L. Sauveur (1826-1907) was one of those reformers who used intensive oral interaction in the

target language. He believed that a foreign language could be learned without translation or

the use of the first language of the learner if the meaning is conveyed directly using target

language. These natural principles of language learning provided the foundation for the

Direct Method. It was first introduced in France and Germany and then it became widely

known in other countries. It was very successful in commercial language schools such as

those of Berlitz chains. The Direct Method uses the target language as medium of instruction

and listening and speaking skills were emphasized. This method encourages learners to

make direct associations between meanings of FL words and their L1 equivalents. The

purpose of learning in this method is not exclusively to be able to read materials in the target

language but also to be able to communicate using the target language. Grammar in this

method was taught inductively. Larsen-Freeman (1986) points out that an explicit grammar

rule may never be provided or explained and the culture is also an important aspect of FL

learning. According to Teresa (2001) effective teachers in this method are expected to

encourage their students to think and communicate in the target language. However,

classroom activities are still mainly teacher-centred and focus on students‟ active

involvement using the target language.

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4.3.3 The Audiolingual Method

The Audiolingual Method is based on behaviourist theories of learning that stress habit

formation through mimicry, memorization, and repeated practice drills (Larsen-Freeman,

1986). Behaviourists believed that languages can be learned by imitation and habit

formation. This belief stems from the notion that children acquire their L1 by imitating the

sounds and patterns they hear around them. The rules are explained only after the language

item is well practised (Williams and Burden 1997). The L1 and TL have different language

systems that should be kept separate so that errors of L1 interference can be minimized.

Correct TL production is necessary to learn the FL, so the teacher should be able to model

the TL in a native-like manner. According to the Audiolingual Method, the teacher is like

the conductor of an orchestra who controls the FL output of students (Larsen-Freeman,

1986). If learners produce wrong structures in the TL, bad habits may be formed and the TL

can not be successfully learned. Therefore, errors must be corrected in order to learn the TL.

According to Teresa (2001) effective audiolingual teachers are native speakers-like who can

model and correct the FL grammar using the TL. Their role is developing the learners‟ good

language habits through pattern drills, memorization of dialogue or choral repetition of

structural pattern. The teacher gives immediate feedback to enhance desired responses and

diminish the undesired ones. The verbal communication between the teacher and the learners

helps in learning the language.

4.3.4 The Cognitive-Code Method

The main goal of the Cognitive-Code Method is for FL learners to acquire abilities in the FL

similar to those of native speakers (Chastain, 1976). To attain this goal, learners learn

grammar rules which enable them to create the language they need when encountering a

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situation for which they are not linguistically prepared. That is competence must precede

performance. Grammar rules should be explicitly explained (usually in the L1) and activities

in the FL should be meaningful to the students and they should always understand what they

are asked to do. The disadvantage of this approach is that teachers might spend a lot of time

in giving grammar explanations. Moreover, teachers might spend too much time in speaking

L1.

The theoretical underpinnings to the Cognitive-Code Method come from the cognitive

research in L2 learning. In the 1970s, SLA researchers concentrated on describing the

linguistic systems of L2 learners. Later, SLA researchers were concerned to describe how L2

learners learn the L2. For cognitive psychologists, SLA is the development of knowledge

systems that will ultimately become automatically available for comprehension and

production of written and spoken language (McLaughlin, 1987). The effective FL teacher

according to the Cognitive-Code approach helps learners to acquire the same abilities native

speakers have by helping them to control the FL rules so that they can create their own

language in any situation appropriately. Also the teacher is expected to introduce situations

that encourage students into working creatively with the TL. In addition, the teacher should

make the teaching material meaningful and comprehensible to learners and should organize

new material so that learners can relate it to their existing cognitive structure (Chastain,

1976) – (cited in Teresa, 2001).

4.3.5 The Natural Approach

In 1977 Tracy Terrell introduced a new philosophy of language teaching and called it the

Natural approach. She developed it out of her experience in teaching Spanish language. At

the same time she worked with Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist, in elaborating a

theoretical rationale for the Natural Approach, drawing on Krashen's influential theory of

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second language acquisition. Krashen and Terrell's combined statement of the principles and

practices of the Natural Approach appeared in their book The Natural Approach, published in

1983 (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.178). Krashen and Terrell believe that communication is

the main function of a language and therefore the main objective of their approach is that FL

learners learn to communicate in the TL and make comprehensible speeches to a native

speaker. Terrell suggested that “If we are to raise our expectations of oral competence in

communication we must lower our expectations for structural accuracy” (Terrell, 1977,

p.326). Classroom activities should encourage communication and minimize the time spent

on correcting errors. Students should be allowed to respond in either the L1 or TL. Teachers

should concentrate more on giving students large amounts of „comprehensible input‟ or input

that is slightly above students‟ level of competency in the TL, than practising features of the

TL. They should expose their learners to language and give them the chance to understand it

before they ask them to produce the language. The teacher's role in the Natural Approach is

to give comprehensible input, create a friendly classroom environment and select activities

that meet the needs and interests of students (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) – (cited in Teresa,

2001).

4.3.6 Communicative Language Teaching

Omaggio (1993) and Richards and Rodgers (2001) point out that three main theoretical

premises are implied in Communicative Language Teaching: the principle of communication

(activities that include communication promote FL learning), the principle of task (activities

that require learners to complete real-life tasks promote FL learning), and the principle of

meaningfulness (learners must be engaged in meaningful and authentic FL use in order for

learning to take place). Meaning and contextualization of vocabulary and grammar are of

primary importance in communicative language teaching. Learners are encouraged to

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communicate using the TL from the beginning of instruction, and the L1 is only to be used

judiciously. Fluency and comprehensible language use are the main goal. The teacher's role

in communicative language teaching is to facilitate the communication process between all

learners in the classroom, to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching

group, to organize resources, and to act as a resource (Breen & Candlin, 1980). According to

Teresa, (2001) the effective CLT teacher develops learning materials that focus on

communication in the TL. The teacher also introduces to the learner large amounts of

vocabulary. Finally, the teacher creates a comfortable classroom environment.

4.3.7 Community Language Learning

Developed by Curran (1976), Community Language Learning uses Counseling-Learning

theory to teach languages. The teacher is seen as the counselor who gives the clients advice

and assistance and the learner is seen as the client who has a problem and needs the

counselor‟s advice and assistance. This method employs humanistic techniques that engage

the learner‟s “emotions and feelings (the affective realm) as well as linguistic knowledge and

behavioural skills” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 90). The teacher‟s role is to provide the

learners with the necessary language so that they can communicate their ideas. The learners

sit in a small circle to provide a relaxing atmosphere and foster communication. The learning

process proceeds as follows: a learner presents a message in L1 to the teacher who comes up

behind the learner and whispers the translation in the learner‟s ear. The learner then repeats

the translation addressing it to another learner with whom he or she would like to

communicate. According to Teresa (2001) effective Community Language Learning

teachers must build a close relationship with the learner. They also should have a native-like

command of the TL. Finally, they should give corrective feedback to students in a non-

threatening supportive environment which is crucial for successful learning.

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4.3.8 Critical Pedagogy

The areas of concern of critical pedagogy can be anything that has to do with schooling and

the wider culture. This may include areas like multiculturalism, leadership, educational

reform, popular culture, and even spirituality (Kanpol, 1997, p.5). According to Giroux

(1983) critical pedagogy is essential in reforming schools and having good education. He

said that:

“Equally important is the necessity for teachers and other educators to reject educational theories that

reduce schooling either to the domain of learning theory or to forms of technocratic rationality that

ignore the central concerns of social change, power relations, and conflicts both within and outside of

schools” (p.62).

Talking more specifically about L2 education, Auerbach (1995) emphasized the centrality of

power and politics in ESL teaching. She argued that:

“Although dynamics of power and domination may be invisible, they permeate the fabric of

classroom life. The day-to-day decisions that practitioners make inside the classroom both shape and

are shaped by the social order outside the classroom. Pedagogical choices about curriculum

development, contents, materials, classroom processes, and language use ….are in fact, inherently

ideological in nature, with significant implications for learners‟ socioeconomic roles. Put simply, our

choices as educators play a role in shaping students‟ choices” (p.9).

However, there is another opinion that recognizes that schooling is political in nature and that

understanding the working of power in educational systems is important. Yet, for critical

pedagogy, teaching is not primarily about power or politics. It is about the moral relation

between teacher and students (Johnston, 1999; Jackson, Boostrom, & Hansen, 1993;

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Johnston, Juhasz, Marken, & Ruiz, 1998; Noblit & Dempsey, 1993; Noddings, 1984). It

seems to me that this opinion is more reasonable. It is no doubt that political and power

factors influence what goes on in the ESL classroom, but it is not to the extent that the

political and power dimensions in the education process are overemphasized, instead they

can be considered as a part of a bigger picture. The teaching and learning process is more

complex and involves other dimensions. Therefore, I do not think critical pedagogy is a

question of disempowering teachers and empowering students in education in general and L2

education in particular, but rather it is a matter of students‟ involvement in the whole process

of language teaching and learning. They can be involved, for example, in selecting topics for

classroom discussion. They can be given full freedom to express their opinions. A student

needs analysis can be administered and students‟ feedback on the curriculum on a regular

basis can be collected. Teachers, who have a lot of experience and knowledge in language

teaching, should always have some power in the teaching process so that they can keep the

whole teaching process in the right track.

From the perspective of critical pedagogy, effective teachers are those who delegate power to

students and enable them to participate in the L2 education process. Their voices are to be

heard and teachers listen to them and try to respond to their needs. Teachers do not look upon

themselves as those who always know what is best for their students otherwise they may run

the risk of imposing things that do not meet their needs. In the critical pedagogy classroom,

students are no longer the recipients of a pre-packaged education, but learn how to become

critical thinkers and full participants in the educational process (Auerbach & Burgess, 1987:

Shor, 1980, 1987, 1992; Wink, 1997). By developing their critical thinking, students can

begin to transform their world to be more democratic and socially just, both inside and

outside the classroom.

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 The eight approaches reviewed in this section showed that neither the teacher‟s role nor the

responsibilities and teaching behaviours of the teacher were the same in all approaches. The

following table summarizes the teacher‟s roles and paradigmatic behaviours in the reviewed

approaches.

Table 4.1 Summary of the reviewed methods’ perceptions of effective teachers

Approach Role of Paradigmatic behaviours
teacher
Grammar-Translation Authority - controls learning activities;
Method figure - uses L1 in teaching L2;
- focuses on teaching grammar.
The Direct Method Authority - controls classroom activities;
figure - uses the TL as a medium of instruction;
- involves students in activities through which they use the TL.
The Audiolingual Authority - models the TL;
Method figure - controls the FL output of students;
- gives immediate feedback.
The Cognitive-Code Authority - helps students to control the FL rules;
Method figure - introduces situations that encourage students into
working creatively with the TL;
- makes the teaching material meaningful and comprehensible to
learners;
- organizes new material so that learners can relate it to their
existing cognitive structure.
The Natural Approach Facilitator - allows students to respond in either the L1 or TL;
- does not often detect errors;
- creates a friendly classroom environment;
- selects activities that meet the needs and interests of students.

Communicative Facilitator - develops learning materials that focus on communication in the

Language Teaching TL;
- introduces to the learner large amounts of vocabulary;
- creates a comfortable classroom environment.
Community Language Counselor - gives the students advice and assistance;
Learning
- builds a close relationship with the students;

- gives corrective feedback to students in a non-threatening

supportive environment.
Critical Pedagogy Democratic figure
- delegates power to students and enable them to participate in the
L2 education process;
- listens to students and try to respond to their needs;
- involves students in selecting topics for classroom discussion;
- gives students freedom to express their opinions.

Table 4.1 shows decreasing levels of foreign language teachers‟ control for different

methods. Their role has changed from the teacher as an authority figure who completely

controls the whole teaching and learning process to a facilitator and provider of materials and

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activities that involves students in learning the TL and using it to a counselor who gives

students more responsibility of learning the language and treats students in a more friendly

manner and finally to a democratic person who considers students as partners, gives them

more power and more responsibility of their learning and involves them in the whole

education process. The role of the learner also changed. They have started to play a more

active role in the learning process. They have become the centre of learning. This might

imply that effective FL teachers should be less dominant in FL classrooms and involve

language learners in practising or using the language, selecting the materials and the

language activities. The Table also shows different teaching behaviours were considered

effective in different teaching approaches. However, it can be noticed that some teaching

approaches have some recommended teaching behaviours in common. This might be an

indication that these teaching practices are more effective than others in teaching the TL.

Today, there is no method that prescribes exactly how a FL language should be taught or

how effective FL teaching should be evaluated (Alderson, 1992; Musumeci, 1997). As we

are going to see below, the clarity and effectiveness of these teaching methods are questioned

by modern educationalists. Therefore, I do not expect that the data of this research will

reveal that effective teachers use one of these teaching methods in the light of the recent

trends of teaching methodology that revolves around student centrality, cooperative learning

and computer technology. However, some of the teaching practices and teachers‟

characteristics that were considered effective by these teaching methods might be supported

by the findings of the current research.

4.3.9 Beyond Methods

As we saw in the above sections, there is a wide range of teaching methods that have been

established and used by different teachers in different educational institutions in different

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parts of the world; however, there is still no clear indication that a certain method or a group

of methods is the most effective one for teaching languages. According to Kumaravadivelu

(2003), the term method does not tell us what teachers exactly do in their classrooms. It

refers to a set of methods that were established by experts in the field. Teachers found it

difficult to use any of the established teaching methods as designed to them. Therefore, using

the same teaching method, teachers might use different techniques in their teaching because

their understanding of that teaching method could be different or because the teaching

principles that were prescribed by theorists for using that particular method are not

sometimes applicable. Kumaravadivelu identified several shortcomings of the concept of

method:

a) methods are based on idealized concepts geared toward idealized contexts. Because

language learning and teaching requirements and situations are many and

unpredictable, no teaching method can visualize all variables in advance in order to

provide teachers with situation-specific suggestions that enable them to confront the

challenges they face in teaching languages;

b) methods are supposed to suit all students and assume them to have common goals;

c) methods tend to drift from one theoretical extreme to another; at one time to focus

on grammar; at another swing to communicative tasks; this results in emphasizing

certain learning aspects and overlooking others;

d) methods are not adequate to deal with the complexity of language teaching

operations and limited its operation to the classroom instruction; they overlooked

the fact that classroom teaching is affected by other unstated factors such as

teachers‟ skills, learners needs, social and cultural contexts, economic imperatives,

institutional policies that are all interrelated. (pp. 28-29)

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The dissatisfaction of teachers with the concept of method has been expressed in different

ways. Studies (cited in Kumaravadivelu, 2003) by Janet Swaffer, Katherine Arens, and

Martha Morgan (1982), Michael Legutke and Howard Thomas (1991), and others showed

that:

a) teachers who are supposed to use a particular method do not conform to its

principles;

b) teachers who claim that they use different teaching methods, use the same ones;

c) over time, teachers start to develop their own teaching methods that may not

necessarily related to any established method.

The vagueness and inadequacy of received conceptualization of method does not make the

language teacher‟s job easy. This highlights the importance of identifying what makes a

language teacher effective which is, in fact, what the current study is investigating. In the

light of the limitations of the established methods and teachers‟ dissatisfaction with them and

the complexity of language teaching and learning process, the results of this research might

not identify any specific established method or group of methods that effective EFL teachers

use in their teaching. That is, I will not be surprised if the respondents did not give any data

that indicate that their EFL teachers they perceived as effective used any of the reviewed

teaching methods. However, some insights of these methods regarding effective teaching

behaviours and teachers‟ characteristics might be supported by the results of my study and

this is why I reviewed those methods in the sections above.

So far, I discussed the major learning theories and teaching approaches and highlighted their

implications for effective language teaching. Besides these implications, I am going to

discuss the implications of another relevant area in the following section which is second

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language research. In this case, this chapter identifies the implications for effective FL

teaching from three different sources.

4.4 Implications of Second Language Learning Research for FL Teachers

While research in psychology attempts to explain learning in general terms and it is left to

educationalists to identify its implications for language learning, the SLA research focuses

only on language learning and studies how the L2 is acquired in a classroom setting. Three

categories of SLA theory and research will be discussed: (a) the effect of group work in SLA,

(b) the re-emergence of formal grammar instruction, and (c) types of feedback in classroom

SLA.

4.4.1 Group Work in SLA

SLA research puts a lot of emphasis on the significance of group work in teaching and

learning a language. The role of group work in classroom FL learning has been found to

enhance SLA from a pedagogical perspective (Long & Porter, 1985). Some of the

pedagogical reasons that support group work are that it: (1) provides FL learners more time

to practise the TL (Fanselow, 1977); (2) gives a better chance to FL learners to improve their

speech in the TL (Long, 1975; Fanselow, 1977; Long, Adams, McLean, & Castanos, 1976);

(3) helps in creating a positive, affective environment (White & Lightbown, 1983); (4) and

increases student motivation (Littlejohn, 1982, 1983)- (cited in Teresa, 2001).

When a learner has the information that another learner does not have, he or she is likely to

make sure that the other learner knows it so that they can complete the task (Long, 1980;

Long, 1981; Long, 1983; Pica & Doughty, 1985a). Also, learners would correct themselves

or others in group work more than in teacher-fronted discussions (Pica & Doughty, 1985b).

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Porter (1983) pointed out that learners can provide each other with authentic communicative

practice. She also found that learners can produce more speech with each other than with

native speakers and that they can produce more speech with more advanced level learners

than with learners their level. Similarly, Varonis and Gass (1983; 1985) investigated native

speaker-native speaker, native speaker-non-native speaker, and non-native speaker-non-

native speaker conversational interactions. They found out that negotiation of meaning is

most prevalent among non-native speaker-non-native speaker pairs. This negotiation can

provide FL learners with a greater amount of understandable input and allows them to

practise the TL. They indicate that non-native speaker, non-native speaker interactions

provide learners with a relaxing environment that encourages learners to practise the FL.

Some SLA theorists believe that one of the important conditions for successful SLA is being

in a state of relaxation in a learning environment (Hall, 1999; Krashen, 1982; Terrell,

Tschirner, Nikolai, & Genzmer, 1996; Tschirner, 1996) – (cited in Teresa, 2001).

In addition, as we saw in section 4.2.4, one of the implications of the social constructivist

perspective for language teaching and learning is that language teachers should encourage

learners to interact with each other in pairs and groups. Also, in the reviewed literature in

Chapter 3, group work in classroom was identified as a teaching behaviour of effective

teachers in several studies (Hamachek, 1969; Gusky and Easton, 1983; Blum, 1984; Reber,

2001).

4.4.2 The Re-emergence of Grammar Instruction

A second outcome of the SLA research is the re-emergence of grammar instruction. The

study and teaching of grammar is experiencing a renewed interest (Bygate, Tonkyn, &

Williams, 1994). Focusing on communication using the TL and overlooking grammar

appeared to be not as effective in teaching target languages as when both grammar and

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communication are emphasized. Lyster & Ranta (1997) based on classroom data support the

view that focus-on-form instruction in combination with corrective feedback in a

communicative setting is more effective than focus on instruction in linguistic form on its

own or communicative language teaching on its own. Lightbown and Spada (1993) indicated

that two important pieces of evidence should be taken into consideration by FL teachers: FL

learners continue to have grammar problems with basic structures in the programs that do not

focus on form instruction, and the FL learners who are given opportunities to interact in the

TL have better chances to improve their fluency and ability to manage conversations (cited in

Teresa, 2001).

Several studies (cited in Teresa, 2001) examined the effect of focus on form instruction in FL

instruction and found that focus on form activities can lead to more effective classroom

(Dekeyser, 1998; Doughty & Varela, 1998; Doughty &Williams, 1998; Harley 1998; Swain,

1998; Long & Robinson, 1998). Ellis (1991) and Schmidt (1990; 1993) found out that

making students aware of new TL items, rules, or regularities would enhance their

acquisition of those features by drawing attention to them. Williams & Evans (1998) found

that without any attention to form, learners demonstrated little progress in the use of

participial adverbs and passive. Also, Lightbown and Spada (1990) found that learners in the

FL classroom who received the most focus on form instruction were the most accurate in

using the progressive –ing and using the possessive determiners his and her. White (1991)

found that the treatment group that received instruction on question formation formed

questions correctly while those in the control group formed questions with subject-verb

inversion incorrectly. In a follow –up test five weeks later, the learners who received the

instruction were still forming the questions correctly. The question that is still unanswered in

recent research is when and how focus on form activities should be implemented.

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In the light of the recent trends of teaching TL, teachers can make their language classes

more effective if they focus on grammar in combination with communicative language

teaching. They should focus on both of them for improving the accuracy and fluency of their

students.

4.4.3 Corrective Feedback in SLA Classroom

A third outcome of SLA research examines the usefulness of corrective feedback in language

learning. Corrective feedback could be either implicit or explicit. In an experimental study

(cited in Teresa, 2001) Carroll & Swain (1993), indicated that explicit forms of negative

feedback include any feedback that clearly declares that a learner's output is not part of the

TL; and implicit forms of feedback would include recasts, requests for clarification,

confirmation checks, and failure to understand. In their study Carroll and Swain wanted to

determine the extent to which explicit types of feedback are helpful in learning grammatical

generalizations. One hundred adult ESL learners (with Spanish as their primary language)

enrolled in various low-intermediate ESL classes in the Toronto area participated in this

study. Subjects were placed in five groups according to the type of feedback they received.

Subjects in Group 1 were told they were wrong whenever they made a mistake and were

given a semantic or phonological explanation for the error (explicit hypothesis rejection).

Those in Group 2 were merely told they were wrong (explicit utterance rejection). Subjects

in Group 3 received a reformulated correct response whenever they made a mistake.

Subjects in Group 4 were asked if they were sure their response was correct when it was not

(implicit/indirect metalinguistic feedback). Group 5 was the control group and received no

error correction. Findings indicated that the treatment groups outperformed the control

group. They conclude that not only the explicit forms but also implicit forms of feedback led

to learning.

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According to Teresa (2001), recent studies on implicit negative feedback in child and adult

SLA have begun to produce findings similar to those found in child L1 acquisition. In child

L1 acquisition, children often receive correct reformulations of learners' speech from which

learners are more apt to notice correct reformulations than from models only (Oliver, 1995;

Long, 1997). It has also been found that adults benefit more from recasts than children.

Lightbown and Spada (1990) found that individual teachers' non-verbal reactions to certain

types of errors were related to greater accuracy on those types of errors. Lyster and Ranta

(1997) found in investigation of types of negative feedback provided in the classroom that

recasts were the most common type used by FL teachers.

As the above mentioned studies have shown, it would appear that effective teachers should

give corrective feedback to their students when they make mistakes because it can help FL

learners produce more correct utterances in the TL. However, questions still remain what

types of feedback work best, who benefit from each type of feedback and when feedback is

most effective.

4.5 Summary

In the first section of this chapter, I provided an overview of four major theoretical

perspectives on teaching and learning: behaviourist, cognitivist, humanistic and constructivist

approaches. I considered the implications of each of these theories for language teaching and

learning.

In the second section, I reviewed the major teaching approaches and identified the teachers‟

roles and teaching behaviours and qualities perceived to be effective.

In the third section, I discussed the implications of second language learning research for FL

teachers. In this section I highlighted three important categories of SLA which are group

work, grammar instruction and types of feedback in classroom.

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The overview of the main learning theories, established teaching approaches and the second

learning research allows me to trace the evolution of teaching methods and highlight the

prominent trends and ideas that marked different periods. The overview of these three areas

and identifying their implications for EFL teachers‟ roles, behaviours and characteristics is

also significant for the purpose of the study since in the light of these perspectives and

implications the participants‟ perspectives of the EFL teachers they perceived as effective

will be interpreted.

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 Chapter Five

Methodology

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the methodology used in this study. I begin by talking about the

qualitative approach and its appropriateness for investigating the topic of the current study.

Then I present the qualitative design followed in this study and then describe the sample for

the study and the sites where the study took place. The data collection took place in three

phases. In Phase One I used a semi-structured interview, but in Phase Two I used an open-

ended questionnaire. In Phase Three I used a follow-up interview. I describe the

development of the interview schedules and questionnaires, the pilot study and the way I

administered the instruments. After that I describe the procedures I followed to analyze the

collected data. At the end of the chapter I talk about the credibility and trustworthiness of the

methods I followed in collecting my data and include a discussion of ethical issues.

Before presenting the methodology of this study, I would like to indicate that the term

„effective teachers‟ may be interpreted differently by different people. It is not easy to define

what is exactly meant by this term. It could be interpreted as having a wide range of subject

knowledge. It could also mean having the right teaching skills that help learners understand

and learn. A third interpretation could be that the good teachers are friendly with their

students and create a peaceful and warm atmosphere in the classroom. A fourth meaning

could be being able to enable larger numbers of students to pass exams and get higher marks.

These are considered as indications of students‟ achievements as well as teachers‟

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effectiveness and success. A fifth interpretation could be those teachers who can control the

classroom and know how to manage trouble making students. Other possibilities are that

effective teachers are those who develop positive attitudes towards learning amongst their

students, or who inspire and excite students, or those who adhere fully to the policies and

values of their employer. It could be that to be considered as effective in the fullest sense a

teacher would have to display all of these characteristics. The purpose of this study is not to

begin with a clear view of what constitutes an effective teacher but to explore what students

see as characteristic of such a teacher. In doing so, I do not assume that students have a

complete view, or even that their view must necessarily take precedence over those of

teachers, of senior staff or of institutional or national policy makers. I do, though, assume

that any attempt to improve practice must take account of student views – even if one

consequence of understanding those views is to realise that they need to be changed.

5.2 The Research Approach Followed in the Study

In order for me to be able to get a deeper understanding of the perspective of Arab university

students of effective English teachers, I approached the participants who were students in the

Intensive English Program (IEP) of the UAE universities and asked them to describe the

English language teachers they believed to have been effective. Teachers, educational

managers and students might have different visions of what effective teaching is. However

arguably, students play the most important part in the teaching and learning process. They

are the ones who interact directly with teachers in classrooms and they are the people most

negatively or positively affected by effective or ineffective teaching. Moreover, their

opinions on the performance of teachers are taken into consideration in the evaluations

carried out in the UAE. Therefore, this study focuses only on the students‟ perceptions of

effective teaching regardless of whether or not practitioners and other stakeholders agree

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with them. Therefore, the criteria of effectiveness in this study are derived from the qualities

and practices of effective teachers that are valued by tertiary students. There may be

limitations in not making use of teachers' views, but these are not the focus of this study.

As we will see in section 5.6, the interpretative approach enables me to get a deeper

understanding from the participants‟ perceptions and views that they have created as a result

of their experience of learning English and their interaction with different English teachers.

Creswell (1994:2) defines the interpretative approach as an “inquiry process of understanding

a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words,

reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting.” According to

Lincoln and Guba (1985) the perceptions of the participants can be better understood through

this approach, which seeks understanding of the phenomenon from the perspective of human

participants who produce it. Denzin & Lincoln (2000) indicate that the qualitative approach

can capture the individual‟s point of view through detailed interviews and observations. It

also can provide rich and valuable descriptions of the social world. The interpretation of

meanings in the social world is an essential concern of the qualitative approach: “the

interpretative approach rests on the premise that in social life there is only interpretation”

(Radnor, 2002:4).

The qualitative approach provides the researcher opportunities for working with, rather than

on, the respondents and getting data from them directly rather than through the perspective of

outsiders. The researcher in the interpretative approach is a key instrument (Radnor, 2002).

“The qualitative researcher does more than observe history; he or she plays a part in it. New tales

from the field will now be written, and they will reflect the researcher‟s direct and personal

engagement with this historical period.” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000:12)

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Quantitative research is based on the assumption that there is one reality that can be

measured and observed, and hence a single truth, but the qualitative approach is based on the

assumption that there are multiple social realities, and hence multiple truths that can be

obtained from the interaction of humans with each other and their environment. According to

Guba & Lincoln (1985) the interpretative paradigm asserts the existence of multiple, socially

constructed realities which, in their view, are not governed by natural laws. Similarly,

Mertens (1998:11) states that reality in the interpretative paradigm:

“is socially constructed. Therefore, multiple mental constructions can be apprehended, some of

which may be in conflict with each other, and perceptions of reality may change throughout the

process of the study.”

Also, Radnor (2002) indicates that in the social world we deal with human behaviour which

means that individuals might give different opinions or perceptions even though they live in

the same context. Recognizing these multiple realities through a qualitative approach

enables me to get the different views and perceptions of different individuals and have a

better interpretation. In order to obtain this multiplicity of views, I investigated the views of

a large sample of both males and females in four different settings. Effective teaching is a

topic that can best be interpreted subjectively in the light of the participants‟ perceptions and

views which might differ from one person to another.

The qualitative approach is progressively focused. The organization of concepts frequently

changes as the study progresses (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Patton, 1990; Spradley, 1979; Stake,

1995). To gain rich qualitative data multiple methods are to be used in investigating the

phenomena under study. According to Patton (1990) adopting more than one method helps

in providing a comprehensive perspective. Also Craft (1996:75) stated that, “the reliability

of findings is likely to be increased by using more than one method.”

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 Historically, most educational research has been carried out using the quantitative approach.

Most research prior to 1987 used quantitative methods (Ornstein, 1995). The nature of

various assessment scales used in the quantitative research conducted on effective teaching

will influence the responses of the subjects, and this also adds to the lack of clarity on the

nature of effective teaching. The questionnaire items are bound to lead respondents to select

particular responses that the researcher has chosen to include. In other words, the nature of

these items leads the students to respond in a certain way, e.g., a student is likely to respond

positively to items such as:

- An effective teacher is the teacher who respects you.

- An effective teacher is the teacher who is well prepared.

- An effective teacher is the teacher who helps you inside and outside the classroom.

On the other hand, the qualitative method enables the participants in the study to express

their perspective of effective teaching freely. Embracing qualitative techniques results in

findings that are more likely to be trustworthy, credible and transferable (Lincoln & Guba,

1985).

5.3 Research Design

This study focuses on the perceptions of Arab students of the characteristics of effective EFL

teachers at university level. As mentioned in Chapter one, the major question addressed in

this study was:

How do Arab students perceive effective EFL teachers at university level?

The other subordinate questions were:

a) In what ways do cultural factors operate to influence the views of Arab students of

effective EFL teachers at university level?

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b) To what extent are student perceptions of teacher effectiveness in UAE Universities

unitary or heterogeneous?

c) What are the implications of student perceptions of teacher effectiveness for formal

evaluation procedures of language classrooms in UAE universities?

d) What is the broader context that the overall findings might draw for making English

language learning more effective for Arab university students?

A qualitative study design was used to secure the information required to answer the research

questions. The design is characterized by a particular focus in that I am going to concentrate

on Arab university students. This study was conducted in three phases (Figure 5.1). In

Phase One I used a semi-structured interview to obtain in-depth information necessary to

describe the characteristics of effective EFL university teachers. There were 17 participants

in this phase who came from four different higher educational institutions. In Phase Two, I

used a questionnaire that consisted of 3 open-ended questions. These questions were used in

the interviews in Phase One and proved to be the best informing questions. The first purpose

of this questionnaire is to see to what extent the data collected from interviews represent the

views of a broader group of students. The second purpose is to find out if the qualities of

effective teacher drawn from literature match the qualities of effective EFL teachers seen

from the perspective of Arab tertiary students. The sample of Phase Two consisted of 163

participants from the four institutions who did not participate in Phase One. In Phase Three I

conducted follow up-interviews. The aim of these interviews is to further investigate some of

the categories shared by participants in Phases One and Phase Two. I interviewed four

participants in this phase.

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Fig. 5.1: Methodological Framework of the Current Study
Data collection
Phase One
Student interviews
(sample 17)

Phase Two
Student questionnaires
(sample 163)

Phase Three
Student interviews
(sample 4)

Data analysis

Interviews and questionnaires of phase one and two:

content analysis based on grounded theory

Interviews of phase three:

content analysis on meaningful segments

5.3.1 Sites and Samples

The present study was carried out in four Intensive English Programs (IEPs) in four major

universities in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The population of this study is the Arab

students who attend intensive English courses for one year on average before joining their

vocational programs which are taught in English. The objective of the study is not to

generalize results from the sample to the whole population nor to other populations, but

rather to understand the perceptions of this group of Arab students of effective English

teachers. In the light of this, purposive sampling was used in Phases One and Three. Since

supervisors are the only ethical and managerial means of access to those students, I asked

them to recruit students. Questions of manners and ethics may constrain this process. I

insisted that their participation was not enforced, but rather was on a voluntary basis. I was

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worried that this might bring in the bias of the supervisor and as result critical students might

be excluded from the group of interviewees. However, in the event, when I interviewed

them, most of them were serious and critically reflective, and they talked about good teachers

and bad teachers. According to some of the teachers of the students whom I met, some of the

sample students were not necessarily the best students in terms of academic achievement.

Although there is a risk of bias in selecting those students, most of them were able to give a

lot of information about effective EFL teachers that enriched my data. They were selected

from different levels (in the light of the results of the placement tests that the IEPs give to

their candidates, students are sent to levels that range from one to four or five). Although

those students were expected by their teachers to be outspoken students, few of them were

timid and not very informative. This gave me some opportunity to look at a fuller range of

participants. Males and females were represented in the three phases. Opportunistic

sampling was used in Phase Two. The IEP supervisors selected the whole class as a sample,

and class groups were selected in the light of their schedule, my schedule and the schedule of

the program supervisors or the people they nominated to accompany me to the designated

classes (after they introduced me to the class, they left the classroom). Seventeen students

constituted the interview sample in Phase One, one hundred sixty-three for the questionnaire

sample in Phase Two and four for the interview sample in Phase Three. Table 5.1 contains

details about the numbers of males, females, Emiratis and Arabs from other Arab countries in

each phase.

Table 5.1: Numbers of male and female students from the UAE and other Arab countries in the Three
Phases
Males Females
Phase UAE Locals Students from Other UAE Locals Students from Other Total
Arab Countries Living Arab Countries Living
In the UAE In the UAE
Phase One 2 4 8 3 17
Phase Two 31 38 74 20 163
Phase Three 1 1 1 1 4

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Arab students who participated in this study had been living in the UAE for a long time and

got their school education in the UAE under similar conditions as the Emirati students. The

criteria for students were that they were currently enrolled in one of these four IEPs. Ages

ranged between 18 and 20. To maintain anonymity and respect the privacy of the

participants, as well as to document the findings, number codes were assigned to each

participant and IEP site. Permission to conduct this study was granted by the respective

universities and colleges. I made it clear to all participants that their participation was

absolutely voluntary and any one of them could withdraw at anytime.

5.4 Data Collection

I used the following methods in this study to gather data: interviews, questionnaires and

follow-up interviews. Using three data collection approaches helps the researcher to provide

valid findings. This iterative development of the research instruments made me confident

that no single method would color my data. Observations could have been a very good

method of data collection in this research. However, as a teacher at a university level, I knew

that observing teachers‟ classes by an outsider might be upsetting for the relevant IEP

management as well as for those teachers who worked on contract basis and it was only their

supervisors who observed them for evaluation and contract renewal purposes.

5.4.1 Phase One: Interviews

I used interviews to collect data in Phase One. The interview is considered to be a major

research instrument that explores the interviewees‟ views of the world (Brown and Dowling,

1998). The interview helped me to gain a clearer understanding of the perspectives of my

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interviewees. Interviews also gave the participants as well the freedom to express themselves

and provide their own perceptions. Interviews:

“enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world in which they live from their point of

view” (Cohen et al., 2000:267).

According to Cohen and Manion (1994) there are four types of interview: the structured,

unstructured, non-directive and focused. I used semi-structured interviews for Phases One

and Three because this enabled me to control the interview direction and focus the inquiry on

the topic of the study. These interviews were directed by a set of general themes rather than

a list of predetermined questions (see Appendix J). This gave me more freedom to explore

the interviewees‟ responses and capture the perceptions of the participants about effective

teaching.

Interviews enabled me to probe questions and elicit more details and elaborations on what the

interviewees said. According to Tuckman (1972):

“Open–ended questions have a number of advantages: they are flexible; they allow the interviewer to

probe so that she may go into more in-depth if she chooses, or to clear up any misunderstanding”

(p.277).

Similarly, Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) indicate that interviews allow for greater depth

since the interviewer can probe and expand the interviewees‟ responses. Also, Patton (1987)

states that interviews allow free and in-depth responses. According to Radnor (1994)

interviews help interviewers to go beyond the intellectual to encompass the emotions, values

and beliefs that make up the life experience of individuals in a social context. The interview

also gives me the chance as a researcher to be involved directly in interacting with the

participants and collect data.

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“The interview is a process of reality construction to which both parties contribute and by which both

are affected” (Woods, 1996:53).

However, there are difficulties in this approach. Interviews are time consuming in both data

collection and analysis. Time is needed for planning and preparing questions, and for

contacting interviewees (Oppenheim, 2000). One of the weaknesses associated with

interviewing is the possibility of bias. As an interviewer, I did my best to minimize these

effects. I avoided putting words into the interviewees‟ mouths, repeating what they said,

concluding things from what they said, or giving information and asking them to say „yes‟ or

„no‟. It was also a big challenge for me in terms of time and effort, not only in conducting

the interviews but also in analyzing the data.

The process of designing my interview schedule for Phase One took several months. I

constructed a list of interview questions and ensured that the data obtained reflected the

research questions. I designed the interview schedule in a certain format (see Appendix D)

that would enable the participants to provide sufficient data to address the focus of my

research. I asked some of my colleagues at work as well as Exeter University staff to read

the list of questions and give their feedback. In the light of their feedback I made the

necessary changes and additions. Then I sent my interview questions to my supervisors who

gave their final feedback. I modified and edited some questions based on my supervisor‟s

feedback and the first copy of the students‟ interview was ready to be piloted. I piloted the

interview questions on three university students from the same population as the study

sample. The three interviews took from thirty-five to fifty minutes. This gave me an idea

about the time needed for interviews and therefore asked for one class session of fifty

minutes for each interview. After obtaining permission from the participants, I used an audio

tape to record the interviews. After I listened to the three tapes, I was confident that

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questions were understandable. The participants did not ask what I meant and they gave

answers that made sense in relation to the questions. The administration of these interviews

enabled me to achieve my objective of eliciting sufficient relevant data. However, inevitably

some new questions emerged during the interviews. These questions were not originally

included in the interview schedules, but the context of the interview entailed asking them in

order to obtain a certain piece of information or verify another.

5.4.1.1 Conducting the interviews

The interviews were carried out in March 2002. All interviews were conducted in Arabic so

that I could make sure that the language did not hinder their ability to express themselves. I

translated the interview questions into Arabic and then asked one of my colleagues who was

an Arabic English bilingual to translate it back into English. There were no essential

differences between both versions (see Appendix E). I sent a permission letter (see

Appendix A) to the supervisors of the IEPs in the universities were the study took place. All

the four higher education institutions agreed to allow me to involve some of their students in

my study. After that, I identified participants. I asked each supervisor to recruit five

students, who were likely to be able to engage fully in the task, for interviews. I asked them

that the involvement of students in interviews should be on a voluntary basis. I asked them

to allocate 50 minutes for each interview. I also asked for the time and place to be selected

that suited the interviewees as much as possible. Since female students were involved in this

study, I interviewed them either in the presence of a third person or in a glass room. This

procedure agrees with the Islamic culture which prohibits men from being alone for a long

time in a separate room with a female. Interviews took place at the universities where the

interviewees study. I tried to create a friendly atmosphere and make students feel relaxed as

much as possible. I introduced myself to each interviewee as a teacher of English and

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explained the purpose of the research and that the data collected would be used for research

purposes. I emphasized the element of confidentiality: that nobody except me would access

the data I collected from them; also nobody would listen to the recorded tapes except me.

Being a teacher who taught female and male students, like those in my sample, as well as the

age difference between me and them, helped in minimize cultural sensitivities regarding the

difference in gender with female interviewees. I spent a few minutes talking with the

respondents about general things at the beginning of each interview so that I could build

rapport. As the interviews continued, the questions asked of the interviewees occasionally

changed in response to additional information provided either by interviewees themselves or

a „contextual condition‟ (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). I also used different probes frequently so

that I could elicit as much information as possible.

The interviewees were very informative, frank and motivated to talk about what makes

English teachers effective, possibly because the phenomenon they talked about in the

interviews was relevant to the situation, time and setting of the interviews. This enabled me

to collect very rich data. As an Arab, I believe I had the advantage of linguistic and cultural

knowledge and as a result understood their responses and cues. As a teacher who works in a

similar context under similar conditions, I was able fully to understand the interview

situations and interactions. Recording interviews enabled me to get a more reliable record of

the interview than taking notes (Burton, 2000). The procedure of the qualitative analysis will

be explained in detail in section 5.5. The analysis of the interview data was completed before

the start of Phase Two of the study.

5.4.2 Phase Two: Open-Ended Questionnaires

The second method of collecting data was the open-ended questionnaire. The questionnaire

is one of the most frequent research tools that have been used in general education research

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(Oppenheim, 1992). The aim of this questionnaire is to get a deeper understanding of the

perceptions of effective English teachers of a larger sample of Arab students. I wanted to

involve a bigger number of participants and identify their perceptions of effective teaching

and check whether they shared the perceptions of the seventeen interviewees (small group) in

Phase One. A questionnaire can provide a suitable means for the respondents to express

themselves and answer questions at their convenience without fear of embarrassment

(Oppenheim, 1992). Another advantage of using a questionnaire is that they are inexpensive

and can be distributed and collected in a short time (Patton, 1987). However, using

questionnaires has some limitations. Since there were no conversations, I could not correct

any misunderstandings or probe responses. This may result in a lack of deep information.

Considering the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires, I designed a questionnaire

in a way that enabled me to gather sufficient and clear data that were verified by some of the

respondents. The respondents would describe who they thought were effective EFL teachers

and demonstrate why they thought they were effective. It used examples to elaborate how

their teachers were effective.

5.4.2.1 Questionnaire administration

After I finished analyzing the data collected from the interviews in Phase One, I constructed

an open-ended questionnaire whose questions were extracted from the interview questions

used in Phase One. I chose not to include a lot of questions so as not to discourage the

participants to complete it and take the matter seriously. I also followed the same procedure

I followed when I conducted the interviews in Phase One which guarantees protecting the

confidentiality of the teachers who were described as effective or ineffective (see Appendix

F). I prepared the Arabic version (see Appendix G) and then piloted the questionnaire with

two of my students who were not involved in the study and two of my colleagues. The pilot

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results revealed that the questions were clear and understandable and the answers made sense

in relation to the questions; in fact I expected this because these questions were tried before

in the interviews. The results also supported what I found in the twenty interviews. This

made for a certain reliability in my study. According to Craft (1996) the reliability is

achieved when we get the same results from another technique. It took respondents from 20

to 35 minutes to complete the questionnaire. This gave me an indication of the time I need in

administering the questionnaires in different classrooms in different sites.

To administer the questionnaire I referred to the same IEP supervisors who helped me to

recruit students for Phase One and arranged to interview them. I asked for help in

administering the questionnaire in two classrooms in each of the four sites. I made it clear to

them that those students whom I interviewed in the first phase had not to be among those

students who would complete the questionnaire. I also asked them to recruit students on a

voluntary basis. I administered all of the questionnaires myself in all sites in June 2002.

I introduced myself to the students who volunteered to complete the questionnaire and

explained the aim of the questionnaire. I assured them that the data collected would be used

only for research purposes. I also asked them not to write their names on the questionnaires.

I tried to create a relaxed atmosphere in class. I asked them to express their own point of

view and not to influence each other‟s opinion. They had enough time to finish. They took it

seriously and most of them provided a considerable amount of data.

5.4.3 Phase Three: Follow up Interviews

The aim of the follow up interviews was to get a deeper understanding of the characteristics

of effective teachers that were extracted from the data of interviews and questionnaires in

Phases One and Two. I wanted to know exactly what students meant when they said, for

example, that an effective EFL teacher should be an understanding person

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 )ُٙ‫ )ِزف‬or should have a sense of humour )ٝ٘‫)ػٕذٖ حش فىب‬. Since there were many

characteristics that were identified as important from the perspective of Arab students, I

could not cover all of them in my four interviews. Therefore, I selected the high frequency

categories for more elaboration. I constructed questions that investigated these common

characteristics. Then I revised them in the light of the comments of two of my colleagues

and my research supervisor (see Appendix H). After I translated the questions into Arabic I

asked one of my colleagues who was a bilingual speaker of Arabic and English to translate

them back to English. There were no essential differences between the two versions (see

Appendix I). The interview was piloted with two respondents before it was used with the

actual sample.

5.4.3.1 Conducting the follow up interviews

The follow up interviews were carried out December 2002. I asked each IEP supervisor of

the four universities to recruit two informative students for an interview on a voluntary basis.

After I introduced myself I explained the purpose of the interview to each participant. I also

assured the four participants that their data will not be accessed by anybody else except the

researcher and that they will be used for research purposes. The interviews started with a

general introduction which made them feel relaxed and helped in creating a friendly

atmosphere. They were motivated to talk about such characteristics which they all agreed on.

The interviews lasted between 20-30 minutes each and were recorded after getting the

participants‟ permission.

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5.5 Qualitative Data Analysis

I opted for an analysis of data by hand because I wanted to absorb the data completely,

become totally engaged with what the respondents said, and to read what was between the

lines. I felt a computer program for qualitative analysis might distract my attention: part of

my attention would go to the computer program and the other part would be on the data

itself. Moreover, qualitative data contain quotations of respondents‟ opinions, experiences

and feelings (Patton, 1990) which may not lend themselves to computer analysis.

In analyzing the data gathered by means of the semi-structured interviews, open-ended

questionnaires and follow-up interviews, I used the grounded theory methods recommended

by Strauss and Corbin (1998) so that I could identify the relevant information that answer the

questions posed in chapter one. Glaser and Strauss introduced the grounded theory method

for the first time in their book “The Discovery of Grounded Theory” (1967). However, since

then they have presented various versions on grounded analysis. Glaser (1992) indicated that

questions should appear from the grounded analyses, but Strauss and Corbin (1998) believe

that the identification of questions should be the first step in analysis and this is what the

current research followed. The questions were identified first (see Chapter 1, p. 21),

followed by the analysis for the purpose of finding answers to these questions.

I started analyzing the qualitative data while interviews were being conducted, so that I could

direct further exploration. As a result some issues that require further inquiry were

discovered and I clarified them in the subsequent interviews. The analysis procedure

consisted of six steps:

a) I transcribed each interview (in case of interviews).

b) I then translated the transcripts into English. For translation accuracy, I asked two

of my colleagues who were bilingual speakers of Arabic and English to check

samples of transcriptions. No major differences were found.

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c) I carried out open coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). This is a process of asking

questions, making comparisons, labeling phenomena, extracting categories from the

data (called themes in the current research) and naming them. Once satisfied that

these themes reflect the data and promise to be useful descriptive tools, I looked for

the conceptual elements of these themes or properties (Strauss and Corbin, 1998)

which might elaborate on the characteristics of each theme in a particular situation

and increase its applicability and explanatory power (cited in Seddon 2003).

Accordingly, I reviewed all transcripts in order to identify the themes that appeared

in them and gave each theme a code. For example I gave the theme „instructional

presentation skills‟ the code IPS. Then, I looked for words and concepts that

constituted the dimensions and characteristics of these themes and defined their

meanings. In order to find these conceptual elements, I read each interview

carefully and identified the materials relevant to the focus of this study by

highlighting key words and concepts. Based on this, I constructed a number of

categories within each theme and gave each a code. For example if the category

was „the teacher reviewed previous materials before starting the new lessons,‟ it

was classified under the appropriate theme and given the code IPS9 which means

that this category is category number 9 that is classified under the theme

instructional presentation skills.

d) I asked the interviewees on Phases one and three to verify whether or not they

agreed with interpretations and categories I gave to their responses. They

confirmed that their responses agreed with the categories I gave.

e) I put these themes and their categories into a table (see Appendix J) which I used as

a key for coding and classifying the data I highlighted within the transcripts. I

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 constructed additional themes and categories and added them to this key table as the

analysis revealed new ideas and concepts.

f) All themes and categories were verified and refined by involving another researcher

in this process.

5.5.1 Example of Categorization

The following excerpt from interview one illustrates the procedures I used for my analysis:

S: What words would you use to describe teacher number 1 whom you rated as an effective

teacher? Tell me why and how she was effective.

S1: She is well organized in teaching. (AS1) When she comes to class, she knows what to

give us. She is prepared. (AS19) She likes to teach a lot. (PQ3) She gives us extra

information. (AS18) She counsels weaker students and if they are weak for example

in writing and need more help in this skill, she would send them to the writing

centre. (AS2)

The first highlighted concept is “She is well organized in teaching.” The code given to this

concept according to the key table of themes and categories (see Appendix E) is AS1. „AS‟

refers to the topic „Administrative Skills‟ and „1‟ refers to category number one under

„Administrative Skills‟ which is „well organized‟. The second highlighted concept is “She is

prepared.” The code given to this concept is AS19 which refers to the theme

„Administrative Skills‟ and category number 19 which is „is well prepared‟. The third

highlighted concept was “she likes to teach a lot.” The code given to this concept is PQ3

which refers to the theme „Personal Qualities‟ and category number 3 which is „likes

teaching‟. The third concept is “she gives us extra information.” The code of this concept

is AS18 which refers to the theme „Administrative Skills and category number 18 which is

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„gives handouts, worksheets, exercises and extra information from outside the book.‟ The

last highlighted concept of this excerpt is “she counsels weaker students.” The code given

to this concept is AS2 which refers to „Administrative Skills‟, category number 2 which is

„advises students what to do and what they need to improve in English.

5.5.2 Thematization of Categories

After I finished analyzing the data, I employed one of my colleagues, who was a student in

the Educational Doctorate program to verify the categories and themes that emerged from the

data. He came up with some useful suggestions regarding: relocating some categories under

appropriate themes; joining categories that have very similar meanings and

rephrasing/refining few categories.

A large number of categories were identified in the analysis. These categories were

classified under three major themes: instructional skills, interpersonal rapport with students

and administrative skills. However, when my supervisors and I discussed the results of my

research and the classification of the data it appeared to be that the results would be well

presented if I carried out thematic restructuring of the categories within each major theme

rather than presenting them according to their rate of frequency. Within each thematic group,

categories can still be put in order according to their rate of frequency. The highest rated

categories are presented first and the least frequent categories were presented next. It is not

that I undervalue the infrequently used categories but rather it shows the rate of frequency of

different categories. It should be indicated here that since the participants in each interview

or questionnaire described several effective and ineffective teachers, more than one response

for the same category could be collected from each interview or questionnaire. For example,

if a participant described three effective English teachers and mentioned that two of them had

a sense of humour, then this is considered to be two instances of the category 'sense of

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humour'. After doing the thematic restructuring of the categories across the three identified

major themes, I ended up with two major themes, instead of three, with several thematic

groups of categories under each major theme. These two major themes are Instructional

Skills and Human Characteristics.

An analysis of each of these themes will be presented in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7

respectively. I present the instructional skills theme in chapter seven and the human

characteristics theme in chapter eight. The codes used with the comments used with the

categories in the following chapters are of three types:

- Comments collected from interviews in Phase One.

Example: the code (I12) means that the comment was quoted from interview number

12.

- Comments collected from questionnaires in phase two.

Example: the code (Q42) means that the comment was quoted from questionnaire

number 43.

- Comments collected from the follow up interviews in phase three.

Example: the code (FI6) means that the comment was quoted from the follow up

interview number 6.

5.6 Trustworthiness of the Qualitative Data

Using an interpretative inquiry a vast amount of data can be yielded from the detailed

descriptions and analysis. However, due to the constraint of time and space, it is not always

possible to present all the accounts within the findings (Nunan, 1992:58). According to

Lincoln and Guba (1985) the terms „validity‟ and „reliability‟ which are used in the

quantitative approach can not be applied in the interpretative approach due to the different

assumptions about the nature of reality and the different approach to research. What concerns

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me as a researcher is to come up with as findings which are as trustworthy as possible. The

main instrument in the interpretative approach is the researcher who may make changes to

the research procedures if necessary. Moreover, the „truth‟ may not be captured, but

approximated. Lincoln and Guba (1985) use the term „trustworthiness‟ for qualitative data

as a replacement for „reliability‟ and „validity‟ used for quantitative data. They suggest that

the researcher should establish the „credibility‟, „transferability‟, „dependability‟ and

„conformability‟ of a study. According to Altheidi and Johnson (1998:286-287) the

„reliability‟ or the stability of methods and findings, is an indicator of „validity‟ or the

accuracy and truthfulness of the findings. Since the data was qualitative, I interpreted it

according to my experience. This means that there is the possibility of multiple

interpretations of the data. Therefore, in order for me to ensure the trustworthiness of my

interpretations and data analysis, I took a number of measures:

a) I explained the purpose of this study to all participants in the three phases and

assured them that the data collected from them will be dealt with confidentially and

that they will not be accessed by anybody else except me.

b) I provided an explicit description of how I collected the data and analyzed them.

c) I classified the data into as many categories as possible so that I might not lose the

richness of the data.

d) Although I tried to be as honest as I could, I should acknowledge that personal bias

is something inevitable in interpreting the data. Therefore, I cross-validated the

data with a validator who was a teacher of English and a postgraduate research

student. As a result, I refined the phrasing of some categories and adjusted a few

others.

e) I used three data collection approaches so that I could collect sufficient data,

establish confidence in my findings and establish credibility.

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f) I asked the interviewees of Phases one and three to verify whether or not they

agreed with interpretations and categories I gave to their responses. All of them

confirmed that their responses agree with the categories I gave.

5.7 Ethical Issues

Ethical issues constituted an important matter in my research methodology. The following

ethical issues were taken into consideration in my study.

a) Cohen and Manion (1994) assert that much social research necessitates obtaining

the consent and the co-operation of the subjects who are to assist in the

investigations, and of significant others in the institutions and organizations

providing the research facilities. Accordingly, I cleared official channels by

sending a permission letter (Bell,1993) (see appendix C) to all IEP supervisors in

the four universities where the study took place. In order to convince them of the

value of the research, I talked to them in my letter about the nature of my study and

its goals. In response to my letter, permission was granted to enable me to

interview their students and ask them to complete my questionnaire. Permission

was given in the form of email messages or orally on the telephone. Since these

messages include names of supervisors and names of institutions, I do not include

copies of them in the Appendix for confidentiality reasons. One of the supervisors

said that I could interview the female students as long as there is another female

staff member in the room. Another one indicated that his female students should be

interviewed in the glass room. I agreed to their conditions even though this might

affect the flow of information from students.

b) Although I got the permission to involve students from the places where my study

took place, I could not access them directly for ethical and managerial reasons. I

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 asked the IEP supervisors to recruit students on a voluntary basis for my interviews

and questionnaires.

c) According to Sieber (1992), the learners should be given the power to refuse to

participate in the research. Therefore, to make sure that the students recruited were

participating on a voluntary basis, I emphasized to each one of them when I

interviewed them, and later on when I asked them to complete the questionnaire,

that their involvement is completely on a voluntary basis and they can withdraw at

any stage if they chose to. I also explained the aims of my study to all participants

in the three phases and assured them that the data I collect from them would be

dealt with confidentially. Therefore, I believe that they were honest in their

responses and gave all the information they had about the topic of the research.

Most of them had a lot to say and they were able to describe, discuss and give

examples of effective teaching in EFL.

d) I also assured the study participants that I would retain anonymity in this study.

This also applies to the four universities in the study. I did not identify the

participants or their universities. I used codes instead of the participants‟ names.

e) At the beginning of every interview in Phase One and Phase Two, I explained to

them that I need to tape record their interviews so that I can be able to catch

everything they said and analyze it later on. I assured them that nobody would

listen to these tapes except me. All of them gave their consent for tape recording

the interviews.

5.8 Summary

In this chapter I presented the methodology work followed in this study. I started the chapter

with discussing the appropriateness of the qualitative paradigm for investigating the research

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phenomenon and gave my justification for using it. I also introduced the qualitative design

of the study. I talked about the three phases of data collection and the data collection

methods used in them. After that I described the steps I followed in analyzing the qualitative

data collected in the three phases. I ended the chapter by talking about the trustworthiness of

my qualitative data and the ethical issues I considered during the process of collecting the

data.

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 Chapter Six

Theme One: Instructional Skills

6.1 Introduction

As I mentioned in the previous chapter, I classified the categories which I identified from the

interviews in Phase One and questionnaires in Phase Two under two major themes each of

which is described in a separate chapter: instructional skills and human characteristics. This

chapter presents the theme of instructional skills which consists of four main dimensions:

teaching approach, learning resources, interaction and management. Each of these

dimensions consists of a number of teaching practices that the respondents considered

effective. In the light of the grounded theory method outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1998),

I analyzed the qualitative data. The data analysis process used was described in chapter five.

In the present chapter and the following chapter, the findings are reported under headings

that relate to Strauss and Corbin‟s notions of open coding and properties coding. In the open

coding process, I extracted the major themes from the data and named them. After that, I

looked for the conceptual elements of these themes; I identified the categories that represent

the components or characteristics of the major themes. Before presenting these themes and

their categories, I am going to highlight the fact that students‟ language does not always map

with the professional language. I need to clarify for the reader in what ways this occurred

and the logic behind following students‟ discourse when it does not match with the

professional one.

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6.2 Students’ Discourse Versus Professional Discourse

Students‟ discourse mostly mapped onto the professional discourse when talking about

categories whose wording is clear, straightforward and simple: e.g. using examples in

teaching, reviewing the lesson before starting a new one, being friendly, having a sense of

humour, making students work in groups, etc. However, the respondents, being unaware of

professional discourse, used their own words in expressing their perceptions of their

classroom experience that does not exactly match with their equivalent professional words.

For example, the respondents used the phrase „teaching ways‟ ( ‫ش‬٠‫ )ؽشق رذس‬to refer to various

approaches teachers used in their teaching so that students who could not understand

something by one approach, they might get it through another. This included teaching

vocabulary in which teachers may teach a new word by giving its definition, using it in a

sentence, acting, pictures and drawing on the board. They also used „teaching ways‟ to talk

about teachers who use different teaching aids such as computer technology, projectors,

videos, acting and pictures.

I found myself in a situation in which I could choose either the students‟ terms or their

closest professional equivalent. When I started analyzing the data and came across this

concept, I translated it into its exact meaning in English which was „teaching ways‟. When I

had an overview of the identified categories, I felt that teaching ways did not look like a

professional term. Therefore, I changed it to the phrase teaching methods. At a later stage, I

found out that the term teaching methods was misleading because it might refer the reader to

the established teaching methods in teaching languages that I reviewed in Chapter 3 such as

grammar translation method, cognitive method, natural method and communicative method.

Therefore, I decided to get back to the students‟ term and used it all way through. I used

inverted commas to mark any word borrowed from students‟ discourse. Since my concern in

this study is investigating the students‟ perceptions of effective teaching and describing as

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accurate as possible, I thought that their perceptions would be better reflected using their own

words that they used when they described effective and ineffective teachers.

Another aspect of mismatch between students‟ discourse and professional discourse was that

students may use the exact word that is used in professional talk, but they mean completely

different meaning. For example, students‟ phrase „being flexible‟ )ٗٔٚ‫ (ِش‬matches the

professional one accurately. However, as I explained in Chapter 7, p.209, while students

meant that effective teachers should be willing to reach a compromise with students

regarding the deadline for assignments, giving make up exams, absence rules, etc.,

professionally, it could mean teachers‟ ability to adjust their teaching plans, making changes

on the teaching material so that it may meet the interests and needs of learners and/or

matching between what they are supposed to cover and the amount of available time.

Coming from the same culture of the respondents and interacting, as a researcher, directly

with them helped me to understand the mismatch areas between students‟ discourse and

professional discourse.

Table 6.1 gives an overview of the results of this study. It contains all themes, dimensions,

categories and subcategories that were identified from the data. These items will be

presented in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7.

Table 6.1: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers identified in this study
Instructional skills Human characteristics
I. Teaching approach I. Interpersonal characteristics
A. Using suitable teaching ways A. Has a friendly manner
1. Using a variety of teaching ways 1. Building bridges between them and their
2. Using examples students
3. Using a variety of teaching aids 2. Interacting with students outside the
4. Holding student‟s attention classroom
5. Asking questions 3. Informal interaction with students
6. Caring for teaching words 4. Socializing with students
7. Willing to repeat explanation 5. Treating students as friends or family
8. Asking students to do things they did not members
teach 6. Smiling at the students
9. Giving no actual teaching 7. Friendliness enhances students‟ learning
10. Following a lecturing style B. Helps students
B. Helping students understand 1. Giving advice to students
1. Checking students‟ understanding 2. Helping students in academic related issues
2. Simplifying things 3. Helping weaker students
3. Taking into consideration individual 4. Giving good marks
differences 5. Helping in personal matters
4. Reviewing previous lessons C. Encouraging students
5. Speaking clearly at a suitable speed D. Flexible and willing to compromise

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 C. Giving interesting classes E. Respects students
1. Selecting a diversity of interesting topics F. Creates a good atmosphere
2. Not following the same teaching routine G. Treats students as equal
3. Minimizing lecturing time H. Listens to students
4. Organizing competition in classroom I. Identifies/meets students‟ needs
5. Having fun II. Personal characteristics
D. Efficient in testing A. Has a sense of humour
1. Giving appropriate assessment B. Is dedicated
2. Giving exams on a regular basis C. Is energetic
3. Providing test practice D. Is patient
E. Giving homework E. Is likeable
F. Benefited students
G. Investing class time efficiently
H. Being well prepared
II. Learning resources
A. Giving handouts and worksheets
1. Diversity of materials
2. Found to be more useful for learning English
than textbooks
3. Containing a lot o practice
B. Using computer technology
C. Investing the library
III. Interactions
A. Enabling students to practise speaking
1. Facilitating classroom discussions
2. Giving the chance for the students to talk
about themselves
3. Involving students in authentic speaking
projects
4. Allowing students to ask and answer
questions
5. Communicating with students in English
6. Correcting students‟ speaking mistakes
B. Making students work in groups
C. Getting everyone involved
IV. Management
A. Classroom control
B. Punctuality
C. Implementation of rules

6.3 Teaching Approach

I identified eight categories of teaching behaviours and practices of EFL teachers that the

respondents found to be effective in helping them to learn English. The following table

shows these categories and their frequency.

Table 6.2: The categories classified under the methodology dimension and their frequency
Category Frequency

1. Using suitable teaching ways 194

2. Helping students understand 181

3. Giving interesting classes 147

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Table 6.2 (Continued)
4. Efficient in testing 82

5. Giving homework 62

6. Benefited students 56

7. Investing class time efficiently 31

8. Being well prepared 29

6.3.1 Using Suitable Teaching Ways

The first three categories are the most frequently mentioned among the eight categories

classified under the methodology dimension. The number of responses identified in the data

collected from students on „using suitable teaching ways‟

)ٗ‫ش ِٕبصج‬٠‫ )اصزؼّبي ؽشق رذس‬was 194. My analysis of the data showed different subcategories of

effective teaching practices that the participants considered helpful in learning English: a)

using a variety of teaching „ways‟; b) using examples; c) using different up-to-date teaching

aids; d) holding students‟ attention; e) asking questions; f) caring for teaching words; g)

willing to repeat explanations. The respondents were also invited to talk not only about the

good teaching behaviours and practices of teachers but also about the bad ones. Identifying

the characteristics and teaching behaviours of ineffective teachers is equally important; when

teachers or practitioners are aware of what makes bad teaching, they will avoid it. Some of

the responses that the participants gave were about bad teaching practices that characterized

ineffective teachers of English. They talked about some of the problems they actually

experienced with some of the teachers whom they considered to be ineffective. The data

showed that the respondents had three main concerns: a) asking students to do things they did

not teach; b) giving no actual teaching; c) following a lecturing style

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a) Using a variety of teaching ways

The respondents mentioned that the EFL teachers who taught them effectively tended to use

a variety of different „teaching ways‟)ٗ‫ػ‬ٕٛ‫ش ِز‬٠‫)اصزخذاَ ؽشق رذس‬. Most of the responses talked

about varieties of teaching ways in general terms, without specifying these ways.

“He uses a variety of teaching ways in order for students to be able to get what the teacher
says.” (I1)

“He tried to explain a point using different simple ways so that we can understand the
meaning.” (I15)
Some went a little further by saying:

“He shouldn‟t always teach in the same way as the textbook.” (Q63)

The EFL teachers that the respondents considered effective did not employ a diversity of

teaching methods in response to a certain situation or a request from students to elaborate

more on a certain point, but rather they tended to use more than one method of teaching (in

explaining things) as a part of their teaching style. The respondents did not specify any

particular area in which effective teachers tended to use a variety of ways in their teaching,

but some of their responses talked about the teaching of vocabulary. Explaining the meaning

of new words in more than way, when necessary, was considered helpful in learning new

words. Some of the responses in the area of teaching vocabulary specified some of the

methods that were used in explaining the new words. They talked about giving the definition

of new words, giving the derivatives of the word (the adjective, noun, adverb, etc.) acting,

using pictures and using games.

“For example in reading when the teacher explains the meaning of a new word, he gives us
its equivalent meaning in English. Another method could be using a picture. This simplifies
the meaning. Sometimes the teacher acts so that we can understand.” (F2)

When we came across a difficult word, he explained it and he would also give us the
derivatives of the word” (I15)

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“She once gave us games in class so that we can learn new words. She sometimes
acts them for us” (I9)

“She acts in order to make students understand.” (Q23)

Since students only talked about the teaching methods pertaining to the teaching of

vocabulary I concluded with some caution that this diversity in the style of teaching that the

respondents highlighted might lend itself best to the area of vocabulary teaching in English

language teaching. If we put ourselves in the shoes of students in learning new words in a

foreign language and the teacher is in front of us trying to explain the meaning of an abstract

word, we may experience difficulties in understanding or at least guessing the meaning.

Therefore, using different methods and examples would be very helpful in maximizing the

chance of understanding the meaning of new words. Students want to increase their store of

vocabulary in particular so that they can upgrade their level in English; this is why they

attend the Intensive English program. Therefore, students would be grateful to the teachers

who try to teach them as many words as possible (as we are going to see in section f caring

for teaching words).

“He gives sufficient explanation and explains the meaning of every new word in a good
way.” (I20)

“She explains the meaning of all the new words in a simplified way. (Q32)

Since the respondents mostly did not give enough data on what they meant exactly by a

variety of teaching ways, other than the ways of vocabulary teaching, I thought it would be

useful if I do further investigation on this point in Phase Three. The findings revealed that

the following four items represented the respondents‟ conception of using different methods

in teaching:

 teaching materials in different ways (this was elaborated on above);

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 teaching components of lessons in different order;

 using up-to-date teaching aids;

 using different class activities.

The second aspect regards presenting the components of the lesson in different orders. For

example, in reading or listening classes, teachers may give their students the questions before

they read or listen; at other times they may give them the questions after reading or during

listening.

“When teaching reading, teachers should sometimes teach the new words before reading the
passage and in other times they can teach them after reading it. Also in listening, the teacher
can sometimes let us read the questions before listening and in other times while listening.
In this case I know what my level is when I read the questions before listening and have an
idea about the listening and what my level is when reading the questions while listening
without having an idea about the listening. The same thing applies in writing. The teacher
gives me a topic (writing prompt) that I should write about one day before the test. On the
following day she gives me a test in which she asks me to write about that topic that I already
have an idea about. In other times the teacher gives me a topic and asks me to write a
composition about it in the same class. In this case the teachers can change their teaching
methods. (F1)

The third aspect of variety of teaching ways is using different teaching aids in teaching

English. The respondents considered the teaching aids as being one aspect of teaching ways.

They mentioned here computer technology, films, cassettes, overhead projectors and the

white board. They were especially interested in the use of computer technology in learning

English. They practised a variety of exercises in different language skills through English

internet sites like www.esl-lab.com, www.readingmatrix.com and

http://esl.about.com/cs/listening. They also had the chance to type their compositions and

benefited from some electronic features in checking their spelling, grammar and punctuation.

“One of his effective practices was taking us to the computer lab frequently and asking us to
access English internet sites.” (FI3)

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“He urges us to use the computer in writing our compositions and papers.” (FI5)

The respondents like to go to the computer labs and use computers; they found learning

English through computer technology interesting. It increases their motivation for learning

English.

“He should take the students to the computer lab and use computers in teaching because I
like studying using computers.” (I15)

“We go to the computer lab two or three times a week so that the class routine might be
changed and the class might become more interesting and useful.” (I5)

“She depended on the overhead projector and the powerpoint in her teaching. I believe that
this method is successful.” (F12)

“He used modern teaching aids like the computer, video, recorder and the overhead
projector which are very important for listening classes.” (I19)

The fourth item regards using different activities in class such as group work, competitions,

games, interviews, oral presentations, debates and discussions.

“Among these activities are competitions that helped us for example in grammar.” (I19)
“What makes me understand is the way of teaching such as grouping, teaching aids and
teacher‟s explanation.” (I7)

“He used video films and other games.” (Q67)

“The teacher made you understand the subject very well and you didn‟t need to study it
again. What makes me understand is the method of teaching such as grouping, teaching aids
and teacher‟s explanation.” (FI7)

As we can see, diversifying the teaching methods helped the respondents in understanding

better what their teachers presented in the classroom and achieving the desired learning

outcomes. Therefore, EFL teachers‟ choice of the teaching methodology was seen to be

important from the perspective of the participants.

“He uses a variety of teaching methods in order for students to be able to get what the
teacher says.” (I1)

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“He tried to explain a point using different simple methods so that we can understand the
meaning.” (I15)

From my experience as a teacher I would also like to add that diversifying the teaching

methods increases students‟ motivation and makes the classes more interesting for them. The

fact that the respondents found that using different teaching ways is effective in helping them

to understand and learn English may lead to the conclusion that students learn things in

different ways. What suits one student may not suit another; they have individual differences

that teachers should take into consideration when they choose their teaching ways. This

result also reflects the views of McCabe (1995), Hubbard 2001), Murdoch (1997) and Saafin

(1999) that using a variety of teaching methods is an important aspect of effective EFL

teaching. Teachers should use a variety of suitable instructional methods to keep students

interested in the material and meet individual learning styles and preferences (Ruddell, 1997;

Pilgreen, 2000). The result is also in line with the view that teachers should use a variety of

language activities (Rosenshine and Furst, 1971; Murdoch, 1997; Hubbard, 2001).

b) Using examples

Using examples in teaching was the second sub-category which students commented on as

being a suitable teaching way. The respondents valued using as many examples as possible

in teaching English.

“She teaches every point and gives examples of it.” (Q39)

“He gives a lot of examples.” (Q43)

Some specified the kind of examples teachers used. They were examples from real life.

“She explains grammar by giving examples from your real life.” (I10)

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They indicated that examples clarified ideas and helped them to understand English better.

“He simplified the material and used examples to help us understand.” (F12)

Through examples teachers could make it easier for the participants to understand what is

being explained. They might use a word in the right context or use a certain grammatical

item in expressing a situation in the real lives of students and making it more personalized.

c) Using a variety of up-to-date teaching aids

Many participants valued the use of teaching aids, especially modern ones. The data

collected in Phase Three also indicated that using a variety of teaching ways can mean using

different teaching aids. Respondents mentioned several up-to-date teaching aids that good

teachers would use in their teaching.

“She depended on the overhead projector and the power point in explaining the points she
wanted to talk about. This would increase the enthusiasm of the students and make them like
the course.” (FI12)

They also mentioned some other kinds of teaching aids such as acting, pictures and the

board.

“She acts in order to make students understand.” (Q23)

“Every class he tended to bring with him things to use in his teaching like pictures.” (I14)

“She uses the board in her teaching.” (Q10)

The responses collected from the data indicated that the up-to-date teaching aids attract the

learners‟ attention and make them more motivated and enthusiastic to learn English. This is

consistent with the suggestions of Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000) that using technology

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in classroom helps improve student comprehension and increases their achievement.

However, the respondents of the current study actually specified the kinds of technological

aids they found useful which were the computer technology, overhead projector, films and

cassettes.

d) Holding students’ attention

The respondents perceived effective EFL teachers as being able to hold the attention of their

students. They indicated that teachers achieve that through their individual way of teaching.

The data showed that one way of holding students‟ attention is by giving interesting classes.

“His way of explaining the lessons, ideas and new words is attractive and forces the students
to pay attention and listen to him.” (I6)

“He has a wonderful style of teaching. He holds my attention. His classes can never be
boring.” (Q36)

Also using new ways of teaching that students did not experience before, according to the

respondents, held their attention.

“He uses new and unfamiliar ways that holds the attention of students.” (Q 43)

Another thing they mentioned was that teachers could attract their attention when they

stopped talking about the lesson for few minutes. This was when the teacher realized that

students started to feel bored, and talked about something completely different. In that way,

according to the respondents, teachers could hold students‟ attention again and resume the

lesson.

“She overcomes boredom of repeating things by talking from time to time about something
that doesn‟t have to do with the class subject. As a result she holds again the attention of
students.” (FI1)

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Holding students‟ attention makes them invest most of their time in learning. They

concentrate on what their teachers teach and as a result have a better chance for learning.

“She got hold of the attention of students so they followed what she said until the end. She
made you concentrate with her.” (I5)

On the other hand, the data showed that failing to get hold of students‟ attention may result in

losing class control and in consequence failing to achieve the desired learning outcomes.

“Students didn‟t pay attention and they chat with each other. He couldn‟t hold students‟
attention because of his style.” (I13)

Paying attention during the lesson is a prerequisite for enabling the teacher to convey the

teaching points and for the learner to able to focus and understand what their teachers

explained. There are no specific ways that teachers should use in order to hold the attention

of their students. Different teachers may follow different ways of to doing that. In fact,

sometimes it is the style of teaching that is peculiar to a certain teacher that the students find

attractive.

e) Asking questions

Some participants considered asking questions as a useful method of teaching in two ways: i)

questions involve students in the learning process; ii) they help in holding students‟ attention.

“She starts her class everyday by asking a list of questions or giving each student a list of
questions to ask her partner.” (I15)

“He holds the attention of students by asking questions.” (Q12)

The students who were expected to answer questions may not indulge themselves in any

irrelevant and distracting activities such as carrying out private conversations with other

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students, but rather they get ready for answering teachers‟ questions. In this case students‟

involvement changes from passive into active and become directly involved in using or

practising English. The perspective that effective teachers use questions is supported by

Rosenshine and Furst (1971) in their review of teacher effectiveness research. One of the

variables that are seen to distinguish effective and ineffective teachers was using various

types of questions. The data in this study though highlighted the importance of both

academic questions and general questions through which teachers can interact with students.

Through this informal interaction students can use the target language and at the same time

make the class more meaningful.

f) Caring for teaching words

The respondents considered the teachers who helped them to learn as many words as possible

as effective teachers. It was an essential student criterion for teachers‟ effectiveness.

“She explains the meaning of all the new words in a simplified way. (Q32)

It is not only a matter of introducing a wide range of words, but also a matter of how these

words are introduced. The teachers should also know how to help students understand the

meaning of new words.

“He gives sufficient explanation and explains the meaning of every new word in a good
way.” (I20)

When students join the Intensive English Program, the English words are mostly limited and

they needed to increase them.

“She gave us words because we needed words a lot so that we can write.” (I5)

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Increasing students‟ English words would help them in upgrading their level in English.

They would be able to express themselves better in speaking and writing and improve their

reading and listening comprehension. Words are a very important element in language

communication. In fact, a person can communicate with others using words only.

g) Willing to repeat explanations

Many participants indicated that an effective EFL teacher was the one who was willing to

repeat explanations. They explain again when students do not understand something. The

students might say they do not understand and ask for repetition or the teacher might check

whether or not students understand.

“She repeats her explanation when necessary.” (Q13)

“He was willing to repeat his explanations several times until he knows that we understood
the lesson.” (I6)

Repetition of teaching is not always in response to a students‟ request or because they found

out that their students did not understand a certain point. It is an aspect of some teachers‟

teaching style. They tend to repeat themselves when explaining things for their students.

“He tended to repeat things during his explanation so that he can make sure that the students
understand.” (I3)

Repeating explanation helps students to understand the things they could not understand at

the first time and may also improve the understanding of other students who did not face

difficulties in understanding things from the first time. Some participants talked about

experiencing difficulties in learning English and therefore they believed that students needed

their teachers to repeat a part or more of their explanations. When teachers repeat their

explanations, they might change the teaching method they used the first time so that students

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can understand the lesson. This view coincides with the findings of Blum (1984) in his

survey on the research on effective schooling. One of the effective teaching practices he

described was that teachers should teach again when students do not understand. Also Saafin

(1999) found out that effective teachers would explain again when necessary.

The following three categories represent practices of EFL teachers perceived as ineffective or

undesirable by the respondents:

h) Asking students to do things they did not teach

The participants mentioned that some teachers sometimes „ask students to do things they did

not teach‟ )ٗ‫ض‬٠‫َ ثزذس‬ٛ‫م‬٠ ٌُ ‫بء‬١‫طٍت ِٓ اٌطالة ػًّ اش‬٠ ). They asked students to do certain tasks

without giving them the necessary details or explaining how to do them. The students might

have not done such tasks before.

“He should teach students how to do things before asking them to do these things. He asked
us for example to access the university site or the library site, but he didn‟t tell us how.”
(I11)

To be able to do certain kinds of task, students need to be shown first how to do them.

“We have never done a presentation before and he didn‟t teach us how to do a
presentation.” (I18)

Either showing a videotape of students giving presentations or acting as a presenter in front

of students in order to demonstrate how to give a good presentation would be very useful for

students in this case.

“Every girl should give a presentation. She gave us practice how a student can stand in front
of the class.” (I2)

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Supposing that students know things is regarded as poor teaching practice. This may result

in them doing the tasks inefficiently and inconsistently or even failing to do the task

completely. This means failing to achieve the expected learning outcomes.

i) Giving no actual teaching

Teachers who did not actually teach what they were supposed to teach were also perceived as

ineffective. The participants indicated that some teachers did not really teach. They just ask

their students to do exercises or listen to cassettes. This is not enough from students‟

perspective. They want their teachers actively to teach, interact and discuss things with

them.

“She just stood, opened the book and read. She didn‟t explain to us the main rule. She just
gave exercises. She should explain the rule and write it on the board.” (I19)

“The teacher should teach and not just ask students to read and then do exercises.” (Q22)

“He should develop his style of teaching. He just put the cassette in the recorder and played
it. Then we listen and answer the questions and that‟s it. He didn‟t try to interact and discuss
things with you.” (I12)

The participants expected their teachers to teach in the classroom and exert some effort to

help them learn. In order for the teaching and learning process to be effective both teachers

and students should be involved.

j) Following a lecturing style

As mentioned above, teaching and learning is a two way process. The participants indicated

in the previous category that teachers should be involved in teaching and not just leave

everything for students to do. At the same time, students did not want teachers to dominate

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the class and take up all the class time talking. They want to be involved in learning English

through classroom activities.

“There was no method of teaching. We sat down in class and he talked.” (Q55)

“He had lecturing style.” (Q48)

The lecturing style deprives students from playing an active role in the process of learning.

Moreover, as indicated in the category „minimizing lecturing time‟ (6.2.3-a) introduced

below, the respondents did not like the lecturing style; they believed it was boring. They

wanted their teachers to minimize the lecturing time so that they can have the opportunity to

apply what they learned and practise English. This view is consistent with the findings of

Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000) that effective teachers limit the teaching teacher talking

time.

6.3.2 Helping Students Understand

„Helping students to understand‟ )‫ُ اٌطالة‬ٙ‫ف‬٠) is the second most frequently mentioned

category. Almost all the participants emphasized the importance of a teacher‟s ability to help

students understand. The number of responses classified under this category was 181. There

is a consensus among the participants that to judge that a teacher of English as being

effective, he/she should be able to make the students understand the lessons or the materials

being taught. In fact, there is a strong relationship between this category and the category of

teaching „ways‟ presented above. Both of them aim in some way at helping students

understand and learn what they are supposed to learn through adopting different teaching

ways. The vast majority of the participants described effective teachers by simply saying

that he or she helps them to understand. This view is consistent with the findings of an

empirical study by Brosh (1996) that the ability of the teacher to transmit knowledge in a

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way that is easy to understand is one of the characteristics of successful FL teachers.

Similarly, this result is in line with the findings of Brosh (1996), Saafin (1999) and Hubbard

(2001) that effective EFL teachers should be able to provide understandable explanations.

Teachers who were perceived as effective practised the following in order to help their

students understand better:

a) Checking the understanding of students;

b) Simplifying things;

c) Taking into consideration individual differences and students‟ level;

d) Reviewing previous lessons;

e) Speaking clearly at a suitable speed.

a) Checking students’ understanding

Respondents perceived their teachers as effective if they „check students‟ understanding‟

( ‫ُ اٌطالة‬ٙ‫زبوذ ِٓ ف‬٠). They would not explain the next point or lesson before they made sure

that students understood what they explained.

“He shouldn‟t go to the next lesson until he makes sure that all students understand the
current lesson.” (I13)

“He wouldn‟t go to the next point until he makes sure that they understood the one before.”
(Q56)

Effective teachers may check the understanding of their students by asking them directly

whether or not they understood what they explained before moving to the second point.

“He checks the understanding of students.” (I2)

“She would ask if anyone didn‟t understand.” (I10)

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Checking the understanding of students means that teachers would explain things again in

case they find out that students did not understand something. As a result this will help

improve students‟ language learning. This is especially useful for those students who are

sometimes reluctant or feel embarrassed to raise their hands in the classroom in the presence

of their classmates and say that they did not understand. Therefore, they like their teachers to

check their understanding from time to time.

b) Simplifying things

„Simplifying things‟ ( ‫بء‬١‫جضؾ االش‬٠) for students is another perceived practice of effective

teachers perceived. Respondents mainly talked about simplifying the teaching of materials.

“She teaches in a simplified and clear way.” (I7)

“He simplifies materials.” (Q6)

Some specified the area in which teacher should simplify things. For them, good teachers

simplified teaching difficult words (new words).

“He makes students understand the meaning of difficult words. He explains them in a simple
way.” (I6)

Respondents found that simplifying the ways of teaching helped them to understand and

learn English better. However, although this is in general a fair request, it should not

discourage teachers to give challenging materials from time to time. Giving students

something above their level is a kind of mental incitement that may make them think more

and make their learning experience richer and more interesting.

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c) Taking into consideration individual differences

Teachers who were perceived as effective had taken students‟ individual differences and their

level into consideration.

“She takes into consideration students‟ level.” (I13)

“He takes into consideration individual differences.” (Q119)

Some of the participants mentioned straightforwardly that students in class did not have the

same abilities and same aptitudes and they wanted their teachers to be aware of this and teach

them accordingly.

“He knows the abilities of his students. He knows for example you are good at listening and
not good at writing.” (I2)

They often stressed that effective teachers would not overlook weak students in the class, but

would rather give them special attention and teach them according to their level.

“He tried to develop the abilities of weak students by giving them exercises that suit their
level and he helped the stronger students by giving them more difficult exercises.” (FI4)

“He talks at the level of good students and overlooks the weaker ones because they can‟t
understand.” (I20)

In the light of the group‟s level and the individual differences within the group members,

teachers who were perceived as effective chose the kind of language, materials and teaching

methods that matched students‟ abilities.

“He gave us reading comprehension passages that suit our level.” (I24)

“He speaks in a way that suits our level.” (Q162)

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Teachers who were perceived as effective considered the abilities and weaknesses of

individual students and their paces of learning as well as the level of the whole group and use

the language that suits the average level of the class. As a result, the chances of improving

the learning of students would be better. This is consistent with the findings of Hubbard‟s

(2001) research indicating that effective teachers should teach at the different levels and

paces of students. Berlin (2001) also states that the effective teachers of English should take

into consideration the individual differences of learners in English classes. The view that

teachers should give attention to weak students is consistent with the perspective of Page

(1992) that teachers should encourage dialogue in the classroom so that lower students can

get more opportunities to express themselves.

d) Reviewing previous lessons

The respondents mentioned that the teachers that they found effective tended to review

previous lessons.

“At the beginning of the class, she reviews what we took before.” (I8)

“He reviews previous material.” (I10)

The participants indicated that having a brief review of the previous lesson at the beginning

of the class was useful for them; it helped them to remember, get things clarified and

understand previous materials in a better way.

e) Speaking clearly at a suitable speed

The vast majority of the teachers who taught in the intensive English programs in the four

universities where this research was conducted were native speakers of English from Britain,

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the USA, Canada and Australia. Therefore, one of the problems that foreign language

learners can face is coping with the rate of speech of the speaker. The participants said that

some teachers speak faster than they could follow and as a result students would not be able

to understand what their teachers said even if what they said was about something easy.

“One of his problems is that he speaks fast.” (Q23)

On the other hand, the participants indicated that effective EFL teachers made sure that they

spoke at a reasonable speed so their students could understand them.

“She speaks clearly and at suitable speed.” (I17)

Another issue of concern was clarity of speech. Students expected good teachers to

pronounce words clearly so that they could understand what their teachers say or teach.

“Her words are simple and clear; she pronounces every letter. So you understand what she
says.” (FI5)

“Her language is clear and understandable.” (Q45)

As we can see, speaking clearly at a suitable rate helps students to understand what is said to

them. Effective teachers take this important issue into consideration when they find out that

it hinders their students learning. However, at a later stage, when students have sufficient

language competence, I believe that exposing them to different accents and different rates of

speech is an advantage because this helps them to understand people from different countries

who have different accents and different rates of speech.

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6.3.3 Giving Interesting Classes

The third most frequently mentioned category is „giving interesting classes‟ ( ٗ‫)حظظٗ ِّزؼ‬.

147 responses were classified under this category. One of the important differences

between effective EFL teachers and ineffective ones is whether or not their classes were seen

as interesting. Boredom in English classes is a major concern which the respondents

mentioned frequently. It can result in their attention being distracted to other things. The

teacher might encounter some class problems; or students would wait impatiently for the

class to finish. On the other hand, interesting classes create a better learning atmosphere,

engage the attention of students and make them more enthusiastic to participate and exert

more effort to learn. This view is in line with Murdoch (1997) and Reber (2001) who state

that effective teachers contextualize language work in relation to students‟ interest. Also,

Hubbard (2001) mentions that effective teachers are interesting. Similarly, McCabe (1995)

indicates that teachers should be lively in their interactions with students and their

presentation of content.

The participants made it clear what they mean by interesting or boring classes. They

mentioned several ways that made the classes of their effective EFL teachers interesting:

a) Selecting a diversity of interesting topics;

b) Not following the same teaching routine;

c) Minimizing lecturing time;

d) Organizing competitions in classroom;

e) Having fun.

Making classes interesting involves exposing learners to a variety of materials and enabling

them to use the language in stimulating situations and contexts. The emphasis here is on

both making classes interesting and improving the learning outcomes. According to Sheperd

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(2000) it is not enough to make classes more interesting. Students should be able to use

knowledge in real-world settings.

a) Selecting a diversity of interesting topics

Diversifying the materials was perceived as one of the factors in making classes interesting.

Students enjoy talking about or researching on the topics that are new and related to their

interests and real life. They liked to read about or discuss things about real people and real

characters; they enjoyed talking about the traditions of their countries.

“He chooses useful and interesting topics for his classes such as topics about presidents of
different countries, the traditions of different people, myths and scientific information. (FI6)

“She discusses with us interesting and various topics on science, sports, health and art.”
(Q29)

“He selected interesting topics for discussion such as marriage in your country that attract
you.” (I6)

“He gives us handouts that contain interesting reading topics that make us like reading. For
example we read about the famous local football player Adnan Al Tiliani and old industry of
ships.” (F5)

As we can see, when the contents are related to the learners‟ lives, classes become more

enjoyable. These topics, as some of the participants said, attracted them to listen to what the

teacher said and motivated them to be involved in classroom discussions. This agrees with

the perspective of social constructivism that language teachers provide learners with real-life

situations for communication so that they can become familiar with the culture of the foreign

language (Williams and Burden, 1997). Selecting interesting materials is also expected from

teachers in the natural approach. According to Richards & Rodgers (2001), one of the

teacher's roles in the natural approach is to select activities that meet the needs and interest of

students.

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b) Not following the same teaching routine

Another way of making classes more interesting according to the participants was by „not

following the same teaching routine‟ ( ٗ١ٕ١‫ر‬ٚ‫ك س‬٠‫ذسس ثطش‬٠ ‫)ال‬. They indicated that the teacher

should not always follow the same teaching „ways‟ or the same procedures as suggested in

the textbook. The data showed that effective teachers were seen by the respondents to

change their teaching routine by varying their way of presenting materials.

“He should present the materials in different ways for fear students feel bored.” (Q14)

“He should try to change his way of teaching because routine makes students feel bored.”
(I7)

“When students feel bored he would tell us some stories that we enjoy.” (FI7)

Even changing the place of teaching was also considered a change of routine. Students do

not like to study English the whole day or the whole week in the classroom. They like to go

to the computer lab, library, television room, etc.

“She takes us to the television room so that we can develop our listening skills.” (I10)

“She should change the atmosphere of the class by changing the place of the class.” (Q44)

It is clear that teaching students following the same routine all the way through in the same

place might make classes boring which might in turn have a negative effect on the language

learning outcome. Respondents found that presenting materials in different ways as well as

changing the learning physical setting from time to time helped in maintaining their interest

in classes.

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c) Minimizing lecturing time

In following a lecturing style (6.2.1-a), the respondents indicated that one of the practices of

ineffective teachers was talking all the time and leaving the students no chance to discuss,

interact or practice English. On the contrary, when teachers avoid talking too much or giving

too lengthy explanations, this may contribute to making the class more interesting.

“He shouldn‟t give a lengthy explanation.” (I13)

“Long explanation of some teachers was considered a disadvantage. It may lead to boredom
and lack of interest.” (Q112)

It would be more useful for learners if teachers minimize their teaching time and let their

students do language tasks in their own.

“If the teacher explains and explains, the class will be very boring. We do the exercise and
he would help us.” (I18)

Minimizing teaching time gives learners the chance to be involved actively in learning

English. They want to have time for active involvement in learning English through practice

or doing certain tasks. This implies that the participants wanted to have learner-centred

classrooms instead of having teacher- centred classrooms. They should make sure that their

classes are interesting enough to attract the attention of their students. This is supported by

the view of Good & Brophy (2001) that teachers need to vary activities and limit lecture time

to maximize student attention. It is also supported by Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000).

They suggested that to improve student comprehension, to increase literacy abilities, and to

increase student achievement, one of the things teachers should do is to limit lecture time.

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d) Organizing competitions in classroom

Some of the participants talked about having competitions in class. Teachers who were

perceived as effective appeared to make students compete with each other.

“He made the class active by holding competitions on what we study. The competition
questions helped us a lot in the final exam.” (FI8)

“He organized grammar competitions so that students can benefit and also enjoy the class.”
(Q32)

“She organized competitions among groups. This encourages students to respond to lessons
and prepare for them.” (I13)

Classroom competitions helped in making the classes more interesting and at the same time

motivated students and give them the chance to practise English. In fact, this is one of the

important ways in which teachers can create a favourable learning environment that is full of

student enthusiasm and in which students can practise the language in a more enjoyable way.

There are several valuable concepts that can be identified in this category and should be

highlighted. First, the element of entertainment is perceived as necessary in English classes.

Second, language learners preferred materials that are relevant to their real life. Third,

teachers should not dominate classes and consume all the class time in talking. Teaching and

learning is a two way process in which both students and teachers should be involved.

e) Having fun

Many participants emphasized that effective teachers did not make them feel bored in class.

From time to time they would use different kinds of activities that have the element of

entertainment.

“He should avoid whatever makes the student feel bored. He gives us some entertaining and
educational activities.” (Q25)

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Beside the entertainment element, these activities give the students a chance to practise

speaking English.

“There were a lot of fun and entertainment activities that benefited us and helped us to
develop our abilities in the language.” (Q38)

Language games were among those entertaining activities that the participants mentioned.

Students could practise English through those games and also enjoy their time in class.

“He should give us interesting and useful games in which students use language skills.”
(Q76)

“His classes are interesting. He would ask two students to stand in front of the class and ask
them to write English words on the board. The girl who makes a mistake will sit down and
another student will compete with the winner.” (FI3)

Language learning needs a lot of attention and a lot of practice and this may entail a need for

having fun or doing some entertaining activities from time to time so that teachers can

continue holding the attention of their students and maintain an interesting learning

atmosphere in the classroom. Effective teachers would know when, how long and how often

to use entertaining activities in class.

6.3.4 Efficient in Testing

The next three categories are far less frequently mentioned than the categories we had just

discussed. The responses classified under this category were 82. Testing is a major issue of

concern for students. The score that they get on their exams is of great importance for them.

The respondents highlighted the importance of this issue for them in each of the three phases.

They identified three testing practices of their perceived teachers:

a) Giving appropriate assessment;

b) Giving exams on a regular basis;

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c) Providing test practice.

a) Giving appropriate assessment

One of the concerns of the participants was that the tests should be appropriate. Respondents

indicated that the teachers they perceived as effective gave tests that suited their level or

ability. The students judge the appropriateness of exams according to their level of difficulty.

“The exams should be within the abilities of students.” (I2)

“Her exams shouldn‟t be easy or difficult. They should be average.” (I7)

Another criterion the respondents gave was whether or not the exam was based on what they

studied.

“Her exams were based on what we studied in the textbook.” (Q14)

This mainly applies on grammar courses in which teachers are expected to test students on

the grammar items they taught in class. However, this may not be always possible in testing

other skills such as reading, writing, listening and speaking. This is because what concerns

teachers and the management after all is the standard of students in English rather than the

textbook contents and what they can remember from them. This view that emphasized the

importance of exam appropriateness giving is supported by the research of Ramsden (1992)

who mentions that effective teachers give appropriate assessment and feedback. However, in

this research I identified what the students meant by exam appropriateness. As we saw

above, respondents considered exams appropriate when they suit the average level of

students and also when they are based on what is actually taught in class.

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b) Giving exams on a regular basis

The respondents mentioned that they like to have a number of tests during the semester and

considered this as one of the practices of effective teachers.

“She gave us vocabulary tests on a weekly basis.” (Q54)

Having a number of tests during the semester appeared to be an incentive for making

students work harder and get ready before each test.

“He provides exam practice on a regular basis and this makes us study and do well.” (I10)

Tests also gave students continuous feedback. They identified their weaknesses and then

students would work on them.

“He tests us regularly and shows us our weakness points so that we can work on them.”
(I12)

Besides, the more exams students had the better chance they would have to improve their

grades because many teachers who gave a number of tests or quizzes would count the best

three or four ones.

“He gave us exams on a weekly basis so that we can have better chances to raise our marks.
We had eleven tests in a sixteen week semester.” (I4)

Giving exams on a regular basis was seen to be useful. Regular exams make students keep

up their hard work and continue preparing for them. They also give them feedback on their

learning of English. This view is in line with the research of Gusky and Easton (1983) who

found that effective teachers provide students regular feedback on their learning progress.

This is also consistent with the findings of Saafin (1999) that Arab students in the UAE

consider those teachers who give examinations regularly as effective.

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c) Providing test practice

„Providing test practice‟ ( ‫ االِزحبٔبد‬ٍٝ‫ت ػ‬٠‫ رذس‬ٝ‫ؼط‬٠) refers to giving tests to students before

major exams (midterm and final exams) for practising purposes only (not necessarily giving

scores that are considered as part of students‟ official performance evaluation). Providing

test practice was appreciated by the respondents and considered to be an effective teaching

behaviour. Respondents could be in the form of old but real tests or mock tests. These tests

make students familiar with expected exams and the questions that they might include. They

believe that these tests made them ready for the major exams.

“He gives us TOEFL exam samples.” (I12)

“Giving us mock exams helps us so that we become familiar with the expected exam
questions.” (I19)

“She provided us with forms and exercises that contain questions expected in the exam.”
(Q13)

Exam practice helps students in developing their exam skills and giving them more

confidence in themselves. It also makes them ready for their exams and gives them a better

chance to do well in them.

The respondents in this category were concerned very much with exam results which were

used in making passing and failing decision as well as staying in the intensive English

program or exiting from it and starting their career programs which they aspired to.

Therefore, the respondents highlighted the importance of suitability, regularity and practice

of exams that may help them to get better results.

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6.3.5 Giving Homework

The second category that was far less mentioned than other categories is giving homework.

The responses classified under this category were 62. The respondents indicated that good

teachers would give them homework and other forms of assignments. One of the practices

that the respondents highlighted was giving homework on a regular basis.

“She gave us homework on daily basis so that we can improve in English.” (I13)

Another practice was marking homework which was considered important. Some

respondents believe that giving homework without checking it was a waste of time for them.

“He gave us homework, marked it and asked us to do it again.” (Q41)

“He gives a lot of homework and class activities that help the student to learn and
understand. He would follow them up.” (I17)

“He gives a lot of homework but he doesn‟t check it. We just waste our time.” (I9)

Some said that giving marks on homework encouraged them to do it. This supports what

was mentioned in the above category that scores are very important for the students.

“He encourages students to do the homework. He gives a mark one each homework.” (I19)

Some students may not work or study at home unless they are given something to do. Some

respondents indicated that homework made them work harder.

“She gives special care to homework and this makes the students work harder.” (Q94)

Some teachers went further by discussing the homework with their students. The

respondents found homework discussion useful because they gave them feedback on their

work and gave them the chance to participate in classroom discussions and use the language.

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“He gives homework and discusses it in class. This makes students participate actively in
class.” (I2)

The respondents appeared to recognize the benefits of homework in improving their English.

It gave them the chance to apply or practise what they learned in class. This result is

consistent with the findings of Saafin (1999) that effective EFL teachers give homework on a

regular basis. However, in this study I talked about the usefulness of homework from the

perspective of learners and also highlighted some favoured practices in administering

homework.

6.3.6 Benefited Students in Learning English

The third category that was far less mentioned than the categories I had discussed is

„benefiting students‟ ( ‫)اصزفبد ِٕٗ اٌطالة‬. The responses classified under this category were 56.

These responses talked about the importance of students ending up with learning or

improving their English as a result of their teachers‟ teaching. It is like a summary or

conclusion of the productivity of their teachers. The fruitfulness of the teaching skills of

teachers counts after all as an important aspect of teaching effectiveness. Whether or not

teachers managed to help students improve their English is one of the ways students use to

judge the effectiveness of their teachers.

“We improved a lot as a result of the teaching practices and activities.” (Q10)

“He helped a lot in upgrading the level of students.” (Q32)

“Students start to feel that their level in English starts to improve.” (I10)

The respondents sometimes talked about this in a more specific way. They gave examples of

what they learned as a result of the effective teaching of certain teachers. They would say a

certain teacher was an effective teacher because s/he benefited them a lot in improving their

158
writing skill. Now we can write different kinds of compositions. They might also say that

another teacher was a bad teacher because s/he did not help them in improving their English.

They might say that they did not learn anything from her/him.

“I benefited a lot in this course. Now I can write different compositions.” (I19)

“My writing skill has developed. At the beginning of the semester my mark was 40% but at
the end of the semester it was 85%.” (I16)

“Every day, he provides us with new words and expressions that benefit us in our daily life
and our writings.” (Q119)

“He helped me a lot in increasing my vocabulary.” (Q121)

As we can see, when respondents managed to upgrade their level in English in a certain

course, they would say that this was due to the good teaching skills of their teachers and

would in this case consider them effective. On the other hand, when they felt that they

gained very little during the English course, they would say that the teachers were useless.

The respondents expected their teachers to be useful and productive after all.

6.3.7 Investing Class Time Efficiently

The next two categories are the least frequently mentioned among the categories I had

discussed above. The number of responses given for investing class time efficiently was 31.

According to the respondents, good teachers would devote class time for the process of

teaching and learning in the classroom. The respondents said that good teachers spend class

time in teaching and helping students in their learning.

“She cares about time; she doesn‟t waste time because she wants to do her job.” (I3)

“He didn‟t talk about things that are irrelevant to the subject.” (Q161)

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The respondents also experienced ineffective teachers and gave examples of how those

teachers wasted class time. They mostly wasted the time by talking about irrelevant things

such as personal matters.

“This teacher was not effective. She tended to teach in the last five minutes and talk about
her personal life in the rest of the class.” (I10)

“He likes to speak a lot in class about his family and waste the time of the class.” (I12)

“She kept sitting down. She was curious to know about us in the United Arab Emirates. If we
talked about something that doesn‟t have to do with our lesson she couldn‟t get back to the
lesson.” (I9)

Some mentioned that some of the ineffective teachers tended not to give complete classes. A

class is supposed to be 50 minutes, but they taught for less than this.

“She was careless in teaching the course. She didn‟t give us complete classes. She gave half
an hour or forty minutes and that‟s it.” (I5)

The core of the responses collected was about the necessity of investing the time in teaching

and learning. Good teachers would devote all class time for teaching and learning English.

This would maximize students‟ opportunities to benefit from the assigned time and learn

English. This is consistent with the findings of Medley (1979) that effective and ineffective

teachers differ on use of student time. It is also supported by Blum‟s (1984) comprehensive

survey of research on effective schooling that mentioned that one of the effective teaching

practices was that class time should be used for learning.

6.3.8 Being Well Prepared

Interestingly, being well prepared was the category mentioned least frequently. The number

of responses given under this category was 29. In this category, the respondents indicated

directly that effective teachers were well prepared.

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“He prepares the lesson well before he comes to class.” (Q23)

“The teacher should prepare something for us.” (I15)

“When he got into the class, he would sit down for ten minutes flipping the pages of the book.
He didn‟t have any specific thing to give us.” (I13)

The importance of teachers‟ preparation is supported by Easton‟s (1983) research who found

that effective teachers spend considerable time planning and organizing their courses,

objectives and criteria. Hubbard‟s (2001) research was consistent with this outcome. It

stated stating that effective teachers should be organized and prepared. Similarly, Murdoch

(1997) indicated that one of the features of effective EFL teaching was planning carefully

and flexibly.

The low frequency of this category should not mean though that students underestimate

teachers‟ preparedness; it could mean that learners have priorities. What is important for

them after all is teachers‟ ability to teach, help them to understand and improve in English.

Being well prepared may help the teachers in increasing the effectiveness of their teaching,

but it does not necessarily guarantee they will achieve this effectiveness. However, I can say

that many of the categories that the respondents identified as very important characteristics

and practices of effective EFL teachers needed preparation from the teachers if they are to be

done or practised correctly and effectively.

It can be reasonably concluded from my research that respondents considered the teachers‟

choice of „teaching ways‟ as one of the aspects of their effectiveness. It is extremely

important for the EFL teachers perceived as effective, in order for them to be seen as

effective, that they use the „teaching ways‟ that suit students and help them to learn English.

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6.4 Learning Resources

Although the teaching skills of teachers were very important parameters for effective

teaching from the perspective of Arab students, respondents of this study also highlighted

four other dimensions that constituted the theme of instructional skills. Learning resources is

one of these dimensions. Respondents expected effective teachers to be not only good at

teaching English but also to enable them to benefit from different learning resources beside

the textbook so that they could have a better opportunity to develop their English language

skills and upgrade their level in this language. The following Table shows the categories

classified under the learning resource dimension and their frequency. As we can see in Table

6.2, the category of giving handouts and worksheets is the most frequently mentioned

category, while the other two categories were much less frequent. However, their

frequencies can still be considered high.

Table 6.3: The categories classified under the learning resources dimension and their rate
of frequency
Category Frequency

1. Giving handouts and worksheets 177

2. Using computer technology 94

3. Investing library resources 84

6.4.1 Giving Handouts and Worksheets

Giving handouts and worksheets from outside the textbook was emphasized by most of the

participants in this study. This category was given 177 responses. Respondents found that

these materials matched with their level and met their needs better than the textbook. These

materials were either photocopied from other resources or created by their teachers. The

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respondents described the aspects of the handouts and worksheets they got from their

teachers as follows:

a) Diversity of materials;

b) Found to be more useful for learning English than textbooks;

c) Containing a lot of practice.

a) Diversity of materials

One of the aspects of the handouts the respondents talked about was that they contained a

diversity of materials. They appreciated it when their teachers tried to diversify the learning

resources.

“He uses a diversity of the learning resources.” (Q12)

“She brought us reading materials from the internet, magazines and the newspapers.” (Q12)

The topics and information that those materials contained were most likely to be up-to-date

because the resources that they were collected from were periodicals such as magazines and

newspapers or updated regularly such as the computer internet. The respondents found these

materials useful in learning English. Through this diversity of material students were

exposed to a variety of learning resources through which the contents were presented to them

in different styles and different methods. Handouts and worksheets may meet the needs of

certain groups of students, match their level, expose them to new information and give them

a better chance to learn English. This is supported by the findings of Saafin (1999) that

teachers should go beyond the curriculum and give additional information.

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b) Found to be more useful for learning English than textbooks

The four places where the study was conducted used different textbooks for different levels

which means that the students talked about a great variety of textbooks which were mostly

published by international publishers and they were common among intensive English

programs. Moreover, the management of these programs often changed some of the

textbooks annually in response to the feedback mainly collected from teachers. This means

that the students were giving their opinion on a wide range of textbooks. Although these

textbooks are changed and updated on regular basis, the students still did not like most of

them and considered them not very useful or interesting.

“He shouldn‟t be a slave of the textbook.” (I19)

“He gave us lessons from outside the boring textbook.” (Q101)

One of criticisms of textbooks was that textbooks have the same components and follow the

same procedures and the same teaching routine in each chapter or unit.

“…textbooks follow the same style.” (I1)

In addition, respondents believed that textbooks might not have all the advantages that

handouts have. They said that their perceived effective teachers gave them handouts that

helped them to understand better and improve their English.

“He gives easy handouts from outside the textbook that help all students understand.” (Q55)

“He gives us worksheets that help us in conversation.” (Q42)

“She gives students reading materials from outside the book as homework. This would help
students to improve their reading skill and increase their vocabulary.” (I6)

“She let us listen to texts from outside the textbook.” (Q23)

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The respondents talked about the usefulness of these handouts in helping them to understand

things, developing their reading and listening skills and increasing their vocabulary. The

handouts addressed the participants‟ needs much better than textbooks and this affected their

learning positively. They contained a wide range of different materials that they liked and

made them more enthusiastic and interested in learning English. The view of the participants

on the little usefulness of the available textbooks is supported by the view of Anderson

(2003) who explained in the introduction of his four reading textbooks why he decided to

write the ACTIVE reading textbook series.

“In May 2000, I was sitting at a swimming pool in Melaka, Malaysia, with my colleague and friend

David Nunan, and John Lowe from Thomson Learning. We started talking about my interest in

reading, and in the lack of a good EFL reading series. That‟s when the idea for ACTIVE Skills for

Reading began.”

This does not necessarily mean that that student will like his books. The important issue here

is that one of the textbook authors admitted that reading textbooks are not very good. This

might be the case with textbooks on other skills.

c) Containing a lot of practice

The respondents believed that handouts enable them to practise the language more than their

own textbooks.

“He should use as many exercises and practices as he can from outside the textbook. These
materials are more useful than the textbook itself.” (I13)

“He gave us a lot of exercises and activities that helped us to understand.” (I1)

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“He gave us class activities from outside the textbook. He didn‟t use the textbook a lot
because it was useless.” (I12)

“She gave us a lot of exercises on reading passages and this helped us a lot in leaning
English.” (FI6)

Having ample practice was crucial for developing the respondents‟ English language skills.

They favoured the handouts and worksheets that contained a lot of exercises and activities

that they found more useful and interesting than the textbooks and provided them with better

practice opportunities that help them to improve their English. Engaging learners in a variety

of language tasks and maximizing language practice through different kinds of activities that

handouts contained was very vital for the respondents in learning English. This perspective

is supported by the findings of Rosenshine and Furst (1971) and Hubbard (2001) that

revealed that teachers should give a variety of activities. This was also supported by

Murdoch‟s (1997) research conducted in the UAE that effective teachers would present a

varied package of language activities. Teachers need to vary activities and limit lecture time

to maximize student attention (Good & Brophy, 2001). However, they did not indicate that

their findings question the appropriateness or usefulness of EFL textbooks.

6.4.2 Using Computer Technology

The next two categories were less frequently mentioned than the first category that we have

just discussed. Ninety-four responses were collected under this category. This frequency is

still considered high. It reflects how important computer technology in learning English is

from the perspective of the study participants. In fact, the four universities where the current

study was conducted provided computer technology service to all students. This means that

the respondents‟ views about this category were based on practical experience. They

considered the EFL teachers who used computer technology in teaching English and enabled

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them to use it as effective teachers. They found the internet English sites useful in learning

English. These sites enabled students to practise reading, listening, writing, grammar, and

vocabulary with minimum interference from their EFL teachers. They could access many

English sites such as http://esl.about.com/cs/listening, http://petprep.cjb.net,

www.readingmatrix.com., www.grammar.englishclub.com, www.eslcafe.com,

www.esl-lab.com and www.free-toefl.com,

“One of his effective practices was taking us to the computer lab frequently and asking us to
access English internet sites.” (FI3)

The respondents indicated that they used word processing programs in producing their

compositions. They also used the internet in researching certain topics and collecting the

necessary information for English language projects such as presentations, discussions and

research papers.

“He asks us to use the computer in writing our compositions [using word processing] and
papers [using internet for securing information].” (FI5)

In some of the universities where the respondents came from the computer service was not

provided in the same classroom, as some of them did, but rather they had to go to the

computer labs that belong to the English language centres. The change of the classroom or

the physical location was considered by the respondents to be a change of the classroom

routine and this was what students liked to do from time to time.

“We go to the computer lab two or three times a week so that the class routine might be
changed and the class might become more interesting and useful.” (I5)

Some said that they just liked to study using the computer. The computer technology makes

them more enthusiastic to learn English.

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“He should take the students to the computer lab and use computers in teaching because I
like studying using computers.” (I15)

The respondents liked to use computer technology for two main reasons. First, they believed

that it was one of the useful learning resources through which they can improve their English.

Second, it was something very interesting for them to use. It is very clear that they enjoyed

using the computers. This technology made them more enthusiastic and motivated to learn

This was supported by the view of Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000) who state that to

improve student comprehension, to increase literacy abilities, and to increase student

achievement, one of the things that teachers should do is use technology in the classroom.

6.4.3 Investing Library Resources

84 responses were collected under this category. According to the participants, effective

teachers would help their students to benefit from the library resources through different

activities; the most emphasized activity was doing extensive reading, which students could

not do through their textbooks. It was mainly reading stories and may be writing a book

report about each story they read.

“He takes us on Mondays to the library to read books in English and we benefit a lot from
this” (I6)

Another way their teachers tended to follow was showing students films from the library,

discussing them afterwards and maybe asking students to write a summary of these films.

“He gives us stories to read and discuss and shows us films and we give a summary of the
film.” (I17)

“She takes us to the television room so that we can develop our listening skills.” (I4)

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A third way was giving them an assignment in which they should collect information about a

certain topic.

“She takes us to the library and asks us to look for the information she wants.” (Q21)

“She also took us to the library and we would for example write a report about it.” (I16)

The participants recognized the fruitfulness of the library learning resources in learning

English. They appreciated it when teachers got them to the library and enabled them to use

its English learning resources. At the same time, moving from the classroom to the library

was considered to be a necessary change of the classroom routine and atmosphere than may

give learners more energy for learning.

6.5 Interaction

The third dimension of instructional skills theme is interaction. Respondents highlighted the

importance of interaction in learning English. They talked continuously about the usefulness

of enabling them to interact with others using the target language. As we are going to see

below, respondents straightforwardly said that if they did not use English, they would not be

able to learn it. They also found the activities in which they had the chance to interact with

others more interesting than other learning activities. The following Table shows the

categories classified under the interaction dimension and their frequency. As we can see in

Table 6.3, the category of enabling students to practise speaking English is the most

frequently mentioned category, while the other two categories were much less frequent.

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Table 6.4: The categories classified under the interaction dimension and their rate of frequency
Category Frequency

1. Enabling students to practise speaking English 123

2. Making students work in groups 51

3. Getting everyone involved 50

6.5.1 Enabling Students to Practise Speaking English

The number of responses given for this category was 123. It was the highest frequency, over

twice as many as the other categories under the same dimension. According to the

participants, those teachers who gave the chance to students to speak English ( ٗ‫ اٌفشط‬ٝ‫ؼط‬٠

ٗ٠‫ز‬١ٍ‫ )ٌٍطالة ٌٍزحذس ثبٌٍغٗ االٔد‬were deemed to be effective. The participants strongly

emphasized the significance of practising speaking English inside and outside class. They

indicated that using English helped them to develop their language. You may not be able to

learn the language if you do not have the chance to speak it. Learners could employ what

they learned in a variety of speaking activities.

“If I do not speak, I will not be able to learn the language, but if I speak and make mistakes
and the teacher corrects my mistakes constantly I then will learn from my mistakes and learn
the language.” (F2)

Some respondents went a little further and considered speaking as the most important one

among other language skills.

“What I need after all is to be able to speak English more than anything else. I learn reading
and writing, but after all the most important thing is speaking.” (F1)

They were especially interested in authentic tasks such as oral presentations, interviews,

debates and discussions that enable students to create meaning, show their creativity and

practise in higher level thinking skills. They had a sense of joy when they use a different

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language in communicating with others; they became involved in using the language in a

more authentic style; this because they started to use English in talking about real things or

situations.

“T: Do you remember one of her successful classes?”

“S1: Yes, debating class in which students choose one of the exciting topics. She divides up
the class into four groups and we talk for example about using animals in circus or the man‟s
responsibility of the extinction of certain animals. Each two groups have the same subject.
She gives us five minutes to talk with our group members and write down the main points and
after that we start debating.” (1I)

The respondents of this study believed that the best way of developing speaking skill is by

enabling learners to use it in interacting with others and expressing their feeling and talking

about their interests, ideas, opinions and personal life with minimum interference from their

teachers. The more they practise the target language and are involved in real situations and

authentic interaction such as discussions, group work and interviews, the better learning

outcomes they would achieve. This is consistent with one of the implications of social

constructivism that language is mainly communication and so it is not enough to know it, but

rather to use it (Williams and Burden, 1997). This matches with what the respondents said

above, “If I do not speak, I will not be able to learn the language.” It is not enough for them

to know grammar rules, write well and understand English; they wanted to communicate

with others in English. They believed that by using the target language they could learn it

better. This is also consistent with Reber‟s (2001) research stating that the effective FL

teacher provides opportunities for students to use the TL both within and beyond the school

setting. Besides, as we are going to see below, the findings of this study gave specific

speaking practices that the respondents considered very useful in helping them to learn

English.

Respondents indicated that enabling them to speak English and communicate with others

does not only help them to improve their language and learn from the mistakes they made but

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also they found it something interesting to use the language and talk with others. It is like

learning how to drive a car. When trainees move from the theoretical phase in which they

learn traffic rules and other mechanical issues to practising driving the car in the city streets,

they start driving with a lot of fear, anxiety and lack of confidence. By time they would gain

confidence and find it exciting to drive the car on their own and go anywhere they like to go

to. Language learning from the perspective of the respondents appeared to be similar to

driving a car. They first learn words, grammar rules, etc. and then they wanted to use what

they learned. However, when they start using the language, some of them felt worried

especially when they make mistakes and needed their teachers‟ support, but later on they

would find it useful to use the language in their interaction with others and upgrading their

level in it as well as interesting because they could talk about anything they wanted to talk

about. EFL teachers who were perceived as being effective, used the following ways so that

they could enable their students to practise the speaking skills:

a) Facilitating classroom discussions;

b) Giving the chance for students to talk about themselves;

c) Involving students in authentic speaking projects;

d) Allowing students to ask and answer questions;

e) Communicating with students in English;

f) Correcting students‟ speaking mistakes.

a) Facilitating classroom discussions

Facilitating classroom discussions is one of the things that effective teachers would do. The

respondents mentioned that their good teachers selected topics from real life that they found

interesting to discuss.

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“She would give us topics to discuss from our present life. For example we visited women in
prison and then discussed that issue. What would make a woman deviate from the right
track. I like it. What we discussed were new issues because we learn about something
happened. She gave us interesting things.” (I16)

“He gave us the chance to express our opinion and discuss interesting topics such as body
organ donation and common diseases.” (I11)

The participants found classroom discussions useful in learning English. They help them in

increasing their vocabulary.

“When I have an English lesson, it will be limited and I will not learn words other than the
ones included in the lesson, but when I try to express my opinion I will learn new words.”
(I12)

Some indicated that these discussions were not only useful, but also encourage them to speak

in English.

“He invites the students for discussion and expressing their opinions. In this case students
learn how to use the language and would be brave enough to speak in English.” (I17)

The participants would like to be involved in classroom discussions through which they can

express their opinions using the target language. What made such discussions interesting and

enjoyable for them was when they talk about topics from their real life. Classroom

discussions gave them the chance to develop their speaking skill and improve their English.

They also made them take more risks in speaking in English with other students. Some

language learners may feel worried when they start using the target language at the presence

of their teachers and classmates and they would even become more worried when they make

mistakes or stumble in words, but when they are given the chance to discuss and say their

opinions on a regular basis with full support from their teachers, they would be encouraged to

speak and interact with others. Hamachek (1969), Gusky and Easton (1983) and Blum

(1984) agree that effective teachers would encourage student involvement throughout

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lectures and in group discussions. Rosenshine and Furst (1971) also state that good teachers

acknowledge and encourage students‟ ideas during discussion. The findings of the current

study elaborated more on how classroom discussions are useful for students and what kind of

topics the students found more interesting to talk about.

b) Giving the chance for the students to talk about themselves

Another effective teacher behaviour that respondents mentioned was giving them the chance

to talk about themselves in the classroom.

“He would sit down with us and let us express ourselves.” (I15)

“She let us talk about what happened to us the day before.” (Q83)

“He tended to ask each student every Saturday, the beginning of the week, to talk about what
he or she did on the weekend. This was a chance to practise speaking, so there was a chance
for talking.” (I3)

Some mentioned that one of their preferred teachers tended to go with them to the cafeteria

where they talked about themselves and other personal issues.

“Every three weeks we tended to go with our teacher to the cafeteria and talk about our food
or our life.” (I17)

The participants were interested in talking about themselves using the target language inside

and outside the classroom. It was important for them to be able to express their feelings or

personal life in English. Personalization of the language made learning more realistic as well

as interesting for language learners. They used the language in this case in a genuine manner

to express themselves and talk about their own life. They did not talk here about other

countries or other people. They talked about themselves in English. They used the language

for a more realistic function which was communication and expressing their needs, feelings,

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thoughts, and families and not for academic reasons as they usually do in classrooms. The

findings here show that other places outside the classroom are also good places for learning.

Going to the cafeteria with their teacher might not appear to be of any learning value, but in

fact the respondents found it to be a comfortable setting where they could talk about their life

and interact with others in a more realistic situation in a real location. This is another good

opportunity for the students to practise speaking English.

This is supported by Murdoch‟s (1997) research stating that effective teachers provide

„space‟ for students to interact and ask/answer questions. They are also consistent with the

view of Page (1992) that one way that teachers can increase their effectiveness is by

engaging and encouraging dialogue in the classroom. Less able students do not get many

opportunities to express themselves or to share their opinions and feedback. According to

Rogers‟ (1969) humanistic approach, in order for learning to take place, it should be seen of

personal relevance for the learners who should play an active role in their learning. Also

Mercer (2002) indicated that in order for the students to learn a language, they need to

practise it with others in classroom and outside the classroom in social contexts.

c) Involving students in authentic speaking projects

Speaking projects were highlighted by the respondents. One of these speaking projects is the

presentation. The students were asked to give a presentation on a certain topic. After

collecting the necessary information about these topics, the students were expected to stand

in front of their class and give their presentations.

“Every girl should give a presentation. She gave us practice how a student can stand in front
of the class and speak about her friend. On the day of the presentation she would give us a
list of questions about the presentation. After the presentation we see if her voice was loud
enough and if the information was ok.” (I17)

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Another form of these speaking projects was interviews. The students are asked to prepare a

list of questions and interview one of the teachers, staff, students or people from outside the

university. After doing these interviews, they report them to the class.

“She asks us to interview one of the teachers; we give a presentation to the class on it.” (I15)

A third form of these projects was internet research. The students were asked to collect

information on a certain topic from the internet and then come to class and discuss it with

other students.

“He would ask us to do a small internet research on one of these interesting topics and then
bring the research to class for discussion. We studied these topics and learned words. This
was wonderful and made us enjoy it.” (I20)

These projects were seen to help them in improving their English and developing their

speaking skills. They benefited the respondents in increasing their vocabulary in the topics

they researched and then presented in class. Also interviewing people encouraged them to

talk to other people in groups and individually using the target language. The respondents

indicated that these projects are exciting for them. As we mentioned above, making classes

interesting is one of the characteristics of effective teaching. According to Sheperd (2000),

learning should be authentic and related to the world outside the classroom. It is not enough

to make classes more interesting. Students should be able to use knowledge in real-world

settings. This view is also consistent with the perspective of the cognitive approach in which

the learner is considered as an active participant who is involved in the learning process of

the target language. Learners can learn a language more readily if they are engaged in

meaningful activities in which they use the target language (Williams and Burden, 1997;

Wong-Fillmore, 1985).

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d) Allowing students to ask and answer questions

As it was shown in „uses suitable teaching methods‟ (6.2.1) the participants liked the teachers

who ask questions. Similarly here, they liked the teachers who let them ask and answer

questions.

“She accepts all kinds of questions even if they were repeated.” (Q32)

“She gives each student the chance to ask and answer questions.” (Q86)

“When we ask him a question, he would be angry or give you a certain look. He considered
our questions silly.” (I7)

Effective EFL teachers welcomed all kinds of students‟ questions. Through questions

learners can get the necessary knowledge from teachers and at the same time answering

questions by students give them the chance to communicate in English and thus practise the

target language. This result is in line with Murdoch‟s (1997) and Saafin‟s (1999) research

findings that one of the key features of good classroom practices is providing „space‟ for

students to interact and ask/answer questions.

e) Communicating with students in English

Some participants said that good teachers would not communicate with them in Arabic, in

case they were native speakers of Arabic.

“She speaks with us in English only and as a result she forces us to deal with her in
English.” (I5)

“She doesn‟t allow students to speak Arabic in class and this helped us to develop our
speaking skill.” (I16)

One of the major purposes of dividing up the class into small groups is to enable as many

students as possible practise the target language. However, some students would abuse this

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opportunity and resort to their mother tongue which was Arabic. Some respondents

mentioned that their perceived effective teachers would not allow them to speak Arabic in

class or when they worked in groups.

“He shouldn‟t allow students to speak Arabic especially when they are divided into groups.”
(Q33)

Communicating with students in English and making students communicate with each other

in class in English gives students a better chance to practise speaking the target language.

Respondents considered it necessary for teachers to discourage students to resort to Arabic

instead of English in group discussions or any other forms of classroom interactions,

otherwise students will be deprived from one of the few opportunities to practise English.

This agrees with the perspective of the direct method of teaching. Effective teachers in this

method are expected to encourage their students to think and communicate in the target

language. This view is also consistent with the findings of Reber (2001) that good teachers

use the target language as the predominant means of classroom communication.

f) Correcting students’ speaking mistakes

Some respondents mentioned that the EFL teachers they perceive as being effective tended to

correct their mistakes that they made when they spoke English.

“He would correct our speaking mistakes.” (I14)

“Whenever we speak English she tended to correct our grammar.” (I8)

“If one of us made a mistake in grammar she would correct it and explain the rule.” (I9)

The respondents would like their teachers to correct their mistakes. They did not mind

correcting them when they occur and in front of the class. They said that they came to class

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to learn and if their teachers did not correct their mistakes directly and told them what was

correct, they might not learn.

“If I do not speak, I will not be able to learn the language, but if I speak and make mistakes
and the teacher corrects my mistakes constantly, I then will learn from my mistakes and learn
the language.” (F2)

“What is required from the teacher is to teach you and if he does not correct your mistakes,
he in this case did nothing.” (F3)

Some said that some teachers would correct their mistakes indirectly.

“There was a teacher who tended to collect the common mistakes we make and type them on
a sheet of paper and asks us to correct them.” (Q35)

The respondents wanted their teachers to correct their mistakes when they occurred. They

considered correcting their mistakes useful for them in improving their English. This view is

consistent with one of the outcomes of SLA research regarding the usefulness of corrective

feedback in language learning. It would appear that effective teachers should give corrective

feedback to their students when they make mistakes because it can help FL learners produce

more correct utterances in the TL. For example, Carroll & Swain, (1993) concluded in their

study that not only the explicit forms but also implicit forms of feedback led to learning.

This view is also in line with the perspective of the community language learning method of

teaching in which teachers should give corrective feedback to students in a non-threatening

supportive environment.

As we can see, the respondents emphasized the speaking skill more any other. They greatly

appreciated speaking in English and would appreciate it highly when teachers give them the

chance to speaking in the target language especially when they personalize the language and

talk about themselves and their own life. This highlights the importance of giving some of

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the class time for learners to learn on their own. The role of the teacher in this case will

change into that of a consultant role rather than an authoritative figure.

6.5.2 Making Students Work in Groups

The results of this research showed that effective teachers would make their students work in

groups. The data contained 51 responses under this category. In these responses respondents

talked about making students work in groups as one of the effective teaching behaviours of

their teachers.

“He divided the class into groups and then one of us reported our discussion to the class.”
(I14)

Many respondents strongly stressed the usefulness of group work in learning English. Some

indicated that group work gave them a better chance to speak in English and discuss things.

Everybody in groups have the chance to talk and participate while in class work fewer

students have the chance to speak. They also felt more comfortable to speak in a group

rather than talking to the whole class. Group work encourages timid or shy students who

shun from classroom participation to speak and interact with the members of their group.

“She divides up the class into two groups that discuss a certain topic or ask general
information questions. This helps us to speak better and makes us more courageous to do any
thing.” (I17)

Some indicated that group work helped them to understand the lesson or point being taught.

“He sometimes divides up the class into groups and this helps us to understand better.”
(Q44)

Some others indicated that students could help each other through group work. It is a very

good chance for weak students to get the amount of help they needed from more able peers.

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“He divides up the class into groups and let them help each other especially weak students.”
(I3)

The participants found group work very useful in learning English. It gave them a good

chance to practise the language and help each other. This perspective is supported by

Hamachek (1969) who reviewed the available literature about the characteristics of good

teachers and listed several personal characteristics one of which was the ability to relate

students one-to-one or in a group. It is also in line with the view of Gusky and Easton‟s

(1983), Blum (1984) and Reber‟s (2001) that effective teachers encourage student

involvement throughout lectures and in group discussions. This also coincided with the

findings of Ruddell (1997) and Pilgreen (2000) who state that effective teachers use

cooperative learning. In addition, the SLA research perspective puts a lot of emphasis on the

importance of group work in teaching and learning a language. The role of group work in

classroom FL learning has been found to enhance SLA from a pedagogical perspective (Long

& Porter, 1985). When a learner has the information that another learner doesn't have, he or

she is likely to make sure that the other learner knows it so that they can complete the task

(Long, 1980; Long, 1981; Long, 1983; Pica & Doughty, 1985a). The social constructivist

approach is also in line with this perspective. According to Mercer (2002), the social

constructivist perspective considers group activities in classroom very useful in the sense that

they give learners a good chance to practise, use the language in different ways and think

collectively.

6.5.3 Gets Everyone Involved

The number of responses given under this category was 50. Many respondents mentioned

that they would like to be active participants in English classes and not passive ones.

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“She tries to involve all students. She doesn‟t want students to listen only but rather listen
and participate.” (I9)

Playing an active role in learning English made them more excited about learning English

while being passive learners may make them feel bored and lose interest in class.

“He should ask the students and involve them in discussion otherwise his class will be
boring.” (I6)

“We listened to what he said but there was no participation. He asked and answered at the
same time.” (I8)

Some talked about how their teachers involved them.

“We spend the time of the class in working, answering and practicing.” (Q85)

“He asks questions or gives exercises and this makes students interact with him.” (I5)

“After explaining the lesson, she involves us by writing on the board.” (Q30)

The respondents found that involving them in classroom activities and keeping them busy

was interesting and useful in learning English. Effective teachers would try to make all

students participate and interact with their teachers and classmates. Student involvement is

considered to be necessary by language learners as well as it is one of the basic teaching

principles in teacher training programs. This is supported by the view of Hamachek (1969),

Gusky and Easton (1983) and Blum (1984) who state that effective teachers encourage

student involvement. It is also supported by Ramsden‟s (1992) research that one of the

principles of effective teaching at a university level is encouraging active engagement.

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6.6 Management

The following table shows the categories and their rate of frequency that I classified under

the management dimension. These categories reflected the effectiveness of EFL teachers

from the perspective of the participants.

Table 6.5: The categories classified under the management dimension and their rate of frequency
Category Frequency

1. Classroom control 41

2. Punctuality 21

3. Implementation of rules 17

These categories were far less mentioned overall than those categories in the other

discussions. However, they are still important from the perspective of management people

and teaching training programs. That some respondents talked about such categories

reflected their ability to give feedback on important issues that concern the management and

trainers as well as students.

6.6.1 Classroom Control

Classroom control is the major category under the dimension management. This category is

the most frequently mentioned among other categories classified under management

dimension. The number of responses I collected from the data under this category was 41

which indicated that the most important aspect of the management of EFL effective teachers

from the respondents‟ perspective was their ability to maintain class control. They indicated

that the teachers‟ personality is a major element in helping them to control their classrooms.

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“He should control the class and manifest his strong personality from day one.” (I13)

“They would not let you talk with your neighbour; they held our attention.” (I13)

“He had a weak personality. We sat down at the back joking, laughing and talking.” (I11)

Some said that good teachers know how to deal with disruptive students in the classroom.

“He should control the students. Some students are out of control and talk a lot. He should
be strict with them.” (I15)

“He didn‟t like noise and if a student tries to make noise he knows how to deal with him.”
(I19)

The respondents believed that maintaining class control creates a suitable atmosphere for

learning English.

“She had the ability to control the class. I also noticed that she managed to control those
students who tend to chat in other classes and this gives the class a better chance for
learning.” (I4)

“I didn‟t like teacher number eight. There was no class control. If there is class control
learning will occur.” (I17)

When teachers control their classes, they can maintain a good learning atmosphere in the

classroom. You cannot learn properly when you have some students who make noise in class

and distract the rest of the class. Therefore, it was significant for the respondents that their

teachers could maintain class control so that they can maintain learning environment in

which they can learn English. This is in line with the view of Good and Brophy (2001) who

state that teachers should be able to make students conform to certain rules and procedures

that are designed to support instruction. Wong and Wong (1991) indicate an effective

teacher is a good class manager who organizes students, materials and time so that teaching

and learning can take place. However, this does not mean that teachers should maintain an

absolute class control with which students may not be able to interact with each other or with

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the teacher. Teachers should control their classes as much as it is necessary for maintaining a

good learning environment. In other words, there is no need for over controlling the class

and excessive use of teachers‟ authority especially in dealing with students at a university

level. Students need to have a sense of freedom in their class. According to Page (1992) one

way that teachers can increase their effectiveness is by replacing heavy-handed control with

more ambiguity and freedom. Gettinger (1988) and Jones (1996) also state that in stead of

concentrating on being authority figures, teachers should approach classroom management as

a process of establishing and maintaining an effective learning environment.

6.6.2 Punctuality

The next two categories were far less frequently mentioned than the category I have just

discussed. I collected 21 responses under this category. However, it was still an issue for

some respondents.

“He tended to come to class on time.” (I1)

“He starts the class on time and finishes it on time.” (I4)

“He was punctual in coming to class.” (Q25)

Punctuality is a sign of effectiveness from the perspective of some of the respondents.

Effective teachers set good examples for their students by being punctual. If teachers expect

students to be punctual, teachers as well should be punctual. At the same time, as it was

indicated under the category „invest class time‟, many students don‟t like their class time to

be wasted.

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6.6.3 Implementation of Rules

As we are going to see in chapter 7 the category 7.2.5 „being flexible and willing to

compromise‟, 60 responses were classified under that category which means a wider range of

the respondents wanted their teachers to be willing to compromise especially in implanting

attendance rules and considered this as an aspect of effective teachers. However, I collected

17 responses that opposed this tendency and highlighted the need for teachers to be strict in

observing the rules.

“He was strict in observing the rules.” (Q34)

“He implemented the rules of the university accurately.” (Q49)

Some other respondents specified the rules they expect good teachers to implement. They

were mainly the attendance rules.

“He insists on taking attendance regularly.” (I6)

“He was a little bit strict. When we came to class late teacher number one would mark us
late.” (I9)

“When we leave and come back during the class time, he didn‟t say anything. I don‟t like
the teacher who is not strict. It is good that the teacher is easy, but too much flexibility is not
good.” (I12)

Although many participants considered strictness important for teachers to be effective, they

emphasized the element of friendliness in implementing the rules strictly.

Some respondents‟ comments highlighted this issue clearly by saying that students may

accept from one implementing the rules and marking them for example absent or late, but

may not accept it from another. This was because the first teacher was a person who did not

really want to punish students but rather conform to the university rules while the second

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teacher appeared as a person who managed to catch the student doing something wrong and

therefore he/she was glad to punish that student.

When students understand that rules are there not for the purpose of punishing them but

rather to serve the teaching and learning process, and when teachers try to avoid being

unfriendly with students when implementing the rules, the reaction of students could be

different and the students would more likely accept them. Teachers can say, „no‟ but with a

smile.

“He shouldn‟t be too strict. He can observe the rules, but at the same time he shouldn‟t be
too strict. He can mark you absent and at the same time he doesn‟t make the student
unhappy. It is his right, but you know students feel unhappy because of anything. In general
he can mark him absent and talk with him, but not in front of the students; he should talk
with him in private.” (I8)

“Although she was friendly, she was strict.” (Q102)

Some talked about the reflection of implementing the rules on their behaviour.

“He was strict in class. He will mark you late if you come late. This was good because it
taught me to be punctual in my life.” (I20)

This was consistent with the view of Good and Brophy (2001) stating that

“Teachers … need to require their students to conform to certain rules and procedures. However,

these rules and procedures are not ends in themselves but are means for organizing the classroom to

support teaching and learning. Thus, classroom management should be designed to support

instruction and to help students gain in capacity for self-control.” (p. 123).

Accordingly, it should be made clear to the students that these rules are necessary for

supporting their learning.

The findings of this study revealed two different perspectives on the issue of whether

teachers should be strict and implement the rules or to be flexible and willing to compromise

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in implementing the rules. While some participants indicated that their teachers should be

strict in observing the rules and policies of the IEP and the university, many others said

completely the opposite. The background behind the persistence of many students that

teachers should not be very strict in implementing the attendance rules was that the

attendance policies of the IEPs where the study was conducted were strict and those students

who failed to conform to these rules suffered severe consequences. For example, in one of

the IEP when students‟ absence record reaches 20%, they are asked to leave the program and

given a failing mark. In fact, this happened every semester to a number of students.

Moreover, some teachers give some marks for students‟ attendance. All of this might make a

large number of students favour teachers‟ willingness to compromise. The same thing

applies on giving making up exams. Exams and marks were important for them because in

the light of these exams decisions were made whether or not students should be promoted.

6.7 Concluding Remarks

It can be reasonably concluded from this chapter that „instructional skills‟ define an

important factor of effective EFL teaching. The respondents focused on the teaching skills

and practices of effective EFL teachers. It is clear that the common theme among these

aspects is facilitating things for students and enabling them to understand and succeed in

learning English. The findings of this study showed that students consider the teachers‟

choice of the teaching approaches and techniques as one of the significant skills of the EFL

teachers the respondents perceived as effective. The teaching methods themselves are of

different levels of effectiveness; some might be very effective and others might be less

effective in helping learners to learn. Teachers might not be completely aware to what extent

one method helps students to understand more than another. The method that the teachers

use might be good from their perspective, but in practice it is not. Teachers should use a

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variety of instructional methods to keep students interested in the material and meet

individual learning styles and preferences. This is related to the social constructivism

learning theory which is concerned with learners constructing their own understandings in

ways that are personal to them and in accordance every learner learns things differently, and

„what is known will depend on who is doing the knowing‟ (Williams, 1997, p. 3).

It can also be concluded that one of the significant elements in English language teaching and

learning is students‟ involvement; enabling students to practise the language is crucial for

learning English especially the oral aspect of this practice. Through practising speaking and

using the target language in real situations, students could develop their language skills.

Lecturing style is not effective in teaching English; teachers should limit their lecturing time

and give the arena for the students to interact and work on learning the language through a

variety of activities and practices. Another thing that the data revealed is giving homework,

assignments and exams on a regular basis. These tasks could engage students in learning

activities and give them feedback on their progress. In addition, the findings revealed it is

important for teachers not to rely completely on textbooks, which many respondents

questioned their usefulness, but rather invest other learning resources in helping students to

learn English. Computer technology, handouts and worksheets and libraries are highly

recommended to be used in English classes.

6.8 Summary

This chapter introduces the instructional skills theme as a major theme of the findings of this

study. This theme was divided up into for major dimensions which were methodology,

interaction, learning resources and management. Under each dimension a number of

categories were classified; in these categories, the respondents put a lot of emphasis on the

significance of the teaching skills and practices in teaching English that the EFL teachers

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they perceived as effective used; they found them to be useful and helped them in improving

their English. This chapter ended with a number of conclusions that are important for

preservice as well as inservice teachers to learn from.

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 Chapter Seven

Theme Two: Human Characteristics

7.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the second theme extracted from the qualitative data which reflects the

perceptions of Arab tertiary students of an effective EFL teacher. It is the human

characteristics. I present the result classified under this theme in two main dimensions:

interpersonal characteristics and personal characteristics. The categories classified under

these themes highlight the significance of the human element in the teaching and learning

process. This is clearly reflected through the respondents‟ comments used in this chapter.

7.2 Interpersonal Characteristics

This is a highly important dimension of effective EFL teaching that the respondents

highlighted. Effective EFL teachers know how to deal with students and make them

interested in learning through them. The results revealed that the human element in the

teaching and learning process is crucial from the perspective of Arab students in the UAE

universities. Many of the respondents‟ responses are supported by views of Bergman and

Gaitskill (1990), Reissman (1999), Collinson (1999) and Verner (2000) that effective

teachers have interpersonal skills. Their responses are also supported by Hamackek (1969)

and Johnson and Roelke‟s (1999) research stating that effective teachers are good

communicators. The categories emerging from the qualitative data that were classified under

the interpersonal characteristics dimension are shown in table 7.1 below.

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Table 7.1: The categories classified under the interpersonal characteristics dimension
and their rate of frequency
Category Frequency

1. Has a friendly manner 161

2. Helps students 112

3. Encourages and motivates students 70

4. Flexible and willing to compromise 60

5. Respects students 57

6. Creates a good atmosphere 57

7. Treats students as equals 37

8. Listens to students 13

9. Identifies/meeting students‟ needs 12

7.2.1 Has a Friendly Manner

The first two categories are the most frequently mentioned among the eight categories

classified under the interpersonal characteristics dimension. The number of responses

identified in the data collected from students on this category was 161. This clearly indicates

that teachers‟ friendliness is of high value for Arab students. There was a perfect consensus

among the participants in all three phases that friendliness of EFL teachers was very

necessary. The research findings of Saafin (1999), Berlin (2000) and Hubbard (2001) agree

with this view that in order for teachers to be effective they should develop a friendly

relationship with their students. Also in the community learning approach teachers must

build a close relationship with the learner.

The participants highly appreciated teachers who were friendly with them inside and outside

the classroom and indicated that this helped them in learning and improving their English. If

teachers are friendly, this will help the students to learn things from them, whereas if the

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teachers are not friendly or are tough with students, they may not be able to gain, benefit or

understand what their teachers teach, no matter how effective these teachers are. One of the

reasons could be because the language has a social aspect. It is the tool of communication

between the teachers and students. To have a social context without friendliness is

something not expected or desirable. Another thing could be cultural influence that made

students emphasize teachers‟ friendliness and expecting a lot from teachers in this particular

issue. The Arab culture values friendliness and considers it as one of the important

characteristics of „a good person‟. The data revealed several aspects of the friendliness the

participants talked about:

a) building bridges between them and their students;

b) interacting with students outside the classroom;

c) informal interaction with students;

d) socializing with students;

e) treating students as friends or family members;

f) smiling at the students;

g) friendliness enhances students learning.

a) Building bridges between them and their students

The first aspect of friendliness that was highlighted was that the effective teachers try to be

close to students by „building bridges between them and their students‟ ( ٓ١‫ث‬ٚ ُٕٙ١‫س ث‬ٛ‫ثٕبء اٌدض‬

ُٙ‫)ؽالث‬. Good teachers are expected to take the initiative and try to establish a friendly

relationship with their students.

“She should try to build bridges between her and her students.” (Q7)

“She treats students in a good way and tries to be close to them.” (I5)

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“He established a friendly relationship with students from the beginning.” (I10)

Some talked about the usefulness of establishing a good relationship with them. They

indicated that it would help in making teachers easier to approach and interact with them.

“He should have a good relation with his students. He shouldn‟t be tough with students.
There was interaction between her and the students. The relation was easy with her.” (FI3)

By establishing this kind of relationship, students would feel that their teachers are close to

them and this closeness is likely to bridge the gap between them, make teachers easier to

access and pave the way for a better communication between teachers and students. It has a

positive influence on the students as learners who receive their knowledge from somebody

who is friendly and close to them.

b) Interacting with students outside the classroom

The second aspect of teachers‟ friendly manner the respondents expressed was that the

perceived effective teachers were willing to communicate with their students at a personal

level outside the classroom boarders. This was seen to be a symptom of teachers‟

friendliness.

“He should keep in touch with them and ask them about themselves. When he meets a student, he can
ask him about his family so that he can have some sort of relation with the students.” (I19)

“When we met this teacher outside the class, she would speak with us and would smile.”
(FI4)

“He should deal with students outside the class like a friend or a brother and not just a
teacher who doesn‟t joke and laugh with students.” (FI2)

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Some talked about the effect of interacting with students outside the classroom on them. It

breaks the ice between teachers and their students and makes students feel more comfortable

when communicating with their teachers at an informal level.

“He has a friendly relationship with students inside and outside the class. This gives the
student a sense of security.” (Q98)

“He was kind. He would say hello. This made me like the teacher.” (I19)

Effective teachers interacted with their students at an informal level outside the classroom by

talking about personal matters, general things or being humorous with students. Even saying

„hello‟ and smiling at students when meeting them outside the classroom are friendly

behaviours that students appreciate. The respondents found that teachers‟ friendliness and

informal interaction with students outside the classroom helped in developing a friendly

relationship between them and created positive feelings toward teachers which in turn may

have a positive reflection on learning English. Another benefit is that students have the

chance to use the target language in more realistic situations. Noddings (1992), Page (1992),

Reissman (1999), Murray (1991), Blum (1984) and Verner (2000) agree with the view that

effective teachers interact with their students beyond the limits of the classroom.

c) Informal interaction with students

The third aspect of this friendliness was informal interaction or communication with

students. Teachers might talk with their students about nonacademic issues that have to do

with students‟ personal lives. Respondents appreciated this and found it to be another sign of

teachers‟ friendliness.

“She was informal with us in class. She tended to interact with us. … She made us feel that
she was like a friend.” (I6)

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Some elaborated on when they talk informally and what they talk about. They indicated that

at the beginning of classes, their teachers gave them the chance to talk about things that were

mainly related to students‟ personal experience such as the food they ate, their weekends, etc.

“She knew how to interact and communicate with students. …Her class was full of life. She
let us talk about ourselves. She would ask us what we did in the weekend. In this case I
improve my English. After that she would start the lesson.” (FI5)

“Other teachers got into the class smiling and ask the students about what they did the day
before and what they ate. Then they would start the class.” (I8)

“When she got into the class she chatted with us freely. She would talk about anything and
gave us the chance to talk at the same time.” (I16)

As we can see, respondents found this kind of informal communication not only a friendly

behaviour but also something useful in improving their English. They had a good chance to

speak English and talk about themselves and their lives in real situations.

d) Socializing with students

The fourth aspect of the friendly manner that the respondents talked about was that good

teachers would socialize with their students.

“We interacted with her. We talked about our personal life and other current issues. She
knew the circumstances of every student.” (FI1)

“He was friendly. He gave me the chance to meet him outside the class and talk with him.”
(I11)

Several respondents mentioned the cafeteria as one of the favourite settings where the

perceived effective teachers tended to mingle and socialize with their students. What made

students interested in meeting their teachers in the cafeteria was that it was a genuine place

away from the classroom where they can talk freely with their teachers and classmates. They

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were involved in using the target language in a social context to talk about real things that

match with their interests, feelings and real life.

“We talked with him in class and outside the class. He was a friend of us; he tended to sit
with us in the cafeteria and ask us about our life in our society. This would make the student
like the class and the subject matter and encourage him to work harder.” (FI3)

“He met us in the cafeteria in the evening several times and talked with us.” (FI5)

“She interacted with us a lot in the class and outside the class. She tended to come to the
cafeteria.” (Q57)

On the other hand, respondents considered that the lack of this kind of communication

between students and teachers resulted in failure to understand each other which might result

in minimizing cooperation between them and again this would have a negative reflection on

the whole teaching and learning process.

“We were in different worlds. He didn‟t mix with the students” (I17)

Respondents appreciated it very much to see their teachers among them and like them.

Socializing with teachers was something that students enjoy. It made the teacher more

acceptable for them. In addition, students again would have a good opportunity to speak

English and express themselves using the target language. At the same time teachers would

be able to explore the academic as well as the social difficulties that their students face in

learning English. In line with this, social constructivist perspective is that it highlights the

significance of social interactions between learners, teachers and tasks in the learning

process. In addition, the social constructivist model recognizes the importance of the social

context in which learning takes place (Williams and Burden, 1997).

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e) Treating students as friends or family members

The fifth aspect of the friendliness was that their effective teachers „treated them like friends

or family members‟ (ٍٗ‫ افشاد ِٓ اٌؼبئ‬ٚ‫ْ ِغ اٌطالة وبطذلبء ا‬ٍِٛ‫زؼب‬٠).

“She treated with students as friends. She even talked to us about herself and her family.”
(FI3)

“He likes his students and considers them like his children.” (I12)

“He treats us as an older brother.” (Q1)

“She should treat us as sisters of her and not as teacher.” (I3)

Respondents considered that creating a family atmosphere in the class was something

necessary in language classes. It had a positive effect on their learning of English.

“She treated us like a mother, so I liked her a lot and this made me improve in her course.”
(I13)

This kind of treatment is characterized with kindness, warmth and openness that make

students feel more comfortable and maximize cooperation between teachers and their

students. This is consistent with the view of Noddings (1992) indicating that classrooms need

to provide family-like support to students.

f) Smiling at the students

The sixth aspect of good teachers‟ friendliness is smiling. The respondents appreciated it

when their teachers smile at them and consider it as a sign of friendliness.

“He gets into the class with a big smile and this is the most important thing.” (I15)

“He tended to smile.” (Q36)

“She always smiles and she is a friend for all. She never disputes with any student.” (I7)

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Some talked about the benefit of smiling behaviour on the learning atmosphere in the

classroom.

“He should smile during class time so that there can be a good atmosphere for studying and
we can be ready for the class.” (I17)

Some others considered that it was not enough for teachers to be good in teaching if they did

not smile.

“She taught efficiently but she didn‟t smile.” (Q29)

Having teachers who can smile to their students inside and outside the classroom was seen as

an important behaviour by the respondents. It eased the relationship between teachers and

students and might make teachers more acceptable and their classes more delightful for

students.

g) Friendliness enhances students’ learning

The respondents clearly mentioned that „teachers‟ friendliness helped them learn‟ ( ٗ‫اٌظذال‬

ٍُ‫ اٌزؼ‬ٍٝ‫)رضبػذ ػ‬. It has a good effect on the whole teaching and learning process. It made

students ready to learn and „buy what their teachers sell‟.

“In my opinion if the student liked the teacher, he would follow him even if the subject was
silly. The student would be interested in the course and benefit from it. He should try to
make the student like him so that he can benefit the students.” (FI2)

“She treated us like a mother, so I liked her a lot and this made me improve in her course.”
(I13)

“He treats students as friends, so he makes students like him and they would pay attention to
him when he explains the lesson.” (I10)

Some considered that friendliness made classes enjoyable.

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“Her friendliness makes her classes interesting” (Q112)

Some other respondents found friendliness useful for students‟ learning in the sense that it

removed barriers between teachers and students made students more frank and more

courageous with their teachers regarding their teaching. They could give their teachers

feedback on the usefulness of the teaching materials they provided them with and the

appropriateness of their teaching methods that they used in teaching English.

“Their should be a good relationship between the teacher and the students so that the
students can criticize the teacher and ask him to change some of his teaching methods or
practices that students don‟t like or feel they are of little benefit.” (I15)

On the other hand, some respondents made it very clear that unfriendliness would affect their

learning negatively. They said in more than one occasion that they might not understand

what unfriendly teachers explain in class; it seems to be a psychological issue.

“She should try to be a friend of us more than a teacher. Her relationship with us was
formal. We could not understand her classes as long as we feel that we are not close with
each other.” (I4)

As we can see, the respondents considered the friendly manner of effective EFL teachers as

the most important quality of effective EFL teachers under the dimension of „interpersonal

characteristics‟. Teachers‟ friendliness had a positive reflection on students‟ learning, while

teachers‟ unfriendliness was found to hinder the learning of English language which itself

has social aspects that entail reasonable friendly social contexts. This is supported by the

findings of Saafin (1999), Bergman and Gaitskill (1990), Page (1992), Murray (1991), Blum

(1984), Berlin (2000) and Hubbard (2001). Similarly, according to Rogers‟ (1969)

humanistic approach, to enhance learning a friendly atmosphere should be created.

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7.2.2 Helps Students

Helping students is the second most frequently mentioned category. The number of responses

classified under this category was 121. The respondents expected different kinds of help

from their teachers inside and outside the classroom. This is supported by Hubbard‟s (2001)

research findings that effective teachers should be helpful. It is also consistent with Verner‟s

(2000) research that effective teachers should provide support for their students during their

learning process and should also be available to their students. The data of this current study

revealed that teachers helped their students in different ways.

a) giving advice to students;

b) helping students in academic related issues;

c) helping weaker students;

d) giving good marks;

e) helping in personal matters.

a) Giving advice to students

The first kind of help was that the perceived effective teachers tended to give advice to their

students.

“She always gives us advice.” (Q29)

Respondents mainly talked about academic advice. They mentioned that the perceived

effective teachers tended to give them advice on how to improve their English.

“He advises students what to do and what they need to improve in English.” (I15)

“He advises the students how they can practise English and which good learning resources
they can refer to.” (I20)

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“He guides us how to learn English.” (Q55)

“He tries to solve the studying problems of students.” (Q76)

Some talked about helping weaker students and counseling them on how they could upgrade

their level.

“She counsels weaker students.” (I10)

Respondents considered teachers‟ advice, especially the advice to weaker ones, useful in

learning English because it guided them how to learn English and what learning resources

they should refer to. In other words, students wanted their teachers to be both teachers and

academic advisers.

b) Helping students in academic related issues

Another kind of help is helping students in academic issues in class and outside the class.

Effective teachers were expected to go beyond advising students and give help when needed.

“She tries to help us when we face a problem in learning English.” (Q56)

“She gives the students what they need to improve their level in English.” (Q23)

“He helps students in class.” (Q45)

“He answers all the questions the students ask in class.” (I3)

Some other respondents talked about getting help in teachers‟ offices.

“He asks students to go to his office if they need to know a certain thing about the subject
and he would explain to them.” (I2)

Some respondents indicated that some other teachers maintained contact with students and

continued giving help to them even if they no longer taught them. They were willing to help

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them not only in the subject matter they taught them in a certain semester, but also in other

courses that they did not teach.

“She was a very good teacher because she helped us not only in the subject she taught us but
also in all other subjects.” (I19)

“He helps me until now even though he is no longer my teacher.” (I6)

This kind of academic help in different areas and in different courses was very appreciated

by the respondents who found it very useful in helping them develop their English language

skills.

c) Helping weak students

Weak students need teachers‟ assistance more than anybody else. The respondents indicated

that the perceived effective teachers took take care of weak students. One way they helped

them was taking into consideration their level when teaching.

“He should take into consideration the weak students when he explains the lesson.” (I15)

Another way of helping weak students was by giving them more attention and trying to help

them understand the lessons.

“He should focus in his class on weak students.” (Q30)

“He should accept weak students and help them.” (I12)

A third way of helping them was by enabling them to receive assistance from stronger peers

when they work in groups or pairs.

“He lets each weak student sit down with stronger one so that he can help him.” (Q5)

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It is common that each class has weak students. Respondents believed that effective teachers

would not overlook those students and consider them hopeless cases, but rather should accept

them and deal with them according to their capacity. Respondents provided several ways in

which teachers helped weaker students.

d) Giving good marks

The fourth category was „giving good marks‟. Effective teachers would enable their students

to get higher marks in different ways. One of these ways was repeating exams that students

did badly on.

“He repeats exams if students get bad marks on them. This makes students like him.” (I6)

Another way was by giving several tests and canceling the worst two or three ones.

“If a student‟s mark is low, he should increase the number of tests so that the students‟ mark
may increase.” (I1)

“He makes the students feel that he wants to help them. He should give them the chance to
get better marks.” (I19)

Some teachers were more generous than others in giving marks especially when it had to do

with participation and homework marks. Students knew those who gave high marks and

those who did not; they preferred to take courses by those teachers who were generous in

giving marks.

“He gives us good marks.” (Q12)

Passing and failing were very serious issues for the respondents. Getting good marks helped

them to pass and move from the Intensive English Program (IEP) to the career program.

This was something that every student in the IEP aspired to. Therefore, respondents

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appreciated it very much when their teachers enabled them to improve their situation and get

higher marks, especially those who got low marks in previous exams.

e) Helping students in personal matters

The fifth category was being willing to help students even in personal matter. Respondents

appreciated this kind of help from their teachers.

“He tries to help students in all aspects and not just in the course. If you have a problem not
related to the class, you can discuss it with him at any time.” (I3)

“She helped students in all areas.” (Q61)

Some considered this kind of assistance develop a friendly relationship between teachers and

their students.

“He helped some students in solving their personal problems and as a result he had good
relationship with them.” (I7)

Students sometimes had personal problems and those problems might affect their

achievement in the course. Therefore, they expected their teachers whom they considered

more knowledgeable and experienced to counsel them so that they could solve their

problems. According to the respondents, some of the perceived effective teachers were open

to any kind of help in academic and personal issues.

7.2.3 Encouraging Students

The next four categories are far less frequently mentioned than the categories we had just

discussed. The responses classified under this category were 70. These responses showed

that the perceived effective teachers tended to encourage their students in different ways.

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One of these ways was that they encouraged students‟ involvement in classroom activities

especially those who refrain from participation.

“Some students are interested and some others aren‟t. He should continue working
with them until they like the subject.” (I3)

“She encouraged students to participate. She would also try to encourage careless
students.” (I18)

Another way was by urging students to work harder and try to do better in learning English.

This could be an incentive for students exert more efforts or continue their hard work in

learning English.

“If there is a student who didn‟t pass the midterm exam, he would encourage her and give
her more help.” (I9)

“He encouraged all students to work hard.” (I7)

“He encourages the students to do better.” (Q10)

“She urged us to learn the language.” (Q30)

A third way of encouragement was providing a safe atmosphere for students to speak in

English and not to worry about the mistakes they made. Students love to speak in English

and considered it very necessary for learning the target language. However, when they

attempted to speak, they felt worried for fear of being laughed at by their classmates or

blamed by their teachers for mistakes. Therefore, they needed their teachers‟ support and

„protection‟.

“She made us feel safe when we speak. We don‟t get afraid when we speak. She would
encourage us to speak and not to worry about our mistakes. She would smile and give us the
chance to speak. She didn‟t get angry with us. … She made us feel that English language
was easy and that by practice you would learn it.” (I10)

“She encouraged us to speak.” (Q112)

“He shouldn‟t allow other students to laugh at those who try to speak in English.” (I6)

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“He doesn‟t make fun of us when we speak but rather he appreciates what we say even if it is
wrong and he would correct our mistakes in a polite way.” (I16)

“We didn‟t have the courage to speak.” (I3)

A fourth way of encouragement the respondents mentioned was rewarding students. They

rewarded good work or answers by giving simple gifts, marks or encouraging words. This

made them feel that they were rewarded and that their work was appreciated by their

teachers.

“He would give us questions and those who can answer them first were rewarded and given
marks.” (I8)

“He gave gifts to those students who got high marks in the exam. He tried to make us do our
best.” (I13)

“She would say to us after we finish speaking good and excellent. This would make us
happy.” (I11)

“He encourages us by using words like very good and excellent.” (Q35)

Some respondents talked about the usefulness of teachers‟ encouragement at personal and

academic levels.

“He helped us to have confidence on ourselves and insists that we can do some important
things.” (Q44)

“He taught us to be brave.” (Q90)

“She makes us feel confident.” (I7)

Learning a second language is not an easy matter and as a result students might experience

some learning difficulties and sometimes feelings of frustration while learning a language.

Therefore, respondents valued teachers‟ encouragement which they found supportive for

them and helped them to gain more confidence and feel better. This result is consistent with

Blum‟s (1984) comprehensive survey on the research on effective schooling indicating that

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effective teachers should use incentives and rewards for students to promote excellence.

Similarly, it is in line with Shepard‟s (2000) view that motivation is external and depends on

positive reinforcements. It is also supported by Ramsden‟s (1992) research stating that one

of the key principles of effective teaching is encouraging independence and active

engagement. It is also consistent with Easton‟s (1983) research findings that effective

teachers encourage student involvement throughout lectures and in group discussions.

7.2.4 Flexible and Willing to Compromise

The second category that was far less mentioned than other categories is teachers‟

„flexibility‟ ( ٗٔٚ‫ ) ِش‬in dealing with students. The responses classified under this category

were 60. When respondents use the word flexibility they meant that teachers should not be

very strict with them and willing to compromise in implementing rules and meeting

deadlines. Teachers‟ willingness to compromise was highly appreciated by the respondents.

They considered it as one of the important criteria of the EFL teachers they perceived as

effective. Respondents talked about teachers‟ flexibility in different ways. The most

emphasized way was teachers‟ willingness to compromise in implanting attendance policies

of the IEP. In fact, the core of the respondents‟ responses in this category emphasized the

necessity for the EFL teachers they perceived as effective to be lenient in implementing the

attendance rules.

“The teacher must be flexible in things like attendance and lateness.” (FI4)

“He is flexible in the issues of attendance and homework.” (Q77)

“He takes attendance regularly and would only help those students who have very difficult
circumstances.” (I4)

“If a student came late he would give him a chance but if he came late again, he would be
punished.” (FI5)

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Some talked about the effect of teachers‟ flexibility on the relationship between them and

their students.

“He was flexible. For example, when a student came late or misses an exam, he would be
flexible. His flexibility would make him close to the students.” (I10)

The reason why respondents put a lot of emphasis on teachers‟ flexibility on implementing

attendance rules was because the IEPs where this study was conducted were strict and serious

in implementing the attendance rules and as a result the students who did not stick to these

rules suffered sever consequences. For example, in one of these IEPs if students came to

class less than 15 minutes late, they would be marked late; coming to class three times late

was counted as one class absence. When students missed 10% of the total of their English

classes, they would get their first warning letter. When they reached 15% they would get the

second warning letter. When they reached 20%, they would be asked to leave the course and

a failing mark would be given to them. As a result of implementing this attendance policy, a

number of students were asked to leave the IEP every semester. In addition, some teachers

would assign a certain percentage of marks for attendance; and therefore even those who did

not reach 20% but their attendance was poor, would be penalized. Therefore, these

attendance rules caused many students a lot of worries.

I believe that those students who favoured teachers‟ flexibility in implementing the rules

needed to be counseled. They should be helped to understand that it was for their benefit and

the program‟s advantage that policies and rules of the university were respected and properly

implemented. When implementing the rules, teachers should appear as people who conform

to the rules that aimed at regulating and organizing the teaching and learning process for the

interest of students themselves. At the same time, implementing the rules, especially the

ones that deal with students‟ attendance and punctuality, would help students to acquire good

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habits that they would benefit from in their career. Students who got the habit of coming to

class on time were also expected to go to their work on time.

A second way the perceived effective teachers were „flexible‟ was that they were easy-going

with their students. Respondents mentioned that teachers should not use or overuse their

authorities.

“He shouldn‟t be strict too much; he should be lenient. He shouldn‟t give instructions.” (I17)

“If she discovered somebody chewing gum, she wouldn't shout at her.” (I2)

“He shouldn‟t be strict with the girls.” (I11)

“He shouldn‟t be too strict with the students. He should be easy with them.” (I18)

“He takes into consideration our circumstances.” (Q54)

“He should accept personal excuses like sickness.” (I11)

Some considered teachers‟ strictness in dealing with them as a sign of unfriendliness that

would have a negative reflection on the learning outcomes of the subject being taught.

“He shouldn‟t try to use his authority with students; otherwise the students would hate the
subject.” (I15)

“Some students don‟t like the teacher to be strict; otherwise the students will be afraid of the
teacher and would hate the subject.” (I12)

A third way was that they liked the teachers who were flexible on the deadlines they gave for

assignments.

“He was flexible, not rigid. He didn‟t impose his opinion on the class. For example, if a
student misses a test, he would consider his reason of missing the test and if it is a very good
reason he would let him sit for a make up exam.” (FI3)

“It was ok for her if we do not turn in our homework on time in case we were busy.” (I6)

“He was lenient; when a student for example handed in her project after the deadline.” (FI1)

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Saafin (1999) and Habbard (2001) supported this view that teachers should be flexible and

willing to compromise. However, the aspects of teachers‟ flexibility from the perspective of

students were identified in this study.

7.2.5 Respecting Students

The third category that was far less mentioned than other categories is respecting students.

The responses classified under this category were 57. Respondents elaborated on how

teachers should respect them. They talked about showing respect to students in general terms

and considered it as an aspect of teachers‟ friendliness.

“He respects students and treats them friendly.” (Q33)

“We respected her and she respected us.” (I14)

“He considered me sneaky.” (I9)

“He would insult you but in a funny way.” (I15)

Another way of teachers showed respect to their students was by avoiding embarrassing them

in the presence of their students. Some Arab students find it embarrassing and consider it

insulting when their teachers question them in the classroom in front of their classmates why

they came to class late.

“She didn‟t make you feel embarrassed in front of your classmates by asking you about the
reason of your lateness.” (I8)

A third way was by showing tolerance when students make mistakes otherwise, students will

shun from participating in classroom for fear of making mistakes and this would affect

students‟ learning.

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“We were afraid of him. If a student made a mistake he would insult her.” (I12)

A fourth way teachers showed respect to their students was by respecting their opinions even

if they disagree with them.

“…he should respect students and their opinions instead of saying „ok I know‟ or giving a
negative comment on the opinion of students; he should know that some girls are sensitive.”
(I19)

A fifth way was by respecting students‟ culture by choosing teaching materials that were

acceptable from the perspective of Arab Islamic culture.

“He chose a collection of films that didn‟t contradict with our culture. He is learning Arabic
and he knows our traditions and respects them. There are scenes in the films that he didn‟t
show them to us.” (I11)

Arab students considered mutual respect between teachers and students as something

valuable that might help in establishing a good relationship between them. This result is

supported by Hamachek (1969), Fraser (1991), Gusky and Easton (1983), Ramsden (1992),

Collinson (1999), Tobin and Fraser (1991), Berlin (2000), Hubbard (2001) and Saafin

(1999). Similarly, according to Abraham Maslow‟s (1968) approach, teachers should help

learners by creating a secure environment in which they feel they belong and are respected

by others. However, the findings of this study showed us what is meant exactly by respect

from students‟ point of view; it identified the aspects of respect that the EFL teachers

perceived as effective showed to their students.

7.2.6 Creates a Good Atmosphere

The fourth category that was far less mentioned than other categories is creating a good

atmosphere. The responses classified under this category were 57. Creating a good

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atmosphere was seen by the respondents as a factor that affected the teaching and learning

process. Respondents identified three ways that their perceived effective teachers followed

in order for them to create a suitable learning environment. One of these ways was giving

time for entertainment which helped students to resist boredom, concentrate better and as

result learn better. Entertainment could be in a form of a game.

“She once gave us a game in the form of a circle and gave each student a paper with a
number. Then one of us stood up and tried to remember the number of each student. After
that she gave each student a color and asked another student to try to remember the color
and the number. Then she added something else. There was a nice atmosphere.” (I11)

Talking about something different from the class subject or joking was another form of

entertainment.

“When the teacher felt that students started to feel bored, he changed the atmosphere of the
class for five minutes by for example talking about something different: „where did you go
yesterday?‟ „What did you do?‟ Then we get back to the lesson after this entertainment.”
(I12)

“He avoids boring atmosphere in his classes by including the humour element and telling
stories. This is a good way for the teacher to get the students back to the lesson.” (I10)

“He also didn‟t talk about something else other than the class subject; he doesn‟t try to
change the atmosphere of the class. Other experienced teachers gave the students a five
minutes break when they feel bored or they said something to make you laugh.” (I13)

A second way of creating a good learning atmosphere was by changing the classroom routine

by changing the teaching location. They took their students to the library, computer lab, etc.

Some believed that having all classes in the same classroom might lead to a feeling of

boredom, while leaving their own classroom and going to other places such as the computer

lab or library would help in maintaining a good learning atmosphere.

“She should change the atmosphere of the class by changing the place of the class.” (Q8)

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“He gives his classes in different places. We have classes in the classroom, the computer
lab, library and the multipurpose room. This breaks the routine and renews the settings.”
(I19)

“We go to the computer lab two or three times a week so that the class routine might be
changed and the class might become more interesting and useful.” (I7)

A third way was changing the seating layout in the classroom. Some of them indicated that

they did not like to have the same seating layout all the time. They felt that changing the

seating plan helped in changing the classroom environment and making it better.

“He shouldn't teach all the time; he should stop and change the class atmosphere like
changing the seating layout.” (I17)

“We didn't sit down in the same way all the time.” (Q60)

Some preferred the u-shaped layout of seats in the classroom.

“He uses the u shape layout which is better.” (I1)

This result was consistent with the view of Medley (1979) and Tobin and Fraser (1991)

stating that the exemplary teachers develop and maintain a supportive, respectful, and non-

threatening classroom environment. It is also in line with the humanistic perspective of

Maslow (1968) and Rogers (1969) that a friendly atmosphere should be created so that

learning could be enhanced. Also, in the natural approach of teaching, as well as the

communicative language teaching approach, one of the roles of teachers is to create a

friendly classroom environment (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). What the current study added

to what those researchers said was that it described how the EFL teachers perceived as

effective created the learning environment that respondents found convenient.

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7.2.7 Treats Students as Equals

The next three categories are the least frequently mentioned among the categories I had

discussed above. The number of responses given for „treating students as equals‟ was 37.

Some of the respondents expressed their concern regarding teachers‟ bias and considered that

fairness as one of the characteristics of the perceived effective teachers.

“He shouldn‟t give his attention to a certain student he knows before because this annoys
other students.” (I2)

“He should be fair with students.” (Q59)

“He shouldn‟t discriminate between students. This would influence the level of the weak
student. He should take care of weak students and encourage them.” (I13)

Some went further and specified the area in which they expected teachers to be fair. They

talked about fairness in giving marks.

“He should be fair in giving marks to students.” (I9)

“He gives every body what she deserves.” (Q7)

Some others talked about fairness in giving equal opportunities in answering questions.

“He gives the students equal opportunities to answer questions.” (I5)

Respondents expected their teachers to be fair with them and gave specific examples of

teachers‟ fairness. This result is supported by Hamachek (1969), Hubbard (2001), and Saafin

(1999) stating that effective teachers should be fair and treat students as equals.

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7.2.8 Listening to Students

Listening to students was the second least frequently mentioned category. The number of

responses given under this category was 13. Listening to students is one of the qualities of a

good teacher. The perceived effective teachers tended to listen and respond to their students‟

concerns.

“She listens to our problems and tries to find solutions for them.” (Q87)

“He listens to our opinions and tries to respond positively.” (Q90)

“If a student has a concern, he should listen to her and try to give her what she wants.” (I2)

Some specified what their teachers should listen to. They believed that teachers should listen

to students‟ feedback on their teaching and try to improve it in the light of students‟

suggestions.

“He should listen to our opinions regarding the teaching methods and homework so that we
can learn in a better way.” (I7)

“She should listen to the students regarding developing her style of teaching and the kinds of
activities students would like to do so that they don‟t feel bored.” (I18)

Mere listening to students‟ concerns was found to be useful for both students and teachers. It

is a relieving thing for the students that teachers listen to them and at the same time students

could express their concerns to their teachers who in turn might help them in that regard.

Teachers would also have the chance to collect informal feedback on their teaching and the

ways it could be improved. This result is in line with Hubbard‟s (2001) research stating that

listening to students is one of the practices of effective teachers.

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7.2.9. Identifying/Meeting Students’ Needs

Identifying/meeting students‟ needs is the least frequently mentioned category. The number

of responses given under this category was only12. The EFL teachers they perceived as

effective would identify students‟ needs and work on responding to them.

“She should try to know what the students need and work on meeting these needs.” (I10)

“Students like her because she asks about our concerns and problems.” (Q34)

Some went further and elaborated on the kinds of needs and problems they expected their

teachers to identify. They were regarding English learning needs.

“He should try to identify the weaknesses of the students and try to help them in these
areas.” (I19)

“He noticed that our reading ability was ok but our speaking ability was not ok so he gave us
presentation lessons.” (I13)

“He should know the kinds of problems that a student faces when learning English.” (I1)

According to respondents, teachers should not only listen to students‟ concerns as mentioned

above but also go further and investigate about students needs. This result is consistent with

perspective of critical pedagogy that effective teachers are those who delegate power to

students and enable them to participate in the L2 education process. Their voices are to be

heard and teachers listen to them and try to respond to their needs (Auerbach & Burgess,

1987; Shor, 1980, 1987, 1992; Wink, 1997).

7.3 Personal Characteristics

The second dimension is personal characteristics. In addition to the interpersonal

characteristics that have been discussed above, the respondents identified some personal

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characteristics that influenced the teaching and learning process. It is noticeable that the

respondents did not mention any physical characteristics of teachers, but rather they talked

about the ones that might affect their language learning. These characteristics are shown in

table 7.2 below.

Table 7.2: The categories classified under the personal characteristics dimension and their
rate of frequency
Category Frequency

1. Has a sense of humour 84

2. Is dedicated 42

3. Is energetic 29

4. Is patient 25

5. Is likeable 5

7.3.1 Has a Sense of Humour

Having a sense of humour is the most frequently mentioned category under the dimension of

personal characteristics. The number of responses given under this category was 84.

Learning a language is different from learning other subjects in the sense that it has a social

aspect and the sense of humour is usually a part of our social life. Therefore, no wonder that

respondents highlighted the effect of humour in the teaching and learning process of English.

They mentioned that their perceived effective teachers were able to maintain their interest in

class and create a good learning atmosphere through their sense of humour. They identified

several ways that their perceived effective teachers demonstrated their sense of humour. One

of these ways was by joking with their students.

“She joked with us so that students can be active and we do not sleep.” (Q55)

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 “He spends five to ten minutes in joking and laughing and then he spends the rest of the time
on hard work.” (FI1)

“He would joke with students in class and outside the class.” (FI3)

Another way was by giving comments.

“He makes nice and funny comments.” (FI4)

A third way was by making body movements.

“His special movements created a good atmosphere in class and helped in holding the
attention of students.” (FI1)

Respondents also talked about the usefulness of teachers‟ sense of humour in teaching and

learning English. One of these benefits was that it helped in creating a suitable learning

atmosphere in the classroom.

“He uses fun and joking in his teaching and as a result he creates an interesting atmosphere
and makes the students like the class.” (FI6)

“He tries in the morning classes to create a fun atmosphere and include the humour element.
This is very important because students in the morning are not really ready to learn.” (I12)

Another benefit was making classes interesting.

“There should be a joke on the morning so that students can accept the class.” (I5)

“His sense of humour helps in making the students come to his classes.” (Q33)

“The class shouldn‟t be only teaching. There should be time for fun and entertainment that
make the student like the class.” (I2)

“He is the one whom you cannot interact with. There should be a fun element. When you
have two consecutive classes forty- five minutes each, you will feel bored if there is no
humour element.” (I15)

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A third benefit was that it helped in holding students‟ attention and making them more

interested in the class.

“She joked with us so that students can be active and we do not sleep.” (Q55)

“I sometimes feel sleepy because this teacher doesn‟t joke with us.” (I5)

A fourth benefit was enabling learning to occur. Some respondents went further and said that

they could not learn things from those teachers or accept what their teachers teach because

they did not have a sense of humour and their classes were more serious than they should be.

“He was funny with us so that we may not feel bored. Some other teachers are boring to the
extent that we benefit nothing from them and we wanted their classes to finish quickly so that
we can leave.” (FI4)

“A serious teacher doesn‟t always benefit the students. It is better to be somewhere in the
middle between seriousness and having fun.” (I7)

As we can see, the respondents emphasized the necessity that teachers had a sense of humour

which would enable teachers make their classes more interesting to students and at the same

time help in resisting the boredom feelings that students might have for one reason or

another. This perspective is supported by the research findings of Hamachek (1969), Walter

(1990), McCabe (1995), Verner (2000), Berlin (2000), Hubbard (2001) and Saafin (1999).

7.3.2 Is Dedicated

This category is far less frequently mentioned than the above category we had just discussed.

The number of responses given under this category was 42. Respondents valued the

dedication of their teachers. They indicated that their EFL teachers they perceived as

effective were „dedicated‟ ( ٍّٗ‫ ػ‬ٝ‫)ِخٍض ف‬. They very well invested the time assigned for

teaching and did their best in teaching their students.

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“He was a dedicated person.” (Q36)

“I felt she didn‟t give any care to the class; she tended to just explain quickly and leave.”
(I6)

Some respondents associated between teachers‟ dedication in teaching and improving their

English.

“He exerts efforts in teaching. His main goal is benefiting his class as much as possible.”
(Q90)

“She does what she is supposed to do and tries to upgrade the level of students.” (I9)

“She did her best to help us learn English.” (Q23)

Respondents expected teachers to do their best in helping them learn English and not waste

the time assigned for teaching. This view is in line with the research findings of Saafin

(1999) that teachers should be „faithful‟ from the perspective of Arab tertiary students in

doing their jobs.

7.3.3 Is Energetic

The next three categories are the least frequently mentioned ones. The number of responses

given under this category was 29. Respondents observed that the perceived effective teachers

were energetic and full of life.

“He was very active.” (Q76)

Some considered that sitting down while teaching was a sign of not being energetic.

“He shouldn‟t just sit down; he should be active.” (Q15)

Another sign of being unenergetic was being cool with students and speaking very slowly.

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“He behaved, spoke and talked in a cool manner. I mean he spoke very slowly.” (I8)

Some talked about the effect of being energetic or unenergetic on the students.

“She was energetic and this made us active.” (Q65)

“He was cool. I mean his classes made me feel sleepy.” (I13)

This result is supported by McCabe‟s (1995) research indicating that effective teachers were

lively in their interactions with students and their presentation of content.

7.3.4 Is Patient

The number of responses given under this category was 25. Respondents focused only on

one aspect of patience which was showing tolerance when dealing with students. They

considered teachers who failed to show self control and got angry at their students as

ineffective teachers.

“He doesn‟t get angry.” (I10)

“He shows self control.” (I1)

“He shouldn‟t lose his temper easily.” (I17)

“He should not get angry quickly; he should be normal.” (I5)

Some respondents described some situations in which teachers failed to show tolerance and

as a result classes were cancelled. This would adversely affect students‟ learning.

“There are many situations in which he has an argument with his students. Once, he asked
one of his students to leave the class and he opened the door for him but the student refused
and closed the door. Then he said to the student again either he leaves the class or the
teacher would leave it. The student said to the teacher that he could leave the class. Teacher
left the class and the student remained seated and in this case the class was canceled.” (I8)

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“He expected students to be ideal. Once he got into the class on time. Some students were
still talking. Then he left the class without saying anything.” (I8)

When teachers‟ lose self control, they may ruin the classroom learning environment and

create a kind of ill feelings towards them from the side of their students. This result is

consistent with the findings of Collinson (1999) that effective teachers should show

tolerance.

7.3.5 Is Likeable

Being likeable is the least frequently mentioned category. The number of responses given

under this category was 5. Respondents found that the perceived effective teachers are liked

by their students.

“He was likeable.” (Q22)

“I liked that teacher.” (I16)

Some respondents mentioned why they liked certain teachers.

“All students liked them because of their treatment.” (I4)

“He was kind. He joked with us. He would say hello. This made me like the teacher.” (I15)

Some talked about the effects of liking a teacher on their learning outcomes as well as on

their relation with their teachers.

“In my opinion if the student liked the teacher, he would follow him even if the subject was
silly. The student would be interested in the course and benefit from it. He should try to
make the student like him so that he can benefit the students.” (I10)

The low frequency of this category should not be interpreted that liking teachers is the least

important thing for most of the respondents, but rather it was one of the essential things for

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them. I believe that respondents in a way or another talked about the effect of their feelings

towards their teachers on their learning in most of the categories that we have discussed.

Teachers‟ friendliness, respect, kindness, sense of humour, assistance in academic and

personal issues, etc. are all characterized with likeness.

7.4 Summary

As it is clear from the number of responses classified under each category, these categories

are put in order according to their rate of frequency. All of them received enough responses

to consider them as distinctive characteristics of effective EFL teachers. However, a special

emphasis was put on the first two categories under the dimension „interpersonal

characteristics‟. Teachers‟ friendliness was the most frequent category; this indicates that

treating students in a friendly manner was considered extremely important by the study

respondents. Helping students inside and outside the class is also a very important quality of

effective EFL teachers. The respondents experienced this with good teachers. They also

highly emphasized the significance of the sense of humour as a personal characteristic in

creating a convenient learning environment in class and helping students to learn better.

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 Chapter Eight

Insights for the Separate Sources of Data

8.1 Introduction

In the previous two chapters we have been looking collectively at information that was given

by the respondents in all three phases. This information was mainly about the effective

teaching practices and characteristics which lent themselves to stable categories. The fact that

the respondents identified similar effective teaching qualities showed that they had a lot in

common and that their perceptions of effective teaching was in essence homogenous.

However, some differences did emerge among the respondents that indicated their realities

and perceptions were not always the same. For example, we saw in Chapter 6 that many

students perceived effective teachers as „flexible‟ and willing to compromise the rules, while

a smaller number of other respondents believed that teachers‟ strictness was necessary to

make their classes successful. We also noticed that the characteristics of effective teachers

had different frequency rates. This could mean several things. First, some categories were

more common, though not necessarily more important, among some respondents than others.

Second, some students did not mention some of the characteristics that were identified by

others. This could mean that they did not remember these characteristics when they were

interviewed or asked to complete the questionnaire. It could also mean that they were not

very important from their perspectives. It could even mean that they disagreed with one or

more of these characteristics. Moreover, we could also see some other kinds of differences

among the respondents within the categories they agreed on. That is, although they agreed

on certain characteristics, they did not always give the same details, examples, descriptions

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or practices that supported these characteristics. As we can see, although the respondents

agreed on most characteristics of effective teaching identified, there were also some

differences among them that reflected their multiple realities.

While the previous two chapters examined both homogeneous and heterogeneous aspects of

the respondents, this chapter will highlight their heterogeneity elaborating more vividly the

voices of individual participants. To do that, I selected four cases: two from Phase 1 and two

from Phase 3. Although these four cases appeared to have in essence homogenous

perceptions of what makes EFL teachers effective the same as other participants in the three

phases - they at the same time disclosed some heterogeneous information that reflected their

multiple realities. This is consistent with Radnor‟s (2002) perspective that in the social

world we deal with human behaviour which means that individuals might give different

opinions or perceptions even though they live in the same context. To be able to understand

learners‟ perceptions of effective teaching that might not be always the same for the study

respondents, I used different qualitative tools in three different phases. According to Denzin

and Lincoln (2000) can capture the individual‟s point of view and provide rich and valuable

descriptions of the social world.

8.2 Sample Interview One from Phase One

The following interview (see Appendix H) was the fourth in the list of the interviews I made

in Phase One. The interviewee, Laila (this is a pseudonym that was given to this interviewee

as well as the case for the other three interviewees), was a female student who came from

Yemen. Originally, she was not in my list of interviewees. She was only a companion of

one of my interviewees. However, I felt that she was interested in being interviewed and

talking about effective and ineffective teachers. When I asked her if she would be willing to

be interviewed, she was excited and agreed without any hesitation. She was fluent and had a

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lot to say. She was satisfied with her progress in learning English. She was also satisfied

with the performance of many of the EFL teachers who taught her English. In her interview

(see Appendix H), she was inclined to talk more about effective practices of her teachers.

Twelve teachers had taught her English in one of the IEPs by the time she was interviewed.

She perceived 6 of them as effective teachers, 3 as normal, 2 as ineffective and was not sure

about one of them.

8.2.1 Laila’s Perspective of Effective EFL Teachers

Laila gave a rich description of what makes a teacher effective from her perspective. Having

an overview of all qualities she mentioned in her interview (see Appendix H) under different

themes and dimensions, we can see that there are 5 categories that she emphasized most.

These categories are:

a) Helping students understand;

b) Being able to control the class;

c) Making students work in groups;

d) Having a sense of humour;

e) Giving handouts and worksheets.

a) Helping students understand

Helping students understanding was the most frequently mentioned category. She mentioned

this category14 times in one interview. She considered it very necessary that teachers that

they enable their students understand. In her comments, Laila emphasized two things. She

found that one way teachers can help students understand was by repeating the lesson or

teaching point.

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“He did his best so that students can understand the lesson. We sometimes asked him to
repeat the lesson and he would repeat it. He tried to make us understand.”

“He liked to help students and explain again and again until they understand.”

“If students didn‟t understand he would repeat again and again. If we didn‟t understand he
would give us exercises and ask us to do them. He would explain to us our mistakes until we
understand.”

“He would say, “Do you understand?”

The second thing was that she found that when teachers care that their students understand

and exert enough efforts in teaching and clarifying thing would help students understand.

“They did their best to make students understand.”

“If a student didn‟t understand, he would do his best to make him understand.”

“He did his best to make us understand and learn.”

“He didn‟t care to help us understand.”

b) Being able to control the classroom

Laila mentioned classroom control 12 times. She believed that it was very important for

teachers to be able to control the classroom. Teachers could do that without necessarily

being disrespectful or rude with their students.

“He should know how to deal with students. Threatening should be the last resort.”

“They knew how to deal with the students. They were able to make students respect
themselves without resorting to using bad word or threatening.”

In her comments, she mainly talked about managing the behaviours of trouble makers in

most of her comments under this category. She said that the teachers she perceived as

effective knew how to deal with troublesome elements in class. She gave different examples

of how those teachers deal with this kind of students.

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“If he noticed that one of the students is irresponsible, he should be strict with him from the
beginning and he shouldn‟t be flexible with him.”

“He was strict with silly students.”

c) Making students work in groups

This is the third most frequently mentioned category in interview 4. Laila mentioned group

work 9 times. She strongly emphasized group work and found it very useful for students in

learning English.

“He tended to divide up the class into groups. The best thing is grouping. Because when I
don‟t understand something, I ask another student. We ask each other and if we didn‟t
understand, we ask the teacher. But when you are alone and you don‟t understand, you may
not ask. There are things in English we haven‟t studied before and my English was not good.
So I asked students to help me to understand.”

“He divided us into two groups. One group is girls and one group is boys. Each group
wanted to be better than the other. We girls did the exercises and tried to know what our
mistakes were. He gave questions to the two groups. It was like a competition. Groups were
the best thing. I think that to be in a group is better that being alone. When you are alone,
you might have some mistakes or you might be absent minded or you might haven‟t
understood what the teacher said. But when you are in a group, students ask each other.”

“He should divide up the class into groups because students always like groups. We like to
ask each other and see what is correct and what is wrong.”

Laila elaborated on how group work can be useful for her and her classmates as English

learners. She mentioned that students could help each other to understand the lesson. Also,

she found it more exciting to work in groups than working individually.

d) Having a sense of humour

Laila mentioned the teachers‟ sense of humour 8 times. She considered it necessary in a

language class. This was reflected when she mentioned that all the teachers she perceived

effective had a sense of humour.

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“He had a sense of humour. All the effective teachers I mentioned have a sense of humour.”

She considered that teachers‟ sense of humour helped in creating a good learning atmosphere

in the classroom, otherwise the class would be boring and students might lose interest in it.

“He had a sense of humour. We had fun which made the atmosphere of the class interesting.
Students need to have some fun in class. It shouldn‟t be always serious. The student will feel
bored even if she is a bright one. He shouldn‟t be all the time funny. He can see when
students feel sleepy, he would change the atmosphere of the class directly.”

“His class was boring.”

One way her teachers manifested their since of humour was by joking with students which

would make students laugh and have some fun.

“He was not strict. He laughed and joked with us.”

“He was funny. When he got into the class, he joked with us.”

As we can see, Laila valued the fact that teachers had a sense of humour. She showed how

this helped in making classes more interesting and holding students‟ attention.

e) Giving handouts and worksheets

Laila mentioned teachers‟ handouts in interview 4 6 times. She found that the handouts and

worksheets she got from her teachers useful in learning English and enriched her knowledge.

“He gave us handouts from outside the textbook.”

“He would always give us handouts.”

“He gave us handouts of grammar exercises from outside our book.”

“He gave us things that are not available in the textbook. That is to say he gave us extra
information.”

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 It is clear that Laila preferred materials from outside the textbooks. She favoured handouts

and worksheets from outside textbooks because they were more understandable materials or

they contained information that was not available in her textbooks.

Beside the above five categories that Laila put a lot of emphasis on, this interview (see

Appendix H) contained a wide range of other instructional as well as human qualities. The

following table summarizes the effective teaching and human qualities that were identified in

this interview.

Table 8.1: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers and their frequency from the perspective of Laila
Instructional skills F Human characteristics F
I. Teaching approach 30 I. Interpersonal characteristics 11
A. Using suitable teaching ways 1 A. Treating students as friends or family
B. Using a variety of teaching aids 1 members 5
C. Holding student‟s attention 1 B. Helping students in academic related
D. Asking questions 1 issues 4
E. Following a lecturing style 2 C. Flexible and willing to compromise 2
F. Helping students understand 14 II. Personal characteristics 11
G. Giving interesting classes 3 A. Has a sense of humour 8
H. Giving homework 4 B. Is energetic 2
I. Benefited students in learning English 3 C. Is likeable 1
II. Learning resources 6
A. Giving handouts and worksheets 6
III. Interactions 14
A. Facilitating classroom discussions 2
B. Making students work in groups 9
C. Getting everyone involved 3
IV. Management 14
A. Classroom control 12
B. Implementation of rules 2

Table 8.1 contains 21 qualities that Laila mentioned. This indicates that she had a lot to say

about effective EFL teachers. Although she considered both the instructional and human

themes as important for teachers to be effective, she talked more about the instructional

theme and identified a wider range of teaching behaviours of the teachers she perceived as

effective.

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8.3 Sample Interview Two from Phase One

This interview (see Appendix I) was the eighth in the list of the interviews I made in Phase

One. The interviewee, Salim, was a male student. He was of a Palestinian origin with a

Jordanian nationality. The above interviewee and this one studied English in two different

IEPs in different places. That is to say that they were exposed to different teachers,

materials, learning environment, etc. It was the second year for him in the IEP. He was not

very happy that it took him two years to graduate from the IEP. He was inclined to talk more

about teachers‟ management of classrooms and their treatment of students. He was taught

English by 8 teachers. He perceived 2 of them as effective teachers, 4 as normal, 1 as

ineffective and was not sure about one of them.

8.3.1 Salim’s Perspective of Effective EFL Teachers

In interview 8 (see appendix I) Salim talked about the teaching practices and qualities of the

teachers he perceived as effective which could be classified under the instructional and

human themes. Having an overview of all qualities he mentioned under different themes and

dimensions, we can see that there are 3 categories that he emphasized most. These categories

are:

a) Treating students in a friendly manner

This category was the most frequently mentioned among the three highest rated categories.

Salim emphasized teachers‟ friendliness more than any other aspects of effective teaching.

He mentioned it seven times in his interview.

“I have a good relation with him.”

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“There should be a good relationship between the teacher and the students.”

“He established a friendly relationship with students from the beginning.”

One way of showing friendliness to students was by avoiding overusing authority. He even

considered that using teachers‟ authority as a sign of unfriendliness and it might create ill

feelings toward the teachers.

“He shouldn‟t try to use his authority with students otherwise the students would hate the
subject.”

It is the teacher who should start working on creating a friendly relationship with their

students and not the opposite. It is teachers‟ friendliness that makes students like their

teachers that will influence the teaching and learning process.

b) Being flexible

The second most highly rated category was teachers‟ „flexibility‟. It was mentioned for 6

times in the interview. Salem perceived effective teachers as „flexible‟ in dealing with

lateness, exams and other things. He did not expect effective teachers to be strict in these

matters.

“He was flexible. For example, when a student came late or misses an exam, he would be
flexible.”

“He was flexible, not rigid. He didn‟t impose his opinion on the class. For example, if a
student misses a test, he would consider his reason of missing the test and if it is a very good
reason he would let him sit for a make up exam.”

Salim considered teachers‟ „flexibility‟ as a way of making students like their teachers and

fostering a good relationship between them.

“His flexibility would make him close to the students.”

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 Salem elaborated on some practices of „flexible‟ teachers. He also talked about the good

effect of their flexibility on the relationship between teachers and their students.

c) Giving handouts and worksheets

The third highest rated category was giving students handouts and worksheets. Salim

mentioned it 5 times. This category strongly correlated with the same category in interview 4

in which this category was mentioned for 6 times. This could mean that both Laila and Salim

had a strong opinion about the usefulness of teachers‟ handouts and the limited usefulness of

the textbooks used in the IEPs where they studied English.

“The most useful thing was the things he gave us from outside.”

“He should give outside materials for practice.”

Salim strongly believed that handouts and any other forms of extra materials were much

useful for him in learning English than textbooks.

“He tended to take us to the Multi Purpose Room and showed us Films in English. Then, he
would ask us what we understood from the film. I benefited a lot from this. The textbook has
the basics and doesn‟t give you things from outside.”

“He didn‟t rely a lot on the textbook. He gave us the chance to listen to outside materials.”

“He didn‟t stick too much to the curriculum. We met five times a week. He gave us
something from outside in two classes every week.”

It is clear that Salim strongly favoured the handouts and extra materials than the textbooks.

He considered them much more useful and suitable than the textbooks.

In addition to the above three most emphasized categories, this interview (see Appendix I)

contained many other categories. The following table summarizes the effective teaching and

human qualities that were identified in the above interview.

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Table 8.2: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers and their frequency from the perspective of
Salim
Instructional skills F Human characteristics F
I. Teaching approach 5 I. Interpersonal characteristics 16
A. Using suitable teaching ways 1 A. Treating students as friends or family
B. Using a variety of teaching aids 1 members 7
C. Giving interesting classes 1 B. Helping students in academic related
D. Benefited students in learning English 1 issues 3
E. Efficient in testing 1 C. Flexible and willing to compromise 6
II. Learning resources 5 II. Personal characteristics 1
A. Giving handouts and worksheets 5 A. Is likeable 1
III. Interactions 2
A. Facilitating classroom discussions 1
B. Getting everyone involved 1
IV. Management 3
A. Classroom control 2
B. Implementation of rules 1

Table 8.2 contains 14 qualities of effective teachers that Salim mentioned, 10 under the

instructional theme and 4 under the human theme. In fact, he mentioned far less categories

than Laila who identified 22 qualities of effective teachers. Both Laila and Salim identified a

wider range of effective teaching qualities under the instructional theme than the human one.

However, while Laila gave more attention to the instructional theme than the human one,

Salim put more emphasis on the human theme than the instructional one. The total responses

classified under the four human characteristics that Salim identified was 18, whereas the total

number of responses classified under the 10 instructional practices was 15.

8.4 Realities of Laila and Salim from Phase One

Laila and Salem were given an equal opportunity to talk about their perceptions of effective

EFL teachers and as we saw they gave rich data on this matter. Having an overview of the

effective teaching qualities that were identified by each of them and which are contained in

Tables 8.1 and 8.2 above, we will find that a number of qualities were identified by both of

them. Table 8.5 contains the qualities that were identified by both interviewees and their

frequencies in each interview.

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Table 8.3: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers that Laila and Salim identified
Instructional skills F4 F8 Human characteristics F4 F8
I. Teaching approach I. Interpersonal characteristics
A. Using suitable teaching ways 1 1 A. Treating students as friends or
B. Using a variety of teaching aids 1 1 family members 5 7
C. Giving interesting classes 3 1 B. Helping students in academic
D. Benefited students in learning English 3 1 related issues 4 3
II. Learning resources C. Flexible and willing to
A. Giving handouts and worksheets 6 5 compromise 2 6
III. Interactions II. Personal characteristics
A. Facilitating classroom discussions 2 1 A. Is likeable 1 1
B. Getting everyone involved 3 1
IV. Management
A. Classroom control 12 2
B. Implementation of rules 2 1

Table 8.3 shows that Laila and Salim agreed on 13 qualities of effective teachers. However,

the frequencies of these qualities were different between them. For example, the frequencies

of the categories classroom control and „being flexible‟ is completely different between the

two interviewees. This indicates that even though both interviewees identified these

categories, their degree of agreement or level of importance of these qualities was different

between them. What was perceived as very important from the perspective of one

interviewee was perceived as less important or desirable by another and vice versa.

Moreover, as we saw in interviews 4 and 8 (see Appendices H and I) and the discussions

about them, the descriptions and details that each interviewee provided in their elaboration of

the qualities they identified were mostly different.

As for the qualities that appeared in one interview but did not appear in another, it was clear

that Laila identified many more qualities of effective teaching than Salim, some of which

were not identified by Salim. Table 8.4 shows these qualities.

Table 8.4: The characteristics of effective EFL teachers that were identified by Laila and were
not mentioned by Salim
Instructional skills Human characteristics
I. Teaching approach I. Personal characteristics
A. Holding student‟s attention A. Has a sense of humour
B. Asking questions B. Is energetic
C. Following a lecturing style
D. Helping students understand
E. Giving homework
II. Interactions
A. Making students work in groups

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Table 8.4 contains 8 qualities that were not identified by Salim. 6 of them were related to

teaching and 2 were humanistic qualities. It was observable that Laila was enthusiastic with

actual teaching practices of EFL teachers. The essence of these teaching practices she

mentioned was about enabling students to understand and learn English. While Salim

mentioned two of these behaviours that Laila mentioned as well, she mentioned 6 more that

Salim did not identify. In these 6 teaching behaviours, she elaborated how her teachers

whom she considered effective helped students to understand. She first highlighted the

importance of teachers‟ ability to hold their students‟ attention. Holding students‟ attention

was a prerequisite for enabling students understand.

“He should attract students‟ attention to the class and not make them feel bored especially in
the first class. Students in the first class feel sleepy and in the last class feel tired.”

The second teaching behaviour Laila‟s identified was asking questions. Such questions gave

students the chance to discuss different issues and understand things better.

“After the show and after answering the questions of the handout, she would also ask us
questions.”

“He sometimes would not give questions for discussion. We just complete the form he gave
us and that‟s it.”

The third way she mentioned was avoiding lecturing style. In the light of what Laila said, as

well as what other respondents mentioned, language classes do not lend themselves to

lecturing. Learners wanted to have the chance to practise the language and take the

responsibility of learning it.

“If the teacher explains and explains, the class will be very boring. We do the exercise and
he would help us. For example, after we finish, each student would say his answer. If it is
wrong, he would correct it and if it is correct we say to him it is correct. That the teacher
explains from the beginning to the end of the class is very boring.”

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The fourth way Laila identified in teachers‟ attempt to help students understand was being

willing to repeat the lesson when necessary.

“He liked to help students and explain again and again until they understand. If there was no
time for that, he would ask them to go to his office.”

“If students didn‟t understand he would repeat again and again. If we didn‟t understand he
would give us exercises and ask us to do them. He would explain to us our mistakes until we
understand.”

“He didn‟t care to help us understand. When we ask him a question, he would be angry or
give you a certain look.”

The fifth way that Laila mentioned was giving students homework. She found homework

useful in helping her understand better.

“He gave us homework daily, but not too much. You can do it in five or ten minutes.
Homework is very important.”

“He tried to make us understand. He gave us homework.”

The sixth way she identified was making students work in groups. She was enthusiastic with

groupwork. She found it very useful

“Because when I don‟t understand something, I ask another student. We ask each other and
if we didn‟t understand, we ask the teacher. But when you are alone and you don‟t
understand, you may not ask. There are things in English we haven‟t studied before and my
English was not good. So I asked students to help me to understand.”

“He tended to divide up the class into groups. The best thing is grouping.”

Regarding the two human characteristics that were identified by Laila, but not by Salim, she

considered teachers‟ sense of humour as an important characteristic of effective teachers. It

helped in resisting students‟ feelings of boredom and creating a better learning atmosphere in

the classroom.

“He had a sense of humour. All the effective teachers I mentioned have a sense of humour.”

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“He had a sense of humour. We had fun which made the atmosphere of the class interesting.
Students need to have some fun in class. It shouldn‟t be always serious. The student will feel
bored even if she is a bright one. He shouldn‟t be all the time funny. He can see when
students feel sleepy, he would change the atmosphere of the class directly.”

The second personal quality that Laila mentioned was being energetic. She talked about this

quality in the context of keeping students busy and exerting a lot of efforts in enabling

students understand and learn English.

“She would exhaust the student.”

“If a student didn‟t understand, he would do his best to make him understand. If a student
didn‟t understand in class, he would go to his office. He would always give handouts.”

As we can see, Laila identified eight more qualities of effective teaching that Salim did not

mention in his interview. The differences in qualities between the two interviewees might

not due to the fact that they had different realities but rather because they might not

remember them during the interviews. At the same time, it is likely that they might disagree

on few of the qualities contained in Table 8.4 if they were asked about them. This kind of

disagreement then would reflect differences in the realities of Laila and Salim. For example,

they were studying English in two different IEPs in different universities where the

institutional environment as well as the learning environment was not the same in these two

places. They were taught by different teachers and were also exposed to different numbers of

teachers. While Laila was taught English by 12 different teachers Salim was taught English

by 8 teachers. They mixed with different classmates. While Laila studied in a co-education

system where she studied English in a mixed gender environment, Salim studied in a place

were males and females studied separately. In addition, the teaching hours, curriculum,

policies and systems were also different in the places where they studied English. This

would contribute in making the realities of those two students different from each other

which in turn would influence their preferences and perceptions of effective teaching.

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However, these differences, as shown in the above table, were limited. The two interviewees

agreed on most of the qualities of effective EFL teachers.

8.5 Sample Follow-up Interview One from Phase Three

This interview (see Appendix J) was the first in the list of the interviews I made in Phase

Three. The first interviewee, Hala, was a female student. She was a Palestinian who came

from Syria. It was the second year for her in the IEP. She was interviewed in the last couple

of weeks of her attendance in the IEP. She was eager to finish the English program and start

her professional studies. She had a lot of experience as a student learning English in the IEP.

She did not hesitate or face any difficulties in answering my questions. She was a good

student lawyer who tended to defend students‟ behaviours and practices. In this interview

(see Appendix J), she was not expected to identify the characteristics of effective teachers,

but rather she was asked to give more details, descriptions and elaboration on some of the

highly rated categories that were identified in Phases One and Two.

8.5.1 Hala’s Perspective on Selected Qualities of Effective EFL Teachers

In her attempt to elaborate on the qualities and teaching practices Hala was asked about, she

emphasized some categories more than others. Having an overview of all qualities she

mentioned in this interview (see Appendix J) under different themes and dimensions, we can

see that there are 5 categories whose frequency rate was significantly higher than the other

categories. These 5 categories are put in an order according to their frequency rate.

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a) Giving interesting classes

This category is the highest rated one among the other categories. Hala gave 9 responses on

this category. In these responses, she gave factors that helped in making classes interesting

for her.

“The topic could be interesting and as a result you feel that the time flies quickly; the lesson
in this case is light and interesting.”

“The classes we tended to take in the library were interesting. We watched foreign films
there.”

“Also giving presentations in speaking classes was interesting for us. This reduces the
pressure on the students.”

“Also the teacher himself can create an interesting atmosphere through his sense of
humour.”

Hala had a lot to say about what made classes effective. She highlighted the effects of the

learning conditions and atmosphere on making classes interesting. She also talked about the

role of diversification in making classes interesting. She talked about going to the library,

watching films, discussing interesting topics in class and giving presentations.

b) Using a variety of teaching ways

Hala gave 8 responses under this category. In her elaboration on using a variety of teaching

„ways‟ (‫ش‬٠‫ )ؽشق رذس‬she perceived that teaching „ways‟ did not only contain different ways of

presenting materials but also included using different teaching aids and materials. Regarding

the first component which was teaching things in different „ways‟, she gave examples on

presenting or teaching reading, listening and vocabulary in different ways.

“They can also use different ways in explaining the meaning of difficult words.”

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“When teaching reading, teachers should sometimes teach the new words before reading the
passage and in other times they can teach them after reading it.”

“In listening, the teacher can sometimes let us read the questions before listening and in
other times while listening.”

The second component was using different teaching aids, activities and materials.

“They sometimes use the overhead projector and other times give oral explanations.”

“They also can teach using the whiteboard.”

“They let us watch films or listen to cassettes.”

“In reading for example they can give us reading passages from outside the reading
textbook. These passages could be easier or more difficult than the ones in the textbook.”

As we can see, the issue of students‟ language versus professional language that was

discussed in the introduction of Chapter 6 is reflected in this category. While professionals

might believe that teaching aids and supplementary materials could not be classified under

teaching techniques, this student considered them as a part of teaching „ways‟. I think that

Hala wanted to highlight the usefulness of diversification of teaching „ways‟ ( ‫ش‬٠‫)ؽشق رذس‬,

teaching aids and supplementary materials more than talking peculiarly about teaching

techniques.

c) Creating a good learning atmosphere

Hala gave five responses on this category. She indicated that teachers could create a good

learning environment if there is a humour element in class.

„The teacher should not be very serious. There should be time for fun.”

“He should give a chance for laughing in the classroom.”

“The sense of humour makes the student interested in the class.”

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Another way of creating a good learning atmosphere was by having a disciplined class.

“There should be no noise in class; there should be order in class so that students can
understand the lesson.”

She also considered that using technology in teaching English as one of creating a good

environment. As indicated in Chapter 6, respondents showed a strong interest in using

computer technology in teaching and learning English.

“A good learning environment includes a lot of things. It includes using the computer and
the overhead projector and anything else that help students in learning.”

Hala mentioned several factors that help in creating a good learning environment. The most

important factor for her was having fun and having a sense of humour in class.

d) Being flexible

Hala talked about four situations in which teachers were expected to be flexible: mobiles

ringing in the classroom, students talking in the classroom, giving make up exams and

missing classes or coming to classes late.

“Teachers would tolerate it when the mobile goes off for one or two times.”

“Teachers should tolerate it having a student talking or laughing with her friend in class.”

“If the student was sick, it won‟t hurt the teacher if he gives the student a make up exam.”

“Allowing one absence or one lateness or giving a make up exam is considered a kind of
assistance for the student and encouragement for her. We hate many teachers because they
are very strict in taking attendance and do not give make up exams.”

There could be some other situations in which students wanted their teachers to be flexible,

but the situations that interviewee 1 elaborated on were the most common ones among the

respondents in Phases One and Two.

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e) Enabling students to practise English

Hala gave several practices of the teachers she as perceived effective which enabled their

students to practise English. She considered practicing speaking English as her first priority

because she believed speaking was the most important skill after all.

“What I need to learn after all is speaking English more anything else. Speaking is the most
important thing. I like to be able of expressing my opinion in English because it is an
international language.”

In addition to speaking, she also talked about practising other language skills. She showed

how her teachers enabled her to practise English.

“I work with my partner; I listen to what she says and draw something accordingly. This is
practice. It is listening and speaking.”

“The teacher gives us activities and stories from outside the textbook and as a result change
occurs.”

“We tended to access the internet websites of reading or writing; this was class work. For
example, the teacher asks us to find answers for certain questions. I should give the answers
to her at the end of the class as a class work.”

Hala perceived that practising all language skills as necessary for learning English.

However, she believed that the practising speaking was the most useful for her in developing

her English language skills.

In addition to the above categories that were emphasized most by Hala, this interview (see

Appendix J) contained elaborations on other teaching practices that were investigated in

Phase Three. The following table shows the frequency of the effective teaching qualities in

this interview.

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Table 8.5: The frequency of the characteristics of effective EFL teachers that Hala elaborated on
Instructional skills F Human characteristics F
I. Teaching approach I. Interpersonal characteristics
A. Simplifying teaching 1 A. Has a friendly manner 2
B. Using a variety of teaching ways 8 B. Creating a good learning atmosphere 5
C. Giving interesting classes 9 C. Helping students in academic related issues 4
D. Correcting mistakes 2 D. Flexible and willing to compromise 1
E. Has a sense of humour 1
II. Interactions
A. Practising English 4

Table 8.5 contains 10 qualities of effective teachers that Hala was asked to shed more light

on. The table shows that she had a lot more to say about the instructional qualities than the

human ones. She identified 24 teaching practices under the instructional skills theme, while

she identified 14 qualities under the human characteristics theme.

8.6 Sample Follow-up Interview Two from Phase Three

This interview (see Appendix K) was the second in the list of the interviews I made in Phase

Three. Sameera was a female student. She came from Saudi Arabia. It was the second year

for her in the IEP. As the above interviewee, she was interviewed in the last couple of weeks

of her time in the IEP. She was quiet and tended to talk to the point. She was interested in

prasticing English especially beyond the borders of the classroom in a real-world. She was

asked to elaborate on the same effective teaching qualities that interviewee one in the above

section had talked about.

8.6.1 Sameera’s Perspective on Selected Qualities of Effective EFL Teachers

Sameera in this interview (see Appendix K) gave different amounts of elaborations on

different effective teaching qualities that emerged from this investigation. Having an

overview of all the qualities she mentioned under different themes and dimensions, we can

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see that there are 3 categories whose frequency rate was higher than the other categories.

She gave 4 responses under each of these 3 categories.

a) Enabling students to practise English

Sameera highlighted the necessity of practising speaking English. She believed that one way

of improving her English was by practising speaking.

“If I do not speak, I won‟t be able to learn the language, but if I practise speaking it and
make mistakes, I will learn from my mistakes and the teacher will correct my mistakes and
then I speak again and in this case I learn.”

According to Sameera, one way of practising speaking and developing students‟

conversational skills was by being involved in real life situations in which they could interact

with people in real places such as markets and shopping centres.

“… going to one of the shopping centres so that we can improve our conversational skills.
There is nothing wrong if we go with our teacher to markets and talk with sales assistants.”

Besides practising speaking, Sameera also talked about practising other language areas.

“There should also be activities inside the university, inside and outside the classroom. We
can go to the computer lab and use the internet. This is an activity. We access English
language sites and learn words and other things.”

“…going to the cinema with our teacher and watching a film.”

It is clear that Sameera considered it useful to practise English inside and outside the

classroom. However, she elaborated mainly on practising English outside the classroom

which might imply that the outside world provides students a better and more interesting

opportunity to practise the language. She was especially interested in practising the language

in real contexts with people from our real life such as sales assistants.

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b) Has a friendly manner

The second category that Sameera put more emphasis on was teachers‟ friendliness. She

talked about friendliness as a consequence of teachers‟ practises and not as a result of good

treatment. She considered being understanding, helpful and willing to accept students‟

questions as signs of teachers‟ friendliness.

“A teacher is considered friendly when he helps students by giving them advice for
example.”

“Teachers should listen to us.”

“The friendly teacher would allow us to ask questions and when we ask him he would not get
angry with us.”

“He should also take into consideration students‟ circumstances.”

As we can see Sameera judged teachers‟ friendliness indirectly through certain practices.

She did not talk about teachers‟ friendliness in terms of good treatment, having a friendly

relationship with students and showing respect to their students.

c) Creating a good learning atmosphere

The third category that Sameera gave more elaboration on than other categories was creating

a good learning atmosphere. She talked mostly about creating a desirable environment

outside the classroom. She considered that changing the physical setting of learning helped

in creating a good environment. She talked about watching films, going to markets and going

to computer labs.

“For example, a teacher can take his students to watch a film outside the classroom or even
outside the university.”

“There should be trips for students. There is not conversation. They do not care much for
conversation. Therefore, there is nothing wrong if we go with our teacher to markets and

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talk with sales assistants. There should also be activities inside the university, inside and
outside the classroom.”

“For example, we can go to the computer lab and use the internet. This is an activity. We
access English language sites and learn words and other things.”

She also mentioned the classroom environment. She considered that having an interaction in

the classroom between teachers and students was one way of creating a good learning

atmosphere. Students should play an active role in this environment.

“When the teacher and students arrive the classroom, the class becomes active. You will not
find sleeping students in the classroom, but rather there is interaction in the class.”

Sameera gave a special attention to the learning environment outside the classroom but at the

same time did not overlook the importance of the good learning environment inside the

classroom.

Beside the above 5 categories, Sameera shed some light on other investigated teaching

qualities. The following table shows the frequency of the effective teaching qualities in this

interview (see Appendix K).

Table 8.6: The frequency of the characteristics of effective EFL teachers that Sameera elaborated on
Instructional skills F Human characteristics F
I. Teaching approach I. Interpersonal characteristics
A. Simplifying teaching 2 A. Has a friendly manner 4
B. Using a variety of teaching ways 1 B. Creating a good learning atmosphere 4
C. Correcting mistakes 1 C. Helping students in academic related issues 2
II. Interactions D. Flexible and willing to compromise 2
A. Practising English 4

Table 8.6 contains 7 qualities of effective teachers that Sameera elaborated on. The table

shows that she had more to say about the human qualities than the instructional ones. She

identified 11 teaching practices under the human theme, while she identified 7 qualities under

the instructional skills theme.

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8.7 Realities of Hala and Sameera from Phase Three

Hala and Sameera were asked to give more information about a number of effective teaching

qualities that were identified in Phases 1 and 2. Having an overview of the effective teaching

qualities that the interviewees were asked to elaborate on and which are contained in Tables

8.3 and 8.4 above, we will find they gave details on most of these qualities. Table 8.7

contains the qualities that both of them talked about together with their frequencies.

Table 8.7: The qualities of effective EFL teachers and their frequencies that Hala and Sameera
elaborated on
Instructional skills F1 F2 Human characteristics F1 F2
I. Teaching approach I. Interpersonal characteristics
A. Simplifying teaching 1 2 A. Has a friendly manner 2 4
B. Using a variety of teaching ways 8 1 B. Creating a good learning atmosphere 5 4
C. Correcting mistakes 2 1 C. Helping students in academic related
II. Interactions issues 2 2
B. Practising English 4 4 D. Flexible and willing to compromise 4 2

Table 8.7 shows that both Hala and Sameera gave some of information on 8 qualities of

effective teachers. In general, the frequencies of these categories of both of them were

similar except with one teaching practice which was using a variety of teaching „ways‟.

While Sameera gave 1 example of this quality, Hala gave 8 examples of it. Also, the kinds

of examples, descriptions and practices they mentioned in their interviewees were mostly

different even though they were used to describe the same qualities. For example both of

them considered practising English was important for them. However, while Hala perceived

practising English to occur within the university physical settings, mainly classrooms and

computer labs, Sameera considered both inside and outside places as important for practising

English. In fact, Sameera put more emphasis on practising English in real-world contexts

outside the university premises. She found it very useful for her to practise English in

genuine situations with people from real community such as sales assistants in shopping

centres.

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Another indicator of having divergent realities for Hala and Sameera is that each of them had

a different perspective of two qualities: giving interesting classes and having a sense of

humour. While Hala gave 9 practices on how teachers make classes interesting, Sameera did

not basically mention any examples or specific details about how teachers could make

classes interesting. Also, whereas Hala considered teachers‟ sense of humour necessary,

Sameera clearly stated that it was not important for her whether or not her teachers had a

sense of humour.

As we can see, the realities of Hala and Sameera as well as interviewees 4 and 8 were not

always the same. They had many similarities, but at the same time they had some

differences. Despite having both similarities and differences at an individual level, chapters

6 and 7 showed mostly similarities and few differences among the respondents at a group

level. We saw in the previous two chapters that the respondents basically appeared to agree

on what made their EFL teachers effective. However, occasionally they did not agree. For

example, most of the respondents preferred their teachers not to be strict with them, while a

smaller group of the respondents considered it necessary that their teachers deal with students

strictly. They considered this important for controlling the class and creating a suitable

learning environment. These differences at individual levels and group levels reflected

respondents‟ differences in their experiences, needs and perceptions. This is consistent with

the implications of social constructivism that learners have different abilities and in

accordance classroom activities should match individual differences amongst students

(Sheperd, 2000). This is also in line with Rogers‟ humanistic approach (1969) that considers

the whole person and recognizes his/her autonomy and individual needs. However, the

differences in the needs of language learners were perhaps not as large as these approaches

suggested. We have now seen in the preceding three chapters 6, 7 and 8 the limited needs

and preferences that were different among different individuals which would make EFL

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teachers‟ task easier in addressing them. The findings reflected that the respondents mostly

identified similar needs and interests in learning English.

8.8 Summary

In this chapter, two interviews from Phase One and two other interviews from Phase Three

were discussed. The purpose of discussing four different interviews of four different

respondents was mainly to elaborate on the perceptions of individual respondents.

Interpreting a complete interview gives a full picture of the perceptions of effective teaching

of individual respondents. Moreover, reviewing these interviews separately has shown how

each individual's perceptions of effective teaching perceptions of each individual is

distinctive from others. These interviews have reflected the multiple realities of the

respondents. They have shown that each individual had his/her own experience,

understanding and perceptions, which were not always the same among respondents.

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 Chapter Nine

Towards a Language Learning Culture

9.1 Introduction

The data collected from the Three Phases did not show any major variations in the

perspectives of the participants. The main themes and their relevant categories and

subcategories that were identified in the data collected from the first phase appeared again in

the data collected in the second phase. That is to say that the data collected in Phase One

were consistent with the data collected in Phase Two. No new categories emerged from the

data collected in Phase Two, in spite of the fact that the sample of Phase One was much

smaller than the sample of Phase Two. However, as we saw in Chapter 8, the realities of the

respondents did not always match. As one might expect, there were some differences and

disagreements among them. Also as expected, the data collected in Phase One using

interviews were deeper, much richer and more detailed than the data collected in Phase Two

using questionnaires. The interviewees in Phase One had the chance to talk about private or

personal things. The discussion in this chapter is based on the research aims and questions

and their outcomes. Therefore, it is important to revisit both the research questions and the

aims of the study. The main research question of this study was:

How do Arab students perceive effective EFL teachers at university level?

The other subordinate questions are:

a) In what ways do cultural factors operate to influence the views of Arab students of

effective EFL teachers at university level?

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b) To what extent are student perceptions of teacher effectiveness in UAE Universities

unitary or heterogeneous?

c) What are the implications of student perceptions of teacher effectiveness for formal

evaluation procedures of language classrooms in UAE universities?

d) What is the broader context that the overall findings might draw for making English

language learning more effective for Arab university students?

The study aimed at looking in depth at the perceptions of effective EFL teaching at the UAE

universities. The discussion of the overall findings in this chapter is structured according to

two interrelated themes of effective EFL teaching that were derived from the data in Chapters

6 and 7. These themes are instructional skills and human characteristics. They will be

discussed in the light of a new understanding of effective teaching; the notion of effective

teachers maintaining an effective learning culture. In developing the notion of a learning

culture I have recognised that students‟ views of effective teachers go beyond a list of

specific skills that the teacher must display, and are closer to a description of the complex

way in which an effective teacher manages all the factors within their control to support the

learning of their students. In this view teachers who take their students to the refectory to

talk informally over coffee are doing much more than simply being friendly and

approachable. They are contributing to the developing learning culture of their classroom just

as much as they do when they structure activities in class or respond to students‟ writing.

Part of this construction of an effective learning culture will depend on the teachers‟

pedagogical sophistication, but part will reflect how sensitively they can understand and

respond to the range of attitudes, expectations and preferred ways of working that their

students have; how they can recognise and respond to the different goals of those students

and be sensitive to the different effects of failure (or of success) on each of their students.

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These sensitivities will be dependent on a full understanding of how factors such as students‟

family backgrounds, religious or national identities, and gender might affect these attitudes,

expectations etc. The development of an effective learning culture in the classroom is

therefore dependent, at least in part, on the recognition of the impact of the other kinds of

culture referred to in Ch1. It may be that it is through this relationship between other cultures

and classroom cultures that other cultures have their powerful influences on education.

This idea of an effective learning culture, and insights into the characteristics of that culture,

were derived from the findings of the research and perhaps reveal an emerging theory of

effective teaching and learning of English as a foreign language in the UAE context. I will

then review a new literature on effective learning cultures in other contexts and discuss my

findings in the light of this literature. I will then discuss the implications of my research

results for EFL teacher development and finally propose recommendations for further

research.

9.2 New Understanding of Effective Teaching

A new understanding of effective teaching considers effective EFL teachers as creators of an

effective English language learning culture. Having an overview of the descriptions and

information the respondents gave throughout the Three Phases, I started to see that the

essence of the data was its orientation towards the idea of a learning culture and this made

me adjust my understanding. I realized that the bigger picture of effective teaching and that

the core of the data highlighted the significance of the idea of a learning culture for effective

English teaching. The respondents talked about a web of instructional behaviours and

practices as well as personal and interpersonal characteristics of effective teachers. Most of

this revolved around the significance of creating a learning culture that respondents found

suitable for enhancing their learning of English. Some of what they highlighted was formally

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recognized and recommended by policy makers and senior staff, while some other things

were done informally by their effective teachers but were not recognized within official

assumptions.

Students‟ perceptions of what is effective and what is not effective and what is desirable and

what is not desirable can be used to increase understanding of teaching and learning

situations and to provide guidance for EFL teachers. The value of what the students favoured

or considered useful should first be analyzed against all the other influences that the teacher

knows to be relevant to teaching in the particular context (e.g. factors such as curriculum or

college policy that the students may not be fully aware of). One of the roles of the teacher

might in fact be to mediate the learning culture – to help students understand how far this

culture can match their wishes, why there may be things that cannot be done and to work

with the students to decide what kinds of compromise might be possible. In order to do that

(e.g. to act on some student views of effective teaching and to mediate around others) they

might find themselves doing things that lie outside the job description, and outside the

official structures and procedures of the college where he/she worked. If this view of

teaching is recognized and supported, major further improvements in learning would follow.

On the other hand, there may be situations where the teacher feels that there is little scope for

compromise. Maintaining an effective learning culture may in such a situation mean

deciding not to take any action on a particular student request. (For example the teacher

should not compromise if the things that the students ask for would disadvantage other

students).

The data reviewed in this study showed that the respondents expected a lot from their

teachers in helping them to improve their English. At the same time, in general they wanted

to be more involved in learning English and play an active role in the whole teaching and

learning process. They wanted their needs, interests and ways of learning to be taken into

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consideration; however, some of their views might be at odds with official assumptions. such

as teachers‟ willingness to compromise in implementing the rules. Therefore, beside taking

account of students view in deciding how to work towards being an effective teacher,

teachers will also need to take account of other views that students might not be aware of

such as curriculum requirements, exam syllabus, college policies, etc. They sometimes also

need to mediate the differences between students‟ views and other views that students are

less aware of.

Understanding that students perceive effective teaching as behaviours and practices

embedded in an effective English language learning culture is significant because it implies a

new view of effective EFL teaching. This tells teachers that effective EFL teaching is not

just a specific skill or area that qualifies teachers to be effective while other skills are

supplementary or of less importance, but rather includes a wide range of factors that may

assist or influence students‟ learning. Teachers should orchestrate all these factors in order

to be able to create an effective English language learning culture. Therefore, teaching can

be seen as managing a learning culture and effective teaching is sustaining an effective

learning culture.

This study was conducted in an Arabic context. Therefore, the Arab learners‟ culture played

a role in shaping the kind of learning culture that the participants talked about in this study. I

found out that the human element appeared to be as important for the learners as other

academic elements. Friendliness, respect, generosity and willingness to compromise are

some aspects of the Arabic culture. They were strongly emphasized by the participants.

These aspects gave an Arabic color to the respondents‟ perceptions of an effective English

language learning culture. They were considered important for creating a good classroom

environment, establishing a good rapport between teachers and students and maximizing the

cooperation between them in doing the „teaching and learning business.‟ However, the

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participants sometimes wanted to overgeneralize some of these aspects and use them in

contradictory contexts. For example, if the teacher is willing to compromise in things like

changing the date of an examination upon the request of students, this might be deemed as a

sign of cooperation and flexibility in the light of the students‟ culture, but when students

want their teachers to be flexible in implementing the university rules such as attendance

rules, in this case it will be incorrect to consider this as a part of the learners‟ culture. As we

are going to see later, this should be seen as an indication that the learners need some

orientation on this area.

In the light of this new understanding of students‟ perceptions of effective EFL teachers,

Arab students learn English better when teachers create and maintain a learning culture they

perceived to be effective; and in accordance they considered those teachers who appeared to

maintain an effective English language learning culture and sustain it as effective EFL

teachers. Being aware of the importance of the learning culture for performing effective

teaching could be useful for teaching in general and teaching English in particular.

Since the notion of an effective learning culture emerged from my engagement with the data

and was not part of my original thinking about the research, I did not do a literature review

on the topic. This implies a need for a new literature review on this subject at this stage of

the thesis, before the discussion.

9.3 Further Probing

In chapter four I reviewed four dominant theoretical perspectives that have been influential in

language learning and teaching: behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic and social constructivist

theories. In behaviourism the learners are viewed as „a language- producing machine‟ Ellis

(1985). The role of the learners is passive since they are not engaged in analyzing the

language; there is no place for interaction and negotiation of meaning. Regarding the

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cognitive perspective, it places a lot of emphasis on individual development and had little

regard for the social context in which learning takes place. As for the humanistic approaches,

it is based upon a highly individual model of human development and gave little

consideration for the social and cultural aspects of learning.

Social constructivism which has been inspired partly by the work of Vygotsky, recognized

that knowledge is socially constructed and emphasized the importance of the social context

in the learning process and gave some recognition to the cultural dimensions of learning;

however, it maintained a conceptual dichotomy between individual activity and social

processes and failed to show their dialectical interdependence (John-Steiner and Mahn,

1996). Moreover, according to James and Bloomer (2001) it has been limited to the

educational institution settings. It did not emphasize the other outside real contexts where

learning naturally takes place in an informal mode. They stated that

“… much of its [social constructivism] research has been conducted within the confines of formally

designed educational programs and institutions. For these reasons, the capacity of social

constructivism to relate questions of learning to wider cultural concerns must be considered limited.”

(pp. 2, 3)

One of the theories that have contributed to the recent rise of interest in culture was the

activity theory which originated in the former Soviet Union as part of the cultural-historical

school of psychology founded by Vygotsky, Leontjev and Lurija. According to Bannon and

Bodker (1991) it highlights the dialectical relations binding the individual and the social,

cultural and historical context. Rodriguez (1998, p.2) stated that “Context is constituted

through the enactment of an activity involving people and artifacts …(which) carry with

them a particular culture and history and are persistent structures that stretch across activities

through time and space.” However, the question whether activity theory succeeded to relate

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learning to the wider context of culture remains persistent. James and Bloomer (2001, p 4)

state that

“There is evidently a wide range of interpretations and applications of activity theory and, while a

regard for the cultural-historical dynamics of sociocultural processes and for the individual-context

dialectic is evident in some works, others display a marked mentalist tendency or a failure to relate

the complexities of learning to their wider cultural contexts.”

The shortcomings of the above mentioned learning theories are important concerns that the

recent sociocultural thinking tries to respond to. In the recent years, educationalists placed

more emphasis on the importance of culture in learning. Lave and Wenger (1991) viewed

learning as an integral part of social practice. They emphasized that learning occurs through

legitimate peripheral participation no matter which educational form provides the learning

context, or whether there is any intentional instruction at all. By legitimate peripheral

participation Lave and Wenger mean “to draw attention to the point that learners inevitably

participate in communities of practitioners and that the mastery of knowledge and skill

requires newcomers to move toward full participation in the sociocultural practices of a

community” (p.29). They stated that learning is an integral part of social practice, closely

related to what might be termed the culture of the place of learning. They placed emphasis on

the sociocultural characters of learning that help in constituting learning in communities of

practice. In line with Lave and Wenger, Bruner, (1996, p.4) indicated that “learning and

thinking are always situated in a cultural setting, and always dependent upon the utilization

of cultural resources.”

Brown et al (1989) stated that what is learned can not be separated from how it is learned.

They indicated that situations are an integral part of learning. They said that

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“Situations might be said to co-produce knowledge through activity. Learning and cognition, it is

now possible to argue, are fundamentally situated. … We suggest that, by ignoring the situated

nature of cognition, education defeats its own goal of providing useable, robust knowledge.”(p. 32)

The work of Miller and Gildea (cited in Brown et al, 1987) highlight the importance of

situations in structuring cognition. It shows the difference between knowing and doing in

learning vocabulary. Their work compared learning vocabulary through word definitions and

exemplary sentences with learning vocabulary through communication. Miller and Gildea‟s

work shows that by listening, reading and speaking the seventeen year old students managed

to learn 5000 words per year, but learning words from abstract definitions and sentences out

of the normal context they learned 100 to 200 words per year. Even much of what they

learned was not very useful in practice; they are likely to make silly mistakes such as:

- I was meticulous about falling off the cliff.

- Mrs. Morrow stimulated the soup (p.32).

Such mistakes are made because word definitions and exemplary sentences are dealt with as

self-sufficient. What is ignored is the fact that using a language involves extralinguistic props

such as metaphors, ambiguity, polysemy, nuance, etc. that can be resolved through the

context of communicative situations which help in acquiring new words and increasing

vocabulary. This means that the dictionaries are not enough to learn words because words

are situated and they should not be learned independently of authentic situations. Learning

words depends not only on dictionary support but also on situations and social negotiations.

Brown et al believe that all forms of knowledge are like language. Like words, concepts are

not self-contained entities but rather they are both situated and progressively developed

through activity. Allan, et al argue that

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“… knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is

developed and used. … Activity, concept, and culture are interdependent. No one can be totally

understood without the other two. Learning must involve all three” (1987, pp. 32, 33).

An effective learning culture is to be created not only in the classroom but also outside it.

Creating the appropriate culture in real contexts helps in giving students informal learning.

As indicated in chapter four, learning should be authentic and related to the world outside

school. It is not enough to make classes more interesting; students should be able to use

knowledge in real-world settings (Shepherd, 2000). According to Mercer (2002) language

teachers should provide learners with real-life situations so that they can be familiar with the

foreign language culture. Colley et al (2003) put a lot of emphasis on informal as well as

formal learning. Also, the project team for the Transforming Learning Cultures in Further

Education (TLC) project (2003) (of which Colley was part) emphasized the importance of

informal learning. They indicated that there was formal as well as informal learning in all

the learning situations (which they called learning sites) where their research was conducted.

They also highlighted the significance of creating a positive learning culture and that good

tutors are those who can create such cultures. But they also indicated that teachers are not

the only factors that influence the learning culture. They stated that:

“All our research suggests that tutors can and do exert a strong influence on the cultures of sites

where they teach, and that better teachers are relatively more able to sustain positive learning cultures.

However, our research also shows that most of the factors that influence site cultures lie outside tutor

control.” (p. 26)

The TLC project team (2003) developed six principles of effective learning and teaching in

further education:

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a) Individual needs should be balanced against other priorities and constraints, in the

maintenance of an effective learning culture.

b) Learning involves informal as well as formal aspects.

c) The essence of good teaching is the creation of a positive learning culture.

d) What works well in one teaching context may not work in another, or may not in

the same way.

e) Teachers are important in improving the learning of students, but some other factors

influence their learning as well.

f) Where retention and achievement are used as indicators of quality, much that is

important about learning is deemphasized.

The detail of the last of these points is particular to the context of further education in the

UK, but the others can be directly related to the findings of the current research in ways that

will now be explored.

A learning culture constitutes a number of elements including student and teacher

expectations, student, teacher and institutional history, student and teacher preferred ways of

working as well as the formal issues of local and notional policy etc. According to

Hodkinson, Biesta, and James (2004, p. 3), a learning culture involves the following

dimensions that contribute to learning:

a) The positions, dispositions and actions of the students (i.e. students‟ preferred ways

of working their expectations and their normal ways of working – all of which are

influenced by their personal history, their gender, their social class etc)

b) The positions, dispositions and actions of the tutors (ditto above for tutors).

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c) The location and resources of the site, which are not neutral, but enable some

approaches and attitudes, and constrain or prevent others.

d) The syllabus or course specification, the assessment and qualification specifications

and requirements.

e) The time tutors and students spend together, their interrelationships, and the range

of other learning sites students are engaged with.

f) Issues of college management and procedures, together with funding and inspection

body procedures and regulations, and government policy.

g) Wider vocational and academic cultures, of which any course or site is part.

h) Wider social and cultural values and practices, for example around issues of social

class, gender and ethnicity, the nature of employment opportunities, social and

family life, and the perceived status of FE as a sector.

This was carried out in UK FE sector earlier. As we can see, a learning culture is a very

broad concept. We cannot prescribe certain elements as components of a learning culture

that we can follow in order to create and maintain it but rather it constitutes a wide range of

interrelated factors that contribute to learning.

9.4 Effective EFL teachers as Creators of Effective Learning Culture

As I indicated in the literature review in chapter four, language is a social phenomenon, and

the research data frequently reflected this. The findings of this study showed that the social

context and the interaction between the students and teachers and among the students

themselves are important in teaching and learning English language. Therefore, in the light of

the research findings, the social constructivist approach was more suitable for effective

teaching and learning of English in the UAE context. However, as was shown above, the

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capacity of social constructivism to relate questions of learning to wider cultural concerns

was limited. The details of the points raised by the participants highlighted the importance of

the whole context in which learning occurs; this includes all aspects of teaching practices,

classroom activities, classroom environment, informal opportunities for interaction outside

the classroom, the classroom environment, students‟ expectations, the resources, the context

of the institution in which the learning takes place as well as the wider culture. In this case

this is the Arab-Islamic culture in which learning takes place. Nevertheless, the findings of

this research has reflected many of the elements of effective learning cultures outlined above.

These details were classified under two major themes that represented the perceptions of the

participants of effective EFL teachers: instructional skills theme and human characteristics

theme; the features of the learning culture were highlighted in both themes.

9.4.1 Instructional Theme

The instructional skills theme concentrates mainly on the teaching skills and practices of

effective teachers. There are three main components of effective learning culture that can be

extracted from these teaching skills and practices.

a) Diversification;

b) Maximizing the use of English inside and outside the classroom;

c) Classroom control.

a) Diversification

Diversification was one of the most significant components of the effective learning culture

of language learning that the findings reflected in various contexts. The respondents

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repeatedly emphasized in the three phases the importance of diversification in two main

areas: enabling respondents to understand and making classes more interesting.

Regarding diversification in the context of helping language learners understand and

facilitating learning, the respondents highlighted the importance of diversification in making

teachers‟ instruction more understandable and learnable. Diversification in this context

mainly encompassed four areas: teaching ways, teaching aids, classroom activities and

learning resources. As for the area of teaching ways, the respondents found that diversifying

the ways of presenting materials would help them understand better.

“He uses a variety of teaching methods in order for students to be able to get what the
teacher says.” (I1)

On the contrary, a lack of diversity might minimize students‟ learning opportunities and

create a boring atmosphere and compromise the learning culture. The second area that

respondents‟ conceptions of diversification included was using various modern teaching aids.

They found that modern teaching aids especially computer technology was very useful and

interesting in learning English.

“We go to the computer lab two or three times a week so that the class routine might be
changed and the class might become more interesting and useful.” (I5)

“She depended on the overhead projector and the power point in explaining the points she
wanted to talk about. This would increase the enthusiasm of the students and make them like
the course.” (I12)

The third area was using a diversity of classroom activities such as group work, competitions,

games, interviews, oral presentations, debates and discussions. Respondents clearly stated

that such activities helped them to understand better.

“What makes me understand is the way of teaching such as grouping, teaching aids and
teacher‟s explanation.” (I7)

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“He organized grammar competitions so that students can benefit and also enjoy the class.”
(Q32)

The fourth area of diversification was using various learning resources. The respondents

indicated that they found it more useful when their teachers collected materials from various

learning resources in stead of depending on one learning resource which is the textbook.

“He uses a diversity of learning resources.” (Q12)

“She brought us reading materials from the internet, magazines and the newspapers.” (Q12)

“He gives easy handouts from outside the textbook that help all students understand.” (Q55)

In fact, most respondents criticized severely the textbooks used in the IEPs where they

studied English. They expressed two concerns: textbook contents and material presentation.

In terms of materials, they should diversify the resources and give students more worksheets

and handouts from other learning resources.

“He gave us lessons from outside the boring textbook.” (Q101)

In terms of material presentation, teachers should not stick to the prescribed teaching

procedures for presenting the textbook lessons otherwise they would end up with a boring

teaching routine.

“…textbooks follow the same style.” (I1)

Textbooks made some teachers fall into the trap of sticking exactly to the teaching methods

recommended in these textbooks. They would cover the same components in each chapter

on a daily basis. For example, in a reading class they would start every reading class with

teaching the new words and then ask the students read the reading comprehension passage

silently and then loudly. After that they would ask them to do the exercises on the reading

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comprehension in the textbook and then check the answers of students on each exercise. All

the chapters of the textbook would have the same kind and order of these exercises.

Therefore, respondents did not want their teachers to stick to textbooks.

“He shouldn‟t be a slave of the textbook.” (I19)

As we can see, diversification in the above mentioned four areas was seen to be of absolute

importance for creating an effective English language learning culture. It helped the

respondents in learning and making English language learning a more enjoyable experience.

Regarding the second area of diversification, the respondents emphasized the importance of

making learning an enjoyable experience. This is an important component of the

diversification that was seen as a crucial factor for enabling teachers to create effective

language learning culture and providing learners with a better learning opportunity. One way

of enhancing students‟ learning and making their class interesting is making their learning of

English more meaningful by trying to relate what they learn to real life.

“She explains grammar by giving examples from your real life.” (I10)

The participants described the materials that are from their real life as interesting and useful.

Their perceived effective teachers collected materials more relevant to their lives and

interests from different resources such as internet sites, newspapers, magazines and other

books. They would select topics such as presidents of different countries, marriage in your

country, famous athletes in your country, and old industry of ship building in the UAE.

“He selected interesting topics for discussion such as marriage in your country that attract
you.” (I6)

“He gives us handouts that contain interesting reading topics that make us like reading. For
example we read about the famous local football player Adnan Al Tiliani and old industry of
ships.” (F5)

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Students like new things to study. Maintaining the relationship between the teaching

materials and the students‟ real life would make classes more interesting and enjoyable. For

example, football was a popular game among the respondents. Talking about one of the

famous football players in the UAE was something very interesting. The teachers were

expected to select one of the contemporary football players who were still alive and who

probably still played football and the students still saw him from time to time in football

matches on television. This is what meant by selecting materials that are relevant to the

students‟ real life. This might require talking about new topics; newness was something that

the participants clearly favoured. Teachers were not expected to select one of the famous

football players in the UAE twenty years ago if they really wanted to relate what they taught

to the students‟ real life. Some students might not be at all interested in football so routine

reliance on this topic is unhelpful. It is the idea behind talking about football that is valuable.

By relating students‟ learning to their real life, we link them to the community of practice

outside the classroom – which links in directly to issues of engaging students in authentic

language situations. It also perhaps relates to their reasons for studying language which are

to do with functioning effectively in the real world not (predominantly) about academic grasp

of linguistic detail.

“What I need to learn after all is speaking English more anything else. I learn reading and
writing, but speaking and a wealth of vocabulary are the most important for me at the end. I
need to be able to express my opinion in English” (FI1)

“When students have the chance to practise of speaking English [with teachers and students
within the boarders of the classroom], they will be able to use it outside. All people outside
can speak English.” (FI3)

“When you can speak English, a lot of doors will open for you [you will have a lot of
opportunities].” (FI4)

Relating learning to the real life of the learners as an important dimension of the learning

culture is in line with the perspective of James and David (2003) who considered that activity

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theory failed in some of its works to relate the complexities of learning to their wider cultural

contexts.

Another way of making classes interesting, as indicated above, was by avoiding relying

heavily on textbooks and sticking literally to the routine teaching procedures suggested in

textbooks. The contents of these textbooks used in their IEPs were not very interesting for

the respondents and rarely matched with their real life. Also following exactly the same

teaching techniques suggested in the textbooks on regular basis would make classes full of

routine and less interesting.

“He should try to change his way of teaching because routine makes students feel bored.”
(I7)

In the light of what the respondents said, it seems that some teachers fell in this kind of

„textbook trap‟. They stuck exactly to the teaching methods recommended in these textbooks.

They also covered the same components in each chapter on a daily basis. For example, in a

reading class they would start every reading class with teaching the new words and then ask

the students read the reading comprehension passage silently and then loudly. After that they

would ask them to do the exercises on the reading comprehension in the textbook and then

check the answers of students on each exercise. All the chapters of the textbook would have

the same kind and order of these exercises. For example, one of the books that I taught has

the same exercises and the same order all way through until the end of the book. Each

chapter starts with the reading comprehension passage followed by a vocabulary exercise,

comprehension exercise, discussion exercise, writing exercise and spelling and punctuation

exercise. There was a lot of routine and this very likely would make students less motivated

and less active in class. It would create a boring culture that might inhibit students‟ learning.

According to the respondents, teachers should not be slaves of the textbooks in terms of the

contents as well as in terms of material presentation. Respondents, who were studying

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English in four different IEPs, were not talking about a certain textbook or a few collections

of textbooks; they were talking about a wide range of textbooks. The participants of the

study were from four different learning sites that use different curricula and different up to

date international textbooks which are revised annually and as a result of the feedback some

of them are changed. What does this mean? Although the books employ the most recent

theories of learning and curriculum development, the students still felt textbooks were boring

and did not help them a lot in learning English. One reason, as could be concluded from the

feedback of the participants, is because textbooks in general are not very relevant to students‟

real life. A textbook may meet the needs of students partially; one or two units of a certain

textbook could be useful and interesting to students, but the rest are not. Does this mean that

the best way of teaching students English is to be objectives oriented rather than textbook

oriented? If the answer is yes, then teachers should be eclectic, which means that they should

select their materials from a group of textbooks in addition to using other resources and

creating some of their own materials that suit their own students in particular? This is an area

that needs to be researched further.

Other ways of making classes more interesting which were discussed above was the

diversification of teaching ways, classroom activities, modern teaching aids and learning

materials. In addition, as we are going to see when we discuss the human theme, some

human characteristics such as teachers‟ friendliness and sense of humour help in making

classes interesting and enjoyable.

b) Maximizing use of English inside and outside the classroom

The second component of effective learning culture identified under the instructional theme

was enabling students to use the English language in formal and informal situations. As the

comments above show, the students learn English to be able to use it as a means of

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communication and unless they were given enough opportunity to practise speaking English

through communicating with others, they might not be able to develop their oral

communicative skills as much as they were expected to. This is in line with one of the

implications of the social constructivist perspective of language teaching and learning that

says that language is mainly communication and so it is not enough to know it; but rather to

use it (Mercer, 2002).

Regarding using English inside the classroom, the target language should be used in an

atmosphere that was characterized with sociability, friendliness, openness and

encouragement. The study respondents identified several techniques that effective EFL

teachers used to enable their students to practise speaking English. One way they use to

enable their students to practise speaking English was by asking students questions about

things that they liked to talk about such as inviting them to talk about themselves, their

families or their personal life or anything else that could be interesting to students. This kind

of personalization made English become real and not just a tool. As some respondents said,

these kinds of questions helped in holding the attention of students and encouraged them to

interact with others. According to one of the participants describing her effective teacher, she

said her teacher:

“She starts her class everyday by asking a list of questions or giving each student a list of
questions to ask her partner.” (I10)

Another student said:

“He tended to ask each student every Saturday, the beginning of the week, to talk about what
he or she did on the weekend. This was a chance to practise speaking, so there was a chance
for talking.” (I15)

Students, who as learners might know better than others what helped them develop their

language skills, believed that practising speaking English was very useful for them.

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Speaking led to interaction and interaction helped students to learn. This concept is in line

with the essence of social constructivism. This was reflected in one of the comments of one

of the participants who said:

“When I have an English lesson, it will be limited and I will not learn words other than the
ones included in the lesson, but when I try to express my opinion I will learn new words.”
(I3)

Moreover, speaking in class kept the students active and busy which could mean that the

class was more interesting and less boring.

Another way effective teachers helped students to speak was by involving them in discussing

some interesting topics such as body organ donation and body diseases. Students here had the

chance to not only speak English, but also express their opinions on a certain topic. It also,

as some of them said, made them take risks in speaking in English. It should be indicated

here that speaking in target language, especially in the early stages and in front of new

students and new teacher, did need some courage.

“New students are shy to speak English and worried of making mistakes.” (FI3)

The vast majority of students said effective teachers were those who enabled them to express

their opinions freely. This was the kind of culture the English learners wanted.

All sorts of things that made impact on how to learn a language or exchange thoughts were

components of this learning culture. Other examples include going on trips with their

teachers, having competitions in class, language games, taking the students to the computer

labs and enabling students to practise different language skills and access the kind of

information they like to discuss in class. These were all exemplified in the research data on

the effective learning culture for learning English in the UAE universities. The findings

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showed that one of the major differences between effective and ineffective EFL teachers was

teachers‟ ability to create a working learning culture inside and outside the classroom.

Regarding enabling students to use the language outside the classroom, effective teachers

were perceived to enable students practise speaking English and gain informal learning

outside the classroom boundaries in more realistic settings. Teachers tried to link students‟

community to the community of practice outside the classroom. It could be in the teachers‟

offices, in the corridor, on a trip or even in the cafeteria. For example one of the participants

who highly appreciated what his teacher did with his class said:

“Every three weeks we tended to go with our teacher to the cafeteria and talk about our food
or our life.” (I10)

The teacher here enabled the students to learn in the real context where they could interact

informally and freely with others and talk about themselves and any other things they that

were of special interest for the students. Going with the students to the cafeteria might look

on the surface trivial and of little use, but it was in fact, besides manifesting teachers‟

friendliness, an informal opportunity for students to practise and learn the target language

which was English. It would only make sense if you look upon it within a learning culture.

It was just as important as learning in class. Enabling students to talk about themselves in a

relaxed manner (social context) or in the cafeteria, (a real physical context), was an important

element of the effective language learning culture. The participants considered this kind of

situated learning as very useful for their learning of English. Students would always prefer to

go outside the class with their teachers. They were passionate about the outside culture. This

could be because it was more authentic. The data collected supported this; one of the

participants‟ comments in this regard was:

“She should change the atmosphere of the class by changing the place of the class.” (I5)

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Another example of learning in real situations was this quotation

“This teacher involves us in many activities. One of these activities is taking us on a trip
outside the university; this trip was a teaching trip. For example, we went to the bowling
club. This teacher explained in English how to play the game. On the following day he
asked us to explain in the same way how other games are played.” (Q22)

Again, another effective teacher here used the real place, a bowling club, to teach them the

sports English language. A third example was

“The teacher should take us to cinema and watch a film. They can take students on trips.
We don‟t have conversation. They [teachers] don‟t give enough conversation and therefore
there is nothing wrong if we go to the markets with the teacher and talk with the salespersons
in English.” (I11)

The respondent here believed that they should be in real conversations in real situations so

that they could improve their conversational skills. This is consistent with the perspective of

Colley et al (2003) and Transforming Learning Culture (TLC) project team (2003) who

emphasized the importance of informal learning. This is also in line with the perspective of

Shepherd (2000) who indicates that learning should be authentic and related to the outside

world of school.

A fourth characteristic of an effective learning culture as indicated by the students in my

study was making students work in groups. Most the respondents made it clear that working

in groups was one of the best ways of learning English. Through groups students could learn

from each other. Weaker students could get help from stronger students and shy students

who refrained from asking the teacher for help would find it easier to ask their peers. This is

in line with the perspective of Long, Adams, McLean, & Castanos (1976) as second language

acquisition researchers that individual learners use different language functions (i.e.,

rhetorical, pedagogic, interpersonal) in group work more than in teacher fronted activities It

is also consistent with Pica & Doughty (1985b) who stated that learners would correct

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themselves or others in group work more than in teacher-fronted discussions. Students

interact with each other within groups in a relaxing atmosphere in which teachers do not

practise any authority on students. This is supported by some SLA theorists believe that one

of the important conditions for successful SLA is being in a relaxation state in a learning

environment (Hall, 1999; Krashen, 1982; Terrell, Tschirner, Nikolai, & Genzmer, 1996;

Tschirner, 1996). In this kind of environment students are usually more motivated and may

be more responsible for their learning; it is a kind of authentic situation which is an aspect of

a good learning culture. This is also consistent with the perspective of Porter (1983) who

pointed out that learners can provide each other with authentic communicative practice. All

group members interact with each other in problem solving, answering questions using the

target language and this is in fact the major objective. As indicated earlier, enabling students

to use the target language is an extremely important aspect of the language learning culture.

As we can see by dividing up the class into groups, teachers have busy classrooms and busy

students. It was a busy culture in which students have the chance to help each other and have

the maximum opportunity of practising speaking English which they themselves consider

very crucial for learning English. The usefulness of group work is emphasized by Long and

Porter (1985) who believed that group work in the FL classroom is useful from both

pedagogical and perspective, but also from psycholinguistic perspectives. It is not only the

SLA theorists who highlighted the usefulness of group work but also the social

constructivists who consider group activities in classroom very useful in the sense that they

give learners a good chance to practise, use the language in different ways and think

collectively; and therefore language teachers should encourage learners to interact with each

other in pairs and groups (Mercer, 2002).

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c) Classroom control

The findings showed that teachers‟ ability to control the class is important in order for

learning to take place. If there is no class control, disorder will prevail in the classroom and

learning in this case the learning culture will be affected adversely.

“She had the ability to control the class. I also noticed that she managed to control those
students who tend to chat in other classes and this gives the class a better chance for
learning.” (I4)

“I didn‟t like teacher number eight. There was no class control. If there is class control
learning will occur.” (I17)

However, this does not mean that the teacher should completely control the behaviour of

students in the class. This is something that the students hate. It may not help in creating a

suitable classroom atmosphere. The effective EFL teacher should show sensitivity to

students‟ expectations and therefore they should control the classroom in a way that does not

offend the students or make their life difficult and at the same time facilitate learning. The

purpose of class control is to facilitate learning. This is in line with the perspective of Good

and Brophy (2001) who indicated that students need to conform to certain rules that help in

organizing the classroom and supporting the teaching and learning process.

9.4.2 Human Theme

The theme of interpersonal rapport with students necessarily means that effective teachers

should create the kind of culture that mainly satisfies the affective domain of students and as

a result provides better learning chances for students. This theme highlights an important

factor of the effective language learning culture that is created by effective EFL teachers. It

contains a bigger number of the components of the learning culture than the theme of

instructional skills. The data collected under this theme showed that the human element in

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teaching Arab students English is extremely important. There are five main components of

effective learning culture that can be extracted from the human aspects of effective teaching:

a) Teachers‟ friendliness;

b) Teachers‟ as creators of a good learning environment;

c) Teachers‟ flexibility;

d) Encouraging students;

e) Helping students inside and outside the classroom.

These components of effective English language learning culture as well as major

characteristics and practices of effective EFL teachers will be discussed below in detail.

a) Teachers’ friendliness

The data showed that friendliness was an important component of the language learning

culture that the participants drew through their descriptions of effective EFL teachers.

Taking the students and their overall circumstances and personality seriously helps in

maintaining friendliness. Teachers might not be able to create a good learning environment

when students do not like them because they do not show them respect and friendliness.

Some of the participants made a direct relation between teachers‟ friendliness and learning.

“She should try to be a friend. Her relationship with us was formal. We could not
understand her classes as long as we feel that we are not close with each other.” (I6)

This was empirical evidence that friendliness helped in creating and maintaining an effective

language learning culture. Another benefit of teachers‟ friendliness was that it bridged the

gap between teachers and students and made students feel that their teachers were close to

them.

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“He had good relationship with students. You can talk with him and shake hands with him.”
(I8)

“He established a friendly relationship with students from the beginning.” (I10)

This was necessary for paving the way for establishing interaction between teachers and

students inside and outside the classroom and as a result learning occurs. As for interaction

inside the classroom, effective teachers might start some of their classes by having informal

social interaction with students. Both teachers and students may talk about their weekends,

personal matters and other issues that are of common interest. One of the comments in this

regard was

“She knew how to interact and communicate with students. … Her class was full of life. She
let us talk about ourselves. She would ask us what we did in the weekend. In this case I
improve my English. After that she would start the lesson.” (FI5)

The respondents considered this kind of interaction as an aspect of teachers‟ friendliness as

well as a learning practice in which they used the target language. Regarding teachers‟

friendliness outside the classroom, it helped in creating authentic situations in more real

settings through which students had the chance to interact with teachers and use the target

language.

“He was friendly. He gave me the chance to meet him outside the class and talk with him.”
(I11)

“We talked with him in class and outside the class. He was a friend of us; he tended to sit
with us in the cafeteria and ask us about our life in our society. This would make the student
like the class and the subject matter and encourage him to work harder.” (FI3)

“She interacted with us a lot in the class and outside the class. She tended to come to the
cafeteria.” (Q57)

This was an informal learning through social contexts in authentic physical settings. These

informal meetings outside the borders of the classroom serve two goals: enhancing a friendly

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relationship between teachers and students and giving students the chance to use the target

language and talk about themselves and their lives (personalization of the language) in real

situations.

A third benefit of friendliness was that it gave students a sense of security and this was also

an important part of the learning culture. You cannot create a good learning culture under

threatening or frightening circumstances. The data highlighted the importance of this kind of

security. One of these comments in this regard was:

“He has a friendly relationship with students in and outside the class. This gives the student
a sense of security.” (I10)

As we can see, teachers‟ friendliness was a major aspect of the human theme of effective

teaching. It was also crucial for creating an effective learning culture and enabling students

to interact with their teachers and use the target language in informal realistic situations.

b) Teachers’ as creators of a good learning environment

Another component of an effective learning culture was creating a good learning atmosphere

that would facilitate learning English. In fact, all of the human categories identified in

chapter 7 under interpersonal and personal characteristics were important components of the

learning environment the participants talked about. „Having fun‟ was prescribed by the

respondents as a major factor for creating a good learning atmosphere. One way of having

fun was through the teachers‟ sense of humour.

“He tries in the morning classes to create a fun atmosphere and include the humour element.
This is very important because students in the morning are not really ready to learn.” (I12)

“He spends five to ten minutes in joking and laughing and then he spends the rest of the time
on hard work.” (FI1)

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Another way of having fun was through teachers‟ comments.

“He makes nice and funny comments.” (FI4)

A third way was through teachers‟ acting.

“His special movements created a good atmosphere in class and helped in holding the
attention of students.” (FI1)

The respondents made a direct relation between learning English and having fun. A common

opinion among the participants was that if there was fun there would be less distraction and

more concentration and more eagerness to learn and more active learning; on the other hand,

if there is no fun there might be boredom and in consequence more distraction and less

concentration and less eagerness to learn and less active learning occurs. The participants

made it clear that they did not want teachers who were serious all the time; instead they want

teachers who from time to time joked and had some fun with them. This made classes more

interesting and attractive to the language learners and more useful.

Learning a language is different from learning other subjects in the sense that it has a social

aspect and fun is usually a part of our real social life. In social constructivism as well as

effective learning culture theories, relating learning to real life is considered to be an

important aspect of an effective learning culture.

c) Teachers’ flexibility

Teachers‟ flexibility and willingness to compromise were highly appreciated by the

respondents. The respondents talked about a number of aspects of the desired flexibility

most of which might be useful in enhancing the learning culture. One way the teachers who

were perceived as effective could be flexible was by giving make up exams.

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“He was flexible, not rigid. He didn‟t impose his opinion on the class. For example, if a
student misses a test, he would consider his reason of missing the test and if it is a very good
reason he would let him sit for a make up exam.” (FI3)

Another way effective teachers were flexible was in meeting their deadline that they decided

for handing in assignments.

“It was ok for her if we do not turn in our homework on time in case we were busy.” (I6)

However, teachers need to be very careful when they show flexibility over deadlines because

it might not be fair to other students. This would link in to the point about need to combine

individualisation with concern about the group situation. A third aspect of teachers‟

flexibility was in managing students‟ behaviour in the classroom. The respondents indicated

that the teachers they perceived as effective would not be very strict or use their authority in

dealing with students.

“He shouldn‟t try to use his authority with students; otherwise the students would hate the
subject.” (I15)

“Some students don‟t like the teacher to be strict; otherwise the students will be afraid of the
teacher and would hate the subject.” (I12)

“He shouldn‟t be strict too much; he should be lenient. He shouldn‟t give instructions.” (I17)

Some respondents gave specific situations in which teachers were lenient and showed a

degree of flexibility. Flexible teachers would be willing to change the date of the exam upon

the request of their students. They also would not overreact when they see a couple of

students talking or laughing, or when the mobile telephone of a student goes off or when they

see one of the students chewing gum. All these were real examples of teachers‟ flexibility

and willingness to compromise that the respondents appreciated.

“For example, the mobile is not allowed in the classroom. In case the mobile goes off, the
teacher takes the mobile from the student and keeps it for one month, but other teachers

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tolerate it for one or two times. The student switches off the mobile and things go ok. Also
teacher can tolerate having a student talking or laughing with her friend in class. … The
teacher in this case helps the student. The teacher should warn the student for the first time
and explain to her that what she did or happened was not allowed. In contrary, some other
teachers do not allow students to move; they ask students to look toward the teacher and say
to the students that they don‟t want to hear any sound.” (FI1)

“If she discovered somebody chewing gum, she wouldn't shout at her.” (I2)

However, as we saw in chapter 7, there were other aspects of flexibility that should be

discouraged in spite of the fact that the respondents appreciated them. This was due to the

fact that these kinds of flexibility contradicted with the institutions‟ policies. While the

management expected teachers to conform to these policies, students expected their teachers

not to. Moreover, responding to what students favoured in this regard could be against the

interest of students themselves. For example, the respondents mentioned persistently that

teachers should be flexible in implementing the attendance rules.

“The teacher must be flexible in things like attendance and lateness.” (FI4)

Some other respondents were aware that implementing the attendance rules was necessary.

However, they still expected teachers to give their students a chance especially when they

have very good reasons. They think that the teachers could still implement the university

rules and at the same time be to some extent flexible.

“He takes attendance regularly and would only help those students who have very difficult
circumstances.” (I4)

“If a student came late he would give him a chance but if he came late again, he would be
punished.” (FI5)

I think that this limited flexibility is worth taking into consideration since teachers in essence

implement the rules. They only give a chance to students with good reasons. It is worth to

mentioning here that when teachers implement the attendance policy, they should appear as

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people who conform to the university rules and not just punishing students. Teachers

sometimes need to explain this to their students.

As we can see, teachers‟ flexibility in the above contexts helped in minimizing the worries

and anxieties of students and making them like their teachers. With less anxieties and

resentment and with more relaxation and appreciations of teachers‟ flexibility a better

English language learning culture can be created.

d) Encouraging students

The learning culture that suited the participants was also characterized by encouragement.

The data revealed that English learners need a lot of encouragement which supplies them

with more energy that they need to exert in learning English. Effective teachers encouraged

their students to work harder and try to do better.

“She encouraged students to participate. She would also try to encourage careless
students.” (I18)

“If there is a student who didn‟t pass the midterm exam, he would encourage her and give
her more help.” (I9)

They also encouraged them to speak in English without fear of making mistakes. At the

same time they discouraged students from laughing at or making fun of those students who

make mistakes when they try to use the language. Teachers themselves should not get angry

at their students or blame them when they make mistakes. They should make their students

feel that they are in a safe culture. They should help their student to be more confident of

themselves and maintain this confidence.

“She made us feel safe when we speak. We don‟t get afraid when we speak. She would
encourage us to speak and not to worry about our mistakes. She would smile and give us the
chance to speak. She didn‟t get angry with us. … She made us feel that English language
was easy and that by practice you would learn it.” (I10)

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“A good teacher would encourage you to speak English. New students are shy to speak
English and worried of making mistakes.” (FI3)

“He shouldn‟t allow other students to laugh at those who try to speak in English.” (I6)

The data revealed that many effective EFL teachers used the rewarding method in

encouraging their students. They gave material rewards such as simple gifts, gave marks to

students and use encouraging words such as good, excellent and well done.

“He would give us questions and those who can answer them first were rewarded and given
marks.” (I8)

“He gave gifts to those students who got high marks in the exam. He tried to make us do our
best.” (I13)

“He encourages us by using words like very good and excellent.” (Q35)

The respondents indicated they needed encouragement. It urged them to work harder and

made them feel more confident in learning English. Language learners needed their teachers

to help them maintain confidence in themselves that they could learn English and that they

should not give up.

“He helped us to have confidence on ourselves and insists that we can do some important
things.” (Q44)

All these aspects of teachers‟ encouragement were seen by the respondents as necessary

elements in an effective English language learning culture. It made them more willing to

participate, use the language, and exert more efforts in learning the language.

e) Helping students inside and outside the classroom

The findings of this research reflected that effective teachers were expected to help students

whenever and wherever necessary. The effective learning culture that emerged from the data

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was also characterized by an open-doors practice. Students could access their teachers any

time and anywhere and get the kind of help they needed.

“He asks students to go to his office if they need to know a certain thing about the subject
and he would explain to them.” (I2)

“She was a very good teacher because she helped us not only in the subject she taught us but
also in all other subjects.” (I19)

“He helps me until now even though he is no longer my teacher.” (I6)

When students know that particular teachers are always willing to help, they will not be

hesitant or feel embarrassed to approach such teachers not only in class but also outside the

class, in their offices, in the corridor, at the library or even at the cafeteria. It was a learning

culture that did not have any barriers between teachers and their students.

As we can see, the data presented above does constitute a description of an effective

language learning culture, and it has also described what such a culture might involve in the

Arab EFL teaching context. We saw that both the professional and the human aspects were

equally important in maintaining this culture. Under the instructional theme, we found that

diversification was one of the most significant aspects. Other important aspects that were

considered were enabling students to use the language inside and outside the classroom and

controlling the classroom in a way that helps in maintaining a suitable learning environment.

Under the human theme, friendliness was considered of great importance for creating a good

learning culture from students‟ perspective. Other important components were creating a

good learning environment, teachers‟ flexibility, helping students inside and outside the

classroom and encouraging students.

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9.5 Limitations of the Study

No research is without its limitations.

a) The main research question (How do Arab students perceive effective EFL teachers

at university level?) was answered in considerable detail. The perceptions of

students were identified under two major themes and in each theme a number of

categories and subcategories were extracted and presented in a separate chapter.

The instructional skills theme was presented in Chapter 6 and the human

characteristics theme was presented in Chapter 7.

As for, the other subordinate questions, they were answered to different levels of

satisfaction. The first one (In what ways do cultural factors operate to influence the

views of Arab students of effective EFL teachers at university level?) was

answered, but the details I got for this question were not many. The views I was

able to attribute with confidence to the influence of cultural factors were few. As an

Arab who has the same culture of the respondents, I relied on my cultural

background in deciding that these factors were culturally influenced.

The second subordinate question (To what extent are student perceptions of teacher

effectiveness in UAE Universities unitary or heterogeneous?) was answered

thoroughly in one complete chapter (Chapter 8). However, I should say here that

the purpose of that chapter is not only to reflect the unitary and heterogeneous

aspects of student perception but more importantly to voice the perception of

participants so that the readers can be aware of what respondents say and feel at

individual level as well as understanding the qualities of effective teachers that were

extracted from the whole data set that was collected in all three phases. . This was

thought to give a clearer picture to the readers of the respondents‟ perceptions.

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 The third subordinate question (What are the implications of student perceptions of

teacher effectiveness for formal evaluation procedures of language classrooms in

UAE universities?) was addressed thematically. The findings showed that the

student evaluation forms used to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers did not

include some of the qualities and teaching practices of EFL teachers perceived as

effective by Arab students. However, I refrained from listing them and suggesting

adding them to student evaluation forms. We are not interested in increasing the list

of items in these evaluation forms because this might not be the best way for

appraising teachers‟ effectiveness. The findings of this study do not prescribe the

qualities of good teachers or suggest better student evaluation forms, but rather they

give insights for teachers as well as educational administrators that might help them

in increasing the effectiveness of EFL teaching.

The fourth subordinate question (What is the broader context that the overall

findings might draw for making English language more effective for Arab

university students?) was completely and thoroughly answered. This question,

which refers to the effective language learning culture, was answered in Chapter 9.

b) The language used in collecting the data was Arabic. This was because some of the

respondents were not very confident in using English; I also wanted to make sure

that the language was not an obstacle for gaining the right and exact data. It is

inevitable that the translator would lose a certain percentage of the meaning no

matter what precautionary procedures he/she takes.

c) Being of a different gender might have also affected the flow of the discussion of

some female students. However, most of them showed interest and enthusiasm to

talk about this particular subject.

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9.6 Implications of the Study

This study represents the first attempt to explore the perceptions of Arab university students

of effective EFL teachers at a university level by adopting an interpretative mode of inquiry.

The findings of this study carry a number of implications.

a) English language teachers should be helped to adopt a view of learning as culture.

The results of this study showed that in order for EFL teachers to be effective they

should create the effective learning culture that was described in this study based on

the participants‟ responses.

b) English language teachers should be helped to understand what the findings say

about what an effective language learning culture might look like in the Arab EFL

context.

c) English language teachers should recognise that this is descriptive and not

prescriptive – i.e. that my work doesn‟t give them a checklist of lots of things to do,

but the basis for understanding their classroom and then changing it appropriately.

d) The English language learning curriculum should better address students‟ needs and

interests. There was a consensus among the participants that the textbooks used in

the IEPs were not satisfactory.

9.7 Methodological Issues

I was not familiar with the qualitative research before joining Exeter University. The

interpretative approach is not common in the United Arab Emirates, where quantitative

research has been dominant in academic institutions. The nature of this research requires an

approach that enables the researcher to get a deeper understanding of the perceptions of Arab

students of effective teaching. I believed that using a quantitative inquiry would not enable

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me to get deeper to the understanding of the participants of effective teaching. They had the

chance to express their feelings and opinions and provide a description of effective EFL

teachers. When I was a student, and was asked to complete questionnaires in which I should

evaluate teachers, I found myself in a situation in which I would agree or disagree with a

large number of questionnaire items. The answers I tended to give did not always represent

my opinions. I had many things I wanted to say but these quantitative questionnaires just

„shut my mouth‟. Therefore, I chose to use the qualitative inquiry in this study so that I could

give the opportunity for the respondents to freely express their perceptions of effective

English language teaching. At the same time I did not want to impose my opinion or the

opinion of others on the respondents through the items of the quantitative questionnaires. As

I said in Chapter 5, some items lead the respondents to say „yes‟ or „no‟ because they are self

evident and people may not disagree on them. However, I felt that I overloaded myself by

administering 20 interviews in Phase One, 165 qualitative questionnaires in the Phase Two

and 4 follow up interviews in Phase Three. I collected a great deal of data which took a great

deal of time to analyze. Nevertheless, the reward I got was the consistency I found in the

data collected from different places across the three phases which enabled me to confirm the

categories of effective EFL teachers and come up with the learning theory that teaching

English effectively to Arab students requires creating an effective language learning culture.

I believe this is the first time that the significance of the learning culture in learning English

has been talked about in research into EFL teaching effectiveness. This means that this new

theory of English language learning is extended by subsequent research; it will provide fresh

insights for all both the producers and receivers of English language learning.

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9.8 Recommendations for Further Research

I recommend a number of possibilities for further research.

a) While this study contributes to the research agenda, the fact that there is very little

empirical data available about the effective teaching especially in the field of EFL, I

recommend further studies of the theory advanced through this study. The theory

advanced by this study holds that the effective EFL teachers are those who can

create an effective language learning culture. Teaching effectiveness within a

suitable learning culture has two major dimensions: (a) instructional skills and (b)

interpersonal rapport with students. Each dimension has a number of categories

some of which have subcategories. There is a cause for optimism that following the

same qualitative procedures outlined in Chapter Five of this study, one would arrive

at similar conclusions. Nevertheless, using a qualitative methodology, I

recommend further research to confirm the conclusions and theory advanced by this

study. This is useful because it helps in testing the robustness of the ideas when

using a different approach so that we can be sure that the findings are not unduly

distorted by the procedures I used.

b) This study focused on the perceptions of students; research into the perceptions of

EFL teachers as well as administrators involved in IEPs is recommended.

c) This study investigated the characteristics of effective EFL teachers through the

eyes of students. In other words, effective teaching was described by the students.

Research in which the behaviours, practices and characteristics of effective EFL

teachers are observed directly inside the classroom by the researcher is

recommended.

d) Research should be carried out into why students prefer handouts and work sheets

to textbooks and why they find textbooks less useful.

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e) Different studies use different words or terms for similar concepts which may

confuse researchers and make their lives more difficult when it comes to the data

analysis and categorization stage. Sometimes the terms that express certain concepts

do not even exist in the literature. I suggest some kind of forum (web based or

conference based) where researchers can debate the key concepts. This is one of

the important issues that should be pursued. It may pave the way for reaching a

kind of consensus regarding what the characteristics and practices of effective

teachers are. How can these qualities of effective teaching be identified if each

researcher uses different terminology and may interpret each term differently?

When observable behaviours and characteristics of effective EFL teachers have

been agreed upon, they can be identified as stable and reasonably consistent in

different settings. Once this has been undertaken, an observation scheme for

evaluating the effectiveness of EFL teachers can be created and implemented.

f) One useful approach to this continuation might be action research. This might be to

try to improve teaching and learning by using my findings and then observing the

impact on student performance.

9.9 Conclusion

This section contains the conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. The first

conclusion is that most of the characteristics identified can be taught to practitioners. Having

an overview of the categories contained in Table 6.1 (pp.127, 128) which represented the

findings of the current research, we can see that most of them are learnable, trainable or

acquirable. For example, teachers who want to improve their teaching performance can

review previous lessons, use computer technology in teaching, minimize lecturing time and

giving more time for students to practise English, make students work in groups, be friendlier

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with students and show them respect, etc. What helps in making most of these skills and

practices acquirable is that I tried to be as specific as possible and avoided giving general

descriptions that practitioners might not be able to understand what they exactly mean and as

a result would not be able to benefit much from them. As we saw in Chapters 6 and 7, I

constructed many specific categories and subcategories and gave detailed descriptions about

them. I highlighted wherever and whenever possible the ways or procedures followed the

teachers perceived as effective when they practised these teaching practices. This was to

show others how to do or practise these beneficial practices. However, these need to be

taught alongside an understanding of a cultural view of learning so that they are not simply

seen as prescription. What works in one classroom won‟t necessarily work in another. The

teacher has to learn how to select from amongst the (now increased) range of tools available

to her/him.

The second conclusion is that in order to be able to provide effective teaching, teachers

should create an effective learning culture. Taking the perspective of an effective learning

culture to understand the students‟ perceptions of effective EFL teachers has enabled me

within this study to provide a more holistic picture of effective EFL teaching. Initially, the

social constructivist perspective was the most appropriate for interpreting my findings;

however, at a later stage I discovered that although the social perspective was indeed be

suitable for much of my data, the idea of a learning culture gives a more rounded big picture

of what can make EFL teachers effective. In this case the social perspective becomes

subsumed into the idea of learning culture. It is necessary here to highlight the fact that this

conclusion was extracted from the data given by the learners themselves and not by

supervisors or educationalists or learning theorists; I went directly to the students and asked

them what they think makes an effective EFL teacher. I believe that learners are at the heart

of the teaching and learning process and their perspective should be invested in to improve

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this process and gain better outcomes. The findings of the study indicated a number of

aspects of the effective language learning culture that the participants favoured:

1. It has family atmosphere where students feel safe;

2. Students are to be respected and treated students friendly;

3. It emphasizes the use of language inside and outside the classroom;

4. Learning of English occurs not only at formal level but also at informal level;

5. It highlights the importance of the real contexts in learning English;

6. There is no place for routine teaching methods;

7. Classes are interesting; teachers select interesting materials that are relevant to real

life;

8. The element of competition is one of the aspects of an effective English language

learning culture;

9. Language games help in creating an effective learning culture in class;

10. The teacher‟s sense of humour is essential;

11. Teachers should be flexible and willing to compromise;

12. Helping students at any time anywhere is an aspect of this culture;

13. Students can express their opinions freely;

14. Students are involved in cooperative learning such as oral presentations, interviews,

group work and class discussions;

15. Teachers should maintain class control that help in creating the right environment

and at the same time enable the students to be active learners.

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The third conclusion is that while many effective teacher behaviours are not discipline

specific, there are certain behaviours and attitudes that are specific to effective FL teaching.

In order to evaluate effective EFL teaching, attributes of effective EFL teaching must first be

identified, must then be agreed upon as being worth evaluating by current EFL teachers, must

be identified on repeated occasions, and must be proved worthwhile in many settings (Schrier

& Hammadou, 1994). This study sought to undertake the first step by identifying the

qualities and practices of EFL teachers deemed to be effective from the perspective of EFL

students in UAE universities. The findings of this study highlighted the idea that effective

EFL teachers are those who can create an effective language learning culture. This has the

potential to provide valuable insights in the field of EFL that, after further research, could

have an important effect on language teaching and learning, teacher preparation and

evaluation, and curriculum development.

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 Appendix A
Observation Forms of Classroom Instruction

Form One

The following is an example of the detailed form; it consists of the following components:

1. Introductory Activities

- How does the instructor meet the class?

- Outline/objectives/overview for the session given? Tie with previous
session?

2. Presentation

- Is the instructor organized and logical in the presentation?

- Are complex ideas explained clearly?
- Are key concepts/important points emphasized?
- Speaking skills/mannerisms?
- Variety of techniques/aids?
- Use of blackboard/overhead?
- Use of questions or feedback techniques?
- Response to student questions. Is the instructor responsive to individuals?
- Pace of presentation
- Use of examples
- Confidence/enthusiasm of instructor
- Student participation. Active/passive
- Class control
- Variety of student activities?
- Class organization? Class groups/pairs
- Class focus? Teacher/student/board/overhead

3. Wrap Up

- Instructor‟s expectations/student responsibilities clear?

- Summary
- Time for questions

4. Overall performance

- Satisfactory
- Unsatisfactory
- Suggestions for development

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Form Two

This form consists of four review of teaching record forms. The following procedure was followed in
administering these forms.

Form RT2

It is a preparation form. It is completed by the teacher and given to the reviewer at least one day
before the class. Before the teaching observation, the teacher and reviewer should meet to discuss
session. This form remains confidential to the teacher and reviewer and it should be retained by the
teacher. It consists of the following items:

 Broad aims of this class in the program: How does it link backwards/forwards/sideways to other
classes in this or other skill/subject areas?

 Specific intended learning outcomes of this class: What do you want to achieve from this class in
terms of skill/ subject-specific outcomes and/or core academic outcomes and/or personal skills
outcomes? How do you propose to check the extent to which these have been achieved?

 Students‟ preparation for this class: How were the students expected to prepare for this class –
general reading, specific reading, specific assignment, assignment given to selected students…?
How serious are you about that expectation?

 Assessment of the intended learning outcomes: How/when will these be assessed? How will the
students know the criteria of assessment?

Form RT3

It is an observation form. After the class, the reviewer should provide immediate verbal feedback and
complete Form RT3 and give this to the teacher within the following two days. This form remains
confidential to the teacher and reviewer. It consists of the following items:

 Opening the class: Clarity of purpose/intended learning outcomes – review of previous work –
links to other classes/skill/subject areas/programs/activities expected of the students in the class –
reference to assessment?

 Main part of the class: Appropriateness of structure, presentation and pace – sensitivity to
students‟ reactions – making use of opportunities – conveying enthusiasm? Engagement of
students in active learning?

 Closing the class: Summary of learning outcomes achieved – achievement of planned outcomes
– further linking to later/parallel work - expectation of learning activity to be undertaken after the
class?

 Overview: Appropriateness of structure/pace – effectiveness of presentation – encouragement of

personal skills development – appropriate use of resources – rapport with students –
motivation/engagement of students?

 Quality of the student learning experience in this class: Excellent/Good/Satisfactory/

Unsatisfactory

 Points of good practice worthy of wider dissemination:

 Suggestions, if any, for areas of development:

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Form RT4

It is a reflection form. Following feedback on the session the teacher completes Form RT4. This
form remains confidential to the teacher. This form consists of the following items:

 Reflection on achievement: Extent to which you achieved your intended learning outcomes for
this class – what were you pleased with - what were you disappointed with?

 Reflection on Planning: If anything did not go as planned was it a problem or a benefit - what is
there to learn from it?

 Reflection on reviewer‟s comments: Are these fair comments – did anything here surprise you?

 Reflection on students‟ learning experience: What action will you take to build on the points of
good practice, to correct areas of weakness and to follow up the reviewer‟s suggestions for
improvement?

Form RT1

The reviewer must complete Form RT1 which provides evidence of review having taken place and
identifies good practice and any training or development needs. The teacher is asked to agree and
countersign the form. In the event of a failure to reach agreement, the both reviewer and teacher must
sign the form and the teacher must indicate in writing on the form the reason(s) for the disagreement.
This form must be submitted to the Director within one week of review taking place. Form RT1
consists of the following items:

 Name of person reviewed

 Skill/subject of lesson
 Level of class (1-4)
 Location of class within the semester (e.g. Week number within the total weeks)
 Type of class (language class, lab session, seminar …)
 Number of students and gender
 Duration observed as a percentage of the scheduled duration of the class
 Name of reviewer
 Date of review
 Recommendations for action, agreed during the review (link with points identified on Form RT3)
(a) Points of good practice worthy of wider dissemination:
(b) Suggestions, if any, for areas of development:
 Is support required for specific Staff Development activities? YES/NO
 Is a follow-up observation/review recommended by the reviewer? YES/NO
 Is the Director required to respond to items on this Action Plan? YES/NO

Teacher‟s comments, if any, on review process and on reviewer‟s comments:

Reviewer‟s comments, if any, on review process and on teacher‟s comments:

Signatures: Teacher Date

Reviewer Date

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 Appendix B
Student Evaluation Forms

Form One

COURSE AND INSTRUCTOR EVALUATION

Instructions: This questionnaire is designed to help the University and its faculty assess course
offerings and the quality of teaching. Mark your answers for items 1-20 on the Optical Scan form
(answer sheet) only.

1. The course materials were interesting.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

2. Classroom activities helped to develop your ability in this skill.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

3. The quizzes fairly measured your ability in this skill.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

4. The midterm examination fairly measured your ability in this skill.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

5. The textbook used in this course helped you learn.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

6. The textbook was clear and easy to understand.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

7. Overall, your ability in the course skill improved as a result of this course.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

8. The instructor treated you with respect.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

9. The instructor was available for scheduled office hours.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

10. The instructor was well prepared for the class.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

11. The instructor stayed on the subject of the lecture.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

12. The instructor presented the course clearly.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

13. The instructor followed the attendance policy.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

14. The instructor showed good classroom control so that everyone had the opportunity to learn.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

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15. The instructor started class on time.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

16. The instructor used class time efficiently.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

17. The instructor was concerned about the students' understanding and progress.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

18. The instructor treated each student fairly.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

19. The instructor encouraged student participation and discussion in class.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

20. I would recommend this instructor to a friend.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

DO YOU HAVE ANY FURTHER COMMENTS? PLEASE WRITE THEM IN THE SPACE
PROVIDED IN ENGLISH ON THE BACK OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE. BE SURE TO
INCLUDE THE LEVEL, SECTION, AND SKILL.

PLEASE WRITE YOUR COMMENTS IN ENGLISH ONLY

Level _________
Section _________
Skill _________

1. What did you like best about this course?

2. What did you like least about this course?
3. What would you like to have added/changed /removed to make this course better?

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Form Two

Student Feedback on Instructor Effectiveness

Please place a check mark in the box indicating the response which most closely corresponds with
your opinion.

1. This instructor is well prepared for class.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

2. This instructor explains the usefulness of the topics being studied.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

3. This instructor presents the lesson clearly.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

4. The things we do in class help me to learn.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

5. This instructor gives us a chance to ask questions and express our ideas freely.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

6. This instructor shows an interest in my learning and treats me with respect.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

7. This instructor gives assignments that help me learn

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

8. This instructor marks and returns tests/assignments within a reasonable period of time.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

9. This instructor discusses the tests/assignments with us after they have been marked.
a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

10. The instructor makes this course interesting and challenging.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

11. I would to take another course with this instructor.

a. strongly agree b. agree c. neutral d. disagree e. strongly disagree

12. This instructor is effective because (Please Comment):

13. In order to improve student learning, this instructor could (Please Comment):

14. Other Comments:

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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Form Three

Student Evaluation of the Learning Environment

Please complete the following survey using the pencil provided. If you wish to change an answer, use
an eraser. Your responses will be used to improve the quality of your learning experience. Your
answers are important. Please consider each question carefully before answering. Your individual
answers are confidential.

Questions about your instructor

1. Instructor shows enthusiasm when teaching.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

2. Instructor‟s way of teaching holds my interest.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

3. Instructor‟s explanations are clear.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

4. Instructor is prepared for the lessons.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

5. The overall effectiveness of the instructor is:

Excellent Good Average Weak Poor N/A

6. Students are encouraged to participate in class discussions.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

7. Students are encouraged to ask questions.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

8. Instructor‟s answers to questions are helpful.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

9. Instructor makes students feel welcome for help outside of class.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

10. Instructor shows interest in student success.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

11. I would tell other students that the instructor is:

Excellent Good Average Weak Poor N/A

Questions about the course

12. I am learning something valuable.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

13. I find the course interesting.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A
14. Feedback given on assessments and graded materials is helpful.
a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

15. Methods of evaluating student work are fair.

301
 a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

16. Homework and labs are helping me to learn.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

17. The course textbook and assigned readings are helping me to learn.
a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

18. Other assigned materials are helping me to learn.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

19. Course workload, relative to other courses is appropriate.

a. Strongly Agree b. Agree c. Neutral d. Disagree e. Strongly Disagree N/A

20. The quality of this course is:

Excellent Good Average Weak Poor N/A

21. Circle the grade you expect to receive in this course

A B B+ C+ C D+ D F

Write any additional comments you would like to make in the box below:

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Form Four

Intensive English Program

Course Evaluation

Instructions: This questionnaire is designed to help the University and its faculty
assess course offerings and the quality of teaching. When responding to the comment
section at the end of the questionnaire, please write in English.

Section A: Student Information

1. What is your gender?

a. Female b. Male

2. Approximately what percentage of classes did you attend for this course?
a. 100% b. 95% c. 90% d. 85% e. 80%

3. What is your expected final letter grade for this course?

a. Grade A b. Grade B c. Grade C d. Grade D e. Grade F

Section B: Course Items

4. The course syllabus, including objectives and student responsibilities, was clear and fully
explained in the beginning of the course.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

5. Classroom activities and assignments contributed to greater understanding of course content and
development in the course skill area.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

6. Graded assignments and exams fairly measured what was taught.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

7. The textbook used in this course supported the objectives of the course and helped you learn.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

8. Overall, your ability in the course skill area improved as a result of this course.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

Section C: Instructor Items

9. The instructor treated you politely and with respect.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

10. The instructor was willing to help you learn outside the classroom.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

11. The instructor was well prepared for the class.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

12. The instructor presented the course subject matter clearly.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

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13. The instructor made the course content interesting.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

14. The instructor evaluated your work fairly.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

15. The instructor demonstrated good classroom control and helped to create a positive learning
environment.
a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

16. The instructor started and ended the classes on time.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

17. The instructor encouraged student participation and discussion in class.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

18. Overall, the instructor was effective.

a. Strongly agree; b. Agree; c. Neutral; d. Disagree; e. Strongly disagree

DO YOU HAVE ANY FURTHER COMMENTS? WRITE YOUR COMMENTS IN ENGLISH

ON THE BACK OF THE ANSWER SHEET IN THE SPACE PROVIDED.

304
 Appendix C
Permission Letter

March 12, 2002

Dear Mr. …….,

Hello! My name is Saleh Saafin. I am a doctoral student in the School of Education at Exeter
University. I am conducting a study about effective teaching. The purpose of the study is to
investigate the qualities and practices of effective EFL teachers from the perspective of Arab students.
In order to obtain the information needed for this study, I have decided to interview some students
from the University City: the University of Sharjah, Sharjah Colleges of the Higher Colleges of
Technology, and the American University of Sharjah. Participation in this study requires one in
person interview with each student. The interview will last approximately thirty-five minutes and it
will be in Arabic. This is to make sure that they have no difficulties in expressing their ideas. Each
interview will be recorded. The content of the tapes will be confidential and will be used for research
purposes only. No one, other than myself, will have access to their contents. If any student is not
willing to be audiotaped, notes will be taken instead. Participation in this study is totally voluntary.

I wonder if it is at all possible for you to recruit five Arab informative students who studied English in
your Intensive English Program last semester and they are still studying English in the second
semester. Based on the data collected from these interviews, I will develop a questionnaire.
Therefore, I have to get back to you in order to administer the questionnaire on three sections from
the Readiness Program. My final stage will be interviewing two students for further investigations.

Anytime after 11:00 am is suitable for me to interview these students. (I also need about thirty
minutes to arrive Zayed University).

With many thanks and sincere appreciation,

Saleh Saafin

305
 Appendix D
Interview Questions of Phase One

Student Code: __________

University/College Code: ____________________
Date: _________

N.B. It will be made clear to the interviewees that the main purpose of these interviews is to
investigate the qualities and practices of effective EFL teachers. who have taught the participants
English in the Intensive English Programs in one of the four universities involved. They will also be
informed that the data collected from them will be confidential and will be used for research purposes
only. Participating in these interviews is completely voluntary.

Because I don‟t want to know or take the names of your teachers for confidentiality reasons, please
write down the names you your teachers of English in the first and second semesters in this form. At
the end of the interview, please don‟t show me the list of names and at the end of the interview you
can take the form with you. (The interviewees were given the following form in a separate piece of
paper).

Form 1
Teacher‟s No. Teacher‟s Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Now I am going to give you my form that I am going to collect from you after you complete it.

Form 2
TEACHERS‟ EFFECTIVENESS
Teacher‟s No. Effective Normal Not Effective Not sure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

306
1. What words would you use to describe teacher number __ whom you rated as a more effective
teacher?

2. Tell me why and how she/he is/was effective. Tell me about his/her way or method of teaching
English. Can you describe one of his/her classes (sessions) you found effective? Give me
examples of his/her teaching practices that helped you to learn English (the question is to be
asked again if more than one teacher is rated as effective).

3. What words would you use to describe teacher number __ whom you rated as a less effective
teacher. Tell me how and why she/he is/was effective. Tell me about his/her way or method of
teaching English. Can you describe one of his/her classes (sessions) you found not effective?
Give me examples of his/her teaching practices that didn‟t help you to learn English. (The
question is to be asked again if more than one teacher is rated as ineffective).

4. Who was/is your favourite teacher among this list of teachers? What is his/her number? Why did
you like him/her? Was he/she the most effective teacher among the list?

5. Who was/is your least favourite English teacher among them? Give number only. Why didn‟t you
like him/her? Was he/she the least effective teacher among the list?

6. What advice would you give a person who wanted to be a university teacher of English?

Probes (i.e., tell me more, give examples, explain, what else, etc.) will be used throughout the
interviews whenever I feel it is necessary to encourage interviewees to say more in response to the
interview questions.

307
 ‫‪Appendix E‬‬
‫‪Arabic Translation of Interview Questions of Phase One‬‬

‫سِز اٌطبٌت‪_____ :‬‬

‫سِز اٌدبِؼٗ‪/‬اٌىٍ‪____________________ :ٗ١‬‬
‫اٌزبس‪٠‬خ‪______ :‬‬

‫ِالحظٗ‪ :‬ص‪١‬زُ اٌز‪ٛ‬ػ‪١‬ح ٌٍّششح‪ٌٍّ ٓ١‬مبثٍٗ ثبْ اٌ‪ٙ‬ذف اٌشئ‪١‬ض‪٘ ِٓ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد ٘‪ٛ‬االصزمظبء ػٓ طفبد ‪ِّٚ‬بسصبد ِذسس‬
‫اٌٍغٗ االَََ ََ ََ ََ ََ ٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬اٌفؼبي‪٠ٚ .‬مظذ ثّذسص‪ ٝ‬اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٕ٘ ٗ٠‬ب اٌئه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬دسص‪ٛ‬ا ٘ؤالء اٌطالة ا‪ ٚ‬ال ‪٠‬زاٌ‪ٛ‬ا ‪٠‬ذسص‪ُٙٔٛ‬‬
‫اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬وٍغٗ اخٕج‪ ِٓ ٗ١‬خالي اٌجشا ِح اٌزبص‪١‬ض‪١‬خ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رم‪ َٛ‬ثبػذاد اٌطالة ٌذساصٗ اٌزخظظبد اٌّخزٍفٗ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رذسس‬
‫ثبٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ .ٗ٠‬وّب ص‪١‬زُ احبؽٗ اٌطالة ػٍّب ثبْ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌز‪ ٝ‬ص‪١‬زُ اٌحظ‪ٛ‬ي ػٍ‪ٙ١‬ب ِٓ اٌطالة اٌّشبسو‪ ٓ١‬ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد‬
‫صزى‪ ْٛ‬صش‪ٚ ٗ٠‬صزضزخذَ فمؾ الغشاع ثحث‪ .ٗ١‬وّب اْ اشزشان اٌطالة ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد ٘‪ ٛ‬اخز‪١‬بس‪.ٜ‬‬

‫ثّب إٔ‪ ٝ‬ال اسغت ف‪ِ ٝ‬ؼشفٗ ا‪ ٚ‬اخز اصّبء ِذسص‪١‬ه اسخ‪ ٛ‬وزبثٗ اصّبء اٌئه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬دسص‪ٛ‬ن اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬فىبٌفظً اال‪ٚ‬ي ا‪ٚ‬‬
‫٘زا اٌفظً ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج‪ .‬اسخ‪ ٛ‬ػذَ اؽالػ‪ ٝ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬لبئّٗ االصّبء ‪ٚ‬ف‪ٙٔ ٝ‬ب‪ ٗ٠‬اٌّمبثٍٗ ‪ّ٠‬ىٕه اخز إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج ِؼه‪( .‬اػط‪ ٝ‬اٌطٍجٗ‬
‫اٌّششح‪ٌٍّ ٓ١‬مبثٍٗ إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج اٌزبٌ‪ ٝ‬ثظ‪ٛ‬سٖ ِٕفظٍٗ)‬

‫ّٔ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ ‪1‬‬

‫اصُ اٌّذسس‬ ‫سلُ اٌّذسس‬
‫‪.1‬‬
‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪.6‬‬
‫‪.7‬‬
‫‪.8‬‬
‫‪.9‬‬
‫‪.10‬‬
‫‪.11‬‬
‫‪.12‬‬

‫االْ صبػط‪١‬ه إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬خظٕ‪ٚ ٝ‬اٌز‪ ٜ‬صبخزٖ ِٕه ثؼذ االٔز‪ٙ‬بء ِٓ رؼجئزٗ‪.‬‬

‫ّٔ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ ‪2‬‬

‫ِذ‪ ٜ‬فؼبٌ‪ ٗ١‬اٌّذسص‪ٓ١‬‬
‫غ‪١‬ش ِزأوذ‬ ‫غ‪١‬ش فؼبي‬ ‫ػبد‪ٜ‬‬ ‫فؼبي‬ ‫سلُ اٌّذسس‬
‫‪.1‬‬
‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪.6‬‬
‫‪.7‬‬
‫‪.8‬‬
‫‪.9‬‬
‫‪.10‬‬
‫‪.11‬‬
‫‪.12‬‬

‫‪308‬‬
‫‪ِ .2‬ب ٘‪ ٝ‬اٌظفبد اٌز‪ ٝ‬رحت اصزخذاِ‪ٙ‬ب ف‪ٚ ٝ‬طف اٌّذسس سلُ ___ ‪ٚ‬اٌز‪ ٜ‬طٕفزٗ ػٍ‪ ٝ‬أٗ ِذسصب ًا فؼبالًا‪ .‬اخجشٔ‪ٌّ ٝ‬برا ‪ ٚ‬و‪١‬ف‬
‫وبْ فؼبال؟ اخجشٔ‪ ٝ‬ػٓ اصٍ‪ٛ‬ثٗ ا‪ ٚ‬ؽش‪٠‬مزٗ ف‪ ٝ‬رذس‪٠‬ش اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ّ٠ ً٘ .ٗ٠‬ىٕه اْ رظف ٌ‪ ٝ‬احذ‪ ٜ‬حظظٗ اٌز‪ٚ ٝ‬خذر‪ٙ‬ب‬
‫فؼبٌٗ ؟ اػطٕ‪ ٝ‬اِثٍٗ ػٍ‪ِّ ٝ‬بسصبرٗ اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ٚ ٗ١‬اٌز‪ ٝ‬صبػذره ػٍ‪ ٝ‬رؼٍُ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪.ٗ٠‬‬

‫‪ِ .3‬ب ٘‪ ٝ‬اٌظفبد اٌز‪ ٝ‬رحت اصزخذاِ‪ٙ‬ب ف‪ٚ ٝ‬طف اٌّذسس سلُ ___ ‪ٚ‬اٌز‪ ٜ‬طٕفزٗ ػٍ‪ ٝ‬أٗ ِذسصب ًا غ‪١‬ش فؼبي‪ .‬اخجشٔ‪ٌّ ٝ‬برا‬
‫‪ٚ‬و‪١‬ف وبْ غ‪١‬ش فؼبي؟ اخجشٔ‪ ٝ‬ػٓ اصٍ‪ٛ‬ثٗ ا‪ ٚ‬ؽش‪٠‬مزٗ ف‪ ٝ‬رذس‪٠‬ش اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ّ٠ ً٘ .ٗ٠‬ىٕه اْ رظف ٌ‪ ٝ‬احذ‪ ٜ‬حظظٗ‬
‫اٌز‪ٚ ٝ‬خذر‪ٙ‬ب غ‪١‬ش فؼبٌٗ؟ اػطٕ‪ ٝ‬اِثٍٗ ػٍ‪ِّ ٝ‬بسصبرٗ اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ٚ ٗ١‬اٌز‪ ٌُ ٝ‬رضبػذن ػٍ‪ ٝ‬رؼٍُ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪.ٗ٠‬‬

‫‪ِٛ٘ ِٓ .4‬ذسصه اٌّفؼً ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌمبئّٗ؟ ِب ٘‪ ٛ‬سلّٗ؟ ٌّبرا احججذ ٘زا اٌّذسس؟ ً٘ وبْ اٌّذسس االوثش فؼبٌ‪ ٗ١‬ف‪ ٝ‬اٌزذس‪٠‬ش‬
‫ػّٓ اٌمبئّٗ؟‬

‫‪ ٛ٘ ِٓ .5‬اٌّذسس االلً رفؼ‪١‬ال ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌمبئّٗ؟ اٌشخبء اػطبء سلّٗ فمؾ‪ٌّ .‬برا ٌُ رحت ٘زا اٌّذسس؟ ً٘ وبْ اٌّذسس االلً‬
‫فؼبٌ‪ ٗ١‬ػّٓ اٌمبئّٗ؟‬

‫‪ِ .6‬ب ٘‪ ٝ‬إٌظ‪١‬حٗ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رضذ‪ٙ٠‬ب ٌٍشخض اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬حت اْ ‪٠‬ى‪ِ ْٛ‬ذسس ٌغٗ أدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬ػٍ‪ِ ٝ‬ضز‪ ٜٛ‬خبِؼ‪ٝ‬؟‬

‫ص‪١‬زُ اصزخذاَ اصئٍٗ صبثشٖ اثٕبء اٌّمبثالد (ِٓ ِثً اػطٕ‪ِ ٝ‬ز‪٠‬ذاًا ِٓ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد ‪ٚ‬اػطٕ‪ ٝ‬اِثٍٗ ‪ٚٚ‬ػح ‪ِٚ‬برا ا‪٠‬ؼب ًا) وٍّب دػذ‬
‫اٌحبخٗ ‪ٚ‬رٌه ٌزشد‪١‬غ اٌطالة ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اػطبء اٌّز‪٠‬ذ ِٓ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد سداًا ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اصئٍٗ اٌّمبثٍٗ‪.‬‬

‫‪309‬‬
 Appendix F
Open-Ended Questionnaire of Phase Two
Code: __________
University/College Code: _______________
Date: __________

Dear Student,

The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the qualities and practices of effective
English teachers who taught you or are still teaching you English in the intensive English program
The information collected from these questionnaires will be confidential and will be used for research
purposes only.
Because I don‟t want to know or take the names of your teachers for confidentiality reasons, please
fill in form one (attached) with the names of your teachers who taught you English since you joined
your university or college. Please don‟t show me the list of names and you can take it with you after
you complete this questionnaire (Form one was given separately to students).

Form one
Teacher‟s No. Teacher‟s Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Based on the list of teachers you put in form one, complete form two. Notice here that you refer to the
numbers of teachers and not their names. For example if the first name in form one is Barrie Wray,
you rate him in row 1 of form two as effective, normal, not effective or not sure. Please don‟t write
names in form two.

Form 2
EFFECTIVENESS
Teacher No. Effective Normal Not Effective Not Sure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

310
1. Now describe separately each EFL teacher you rated as effective in form 2. Write down why and
how he/she is/was effective as follows:

Teacher #__ Reasons for effectiveness

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Teacher #__ Reasons for effectiveness

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Teacher #__ Reasons for effectiveness

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Teacher #__ Reasons for effectiveness

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the effective teaching practices which benefited you a lot in learning English and which
were practised by these effective teachers? Please describe these practices of each teacher
separately.

Teacher #__ Effective Teaching Practices

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

311
Teacher #__ Effective Teaching Practices
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Teacher #__ Effective Teaching Practices

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Teacher #__ Effective Teaching Practices

___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. What advice would you give a person who wanted to be a university EFL teacher?
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Please use the back of the page if you need more space.

312
 ‫‪Appendix G‬‬
‫‪Arabic Translation of the Questionnaire of Phase Two‬‬

‫سِز اٌطبٌت‪__________:‬‬
‫سِز اٌدبِؼٗ‪/‬اٌىٍ‪__________________ :ٗ١‬‬
‫اٌزبس‪٠‬خ‪_________ :‬‬

‫ػز‪٠‬ز‪ ٜ‬اٌطبٌت‪:‬‬
‫اْ اٌ‪ٙ‬ذف اٌشئ‪١‬ض‪٘ ِٓ ٝ‬زٖ االصزج‪١‬بْ ٘‪ٛ‬االصزمظبء ػٓ طفبد ‪ِّٚ‬بسصبد ِذسس اٌٍغٗ االَََ ََ ََ ََ ََ ٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬اٌفؼبي‪٠ٚ .‬مظذ‬
‫ثّذسص‪ ٝ‬اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٕ٘ ٗ٠‬ب اٌئه اٌز‪ّ ٓ٠‬دسص‪ٛ‬ن ا‪ ٚ‬ال ‪٠‬زاٌ‪ٛ‬ا ‪ّ ٠‬ذسص‪ٔٛ‬ه اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ِٓ ٗ٠‬خالي ثشٔبِح اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬اٌّىثف ‪.‬‬
‫وّب ٔح‪١‬طه ػٍّب ًا ثبْ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌز‪ ٝ‬ص‪١‬زُ اٌحظ‪ٛ‬ي ػٍ‪ٙ١‬ب ِٓ خالي ٘زا االصزج‪١‬بْ صزضزخذَ الغشاع ثحث‪ ٗ١‬فمؾ‪ٔ .‬شىشوُ ػٍ‪ٝ‬‬
‫رؼب‪ٔٚ‬ىُ ِؼٕب‪.‬‬

‫إٔ‪ ٝ‬ال اسغت فىبالؽالع ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اصّبء ِذسص‪١‬ه ٌزٌه اسخ‪ ٛ‬وزبثٗ اصّبء اٌئه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬دسص‪ٛ‬ن اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬فىبٌفظً اال‪ٚ‬ي ا‪٘ ٚ‬زا‬
‫اٌفظً ف‪ ٝ‬إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ ‪ٚ‬احذ ‪ٚ‬اٌز‪ ٜ‬ردذٖ ِشفمب ًا ِغ ٘زا االصزج‪١١‬بْ‪ .‬ثؼذ االٔز‪ٙ‬بء ِٓ رؼجئٗ االصزج‪١‬بْ اسخ‪ ٛ‬االحزفبظ ثّٕ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ‬
‫‪ٚ‬احذ ‪ٚ‬ػذَ اػبدرٗ ٌ‪( .ٝ‬إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج اٌزبٌ‪ّٛٔ ٛ٘ ٝ‬رج سلُ ‪ٚ 1‬اٌز‪ ٜ‬اػط‪ٌٍ ٝ‬طالة ثظ‪ٛ‬سٖ ِٕفظٍٗ)‬

‫ّٔ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ ‪1‬‬

‫اصُ اٌّذسس‬ ‫سلُ اٌّذسس‬
‫‪.1‬‬
‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪.6‬‬
‫‪.7‬‬
‫‪.8‬‬
‫‪.9‬‬
‫‪.10‬‬
‫‪.11‬‬
‫‪.12‬‬

‫ا‪ٚ ْ٢‬ثؼذ االٔز‪ٙ‬بء ِٓ وزبثٗ اصّبء اٌّذسص‪ ٓ١‬ف‪ّٛٔ ٝ‬رج سلُ ‪ٚ‬احذ اسخ‪ ٛ‬رظٕ‪١‬ف ٘ؤالء اٌّذسص‪ ٓ١‬حضت ِذ‪ ٜ‬فؼبٌ‪ ٗ١‬وً ‪ٚ‬احذ‬
‫ِٕ‪ٚ ُٙ‬رٌه ثٍّ‪ٝ‬ء ّٔ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ اثٕ‪ . ٓ١‬فّثالًا ٌ‪ ٛ‬وبْ ٌ‪ ٛ‬وبْ اصُ اٌّذسس سلُ ‪ٚ‬احذ ف‪ ٝ‬إٌّ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ ‪ٚ‬احذ ٘‪ ٛ‬ثبس‪ ٜ‬س‪ ٞ‬فؼٍ‪١‬ه اْ‬
‫رظٕفٗ حضت ِذ‪ ٜ‬فؼبٌ‪١‬زٗ ف‪ ٝ‬اٌخبٔٗ سلُ ‪ٚ‬احذ ف‪ّٛٔ ٝ‬رج سلُ ‪ 2‬د‪ ْٚ‬روش اصّٗ‪.‬‬

‫ّٔ‪ٛ‬رج سلُ اثٕ‪ٓ١‬‬

‫ِذ‪ِ ٜ‬ؼبٌ‪ ٗ١‬اٌّذسص‪ٓ١‬‬
‫غ‪١‬ش ِزأوذ‬ ‫غ‪١‬ش فؼبي‬ ‫ػبد‪ٜ‬‬ ‫فؼبي‬ ‫سلُ اٌّذسس‬

‫‪313‬‬
 ‫‪ .1‬ا‪ ْ٢‬طف ٌ‪ ٝ‬فمؾ ِذسص‪ ٟ‬اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬اػزجشر‪ ُٙ‬فؼبٌ‪ ٓ١‬وً ػٍ‪ ٝ‬حذٖ‪ .‬اوزت ٌّبرا ‪ٚ‬و‪١‬ف وبٔ‪ٛ‬ا فؼبٌ‪ ٓ١‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬إٌح‪ٛ‬‬
‫اٌزبٌ‪:ٝ‬‬

‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ اصجبة فؼبٌ‪٘ ٗ١‬زا اٌّذسس‬

‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ اصجبة فؼبٌ‪٘ ٗ١‬زا اٌّذسس‬

‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ اصجبة فؼبٌ‪٘ ٗ١‬زا اٌّذسس‬

‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪ِ .2‬ب ٘‪ ٝ‬اٌّّبسصبد اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ ٗ١‬اٌفؼبٌٗ اٌز‪ ٝ‬فبدره وث‪١‬شاًا ف‪ ٝ‬رؼٍُ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٚ ٗ٠‬اٌز‪ ٝ‬وبْ ‪٠‬م‪ َٛ‬ث‪ٙ‬ب ٘ؤأل اٌّذسص‪ ٓ١‬اٌفؼبٌ‪ٓ١‬؟ اسخ‪ٛ‬‬
‫‪ٚ‬طف ٘زٖ اٌّّبسصبد اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ٌ ٗ١‬ىً ِذسس ػٍ‪ ٝ‬حذح‪.‬‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ ِّبسصبرٗ اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ ٗ١‬اٌفؼبٌٗ‬

‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪314‬‬
 ‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ ِّبسصبرٗ اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ ٗ١‬اٌفؼبٌٗ‬
‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫اٌّذسس سلُ ___ ِّبسصبرٗ اٌزذس‪٠‬ض‪ ٗ١‬اٌفؼبٌٗ‬

‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫‪ِ .3‬ب ٘‪ ٝ‬إٌظبئح اٌز‪ ٝ‬رضذ‪ٙ٠‬ب ٌٍشخض اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬شغت اْ ‪٠‬ى‪ِ ْٛ‬ذسس ٌغٗ أدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬فؼبي ػٍ‪ِ ٝ‬ضز‪ ٜٛ‬خبِؼ‪ٝ‬؟‬
‫________________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬
‫__________________________________________________________________________‬

‫اسخ‪ ٛ‬اٌىزبثٗ ػٍ‪ ٝ‬خٍف اٌ‪ٛ‬سلٗ ارا ٌزَ االِش‬

‫‪315‬‬
 Appendix H
Follow-up Interview Questions of Phase Three

Follow up Interview Questions

Student Code: _____ University/College Code: _____ Date: _____

N.B. It will be made clear to the interviewees that the main purpose of these interviews is to
investigate the qualities and practices of effective EFL teachers. They will also be informed that the
data collected from them will be confidential and will be used for research purposes only.
Participating in these interviews is completely voluntary. EFL teachers of the participants are those
who have taught the participants English in the Intensive English Programs in the four universities
involved

16. Students said that effective EFL teachers create a good classroom atmosphere. Is this important
in learning English? What should the teacher do so that he/she can create a suitable learning
environment? Is this kind of atmosphere restricted to the classroom or goes beyond that? How?

17. Are there any teachers who have a sense of humour? What do they do? Does the teachers‟ sense
of humour affect your learning? How?

18. Are there any of your teachers who give interesting classes? What makes you say that the classes
are interesting? What does the teacher do in order to make his/her classes interesting? Can you
give me an example of an interesting class you had?

19. Do you know any of your teachers who were friendly with you? What do they do? Give
examples of their friendliness.

20. Do you know any of your teachers who help students inside and outside the class? What kind of
help do they give? Where do your teachers help you outside the classroom?

21. Are any of your teachers flexible in the implementation of rules and willing to compromise? Can
you give examples? Don‟t you think that this kind of flexibility may affect negatively the class as
well as the learning of students?

22. When we say that an effective teacher is the one who uses simple teaching methods, how do
teachers achieve this simplicity? Do you have examples? Students also say that good teachers
use various teaching methods. Can you tell me what kinds of diversity you value?

23. Students consider that effective EFL teachers give a lot of exercises and activities that give a very
good chance for students to practise English and use it in expressing their opinions and
experiences in different topics. Why do students put a strong emphasis on using English?

24. Do you prefer that your teacher corrects your speaking mistakes? Do you want your teacher to
correct your mistakes directly and on the spot? To what extent do you want your teacher to
correct your mistakes?

316
 ‫‪Appendix I‬‬
‫‪Arabic Translation of the Follow-up Interview Questions of Phase‬‬
‫‪Three‬‬

‫سِز اٌطبٌت‪_____ :‬‬

‫سِز اٌدبِؼٗ‪/‬اٌىٍ‪______ :ٗ١‬‬
‫اٌزبس‪٠‬خ‪_______ :‬‬

‫ِالحظٗ‪ :‬ص‪١‬زُ اٌز‪ٛ‬ػ‪١‬ح ٌٍّششح‪ٌٍّ ٓ١‬مبثٍٗ ثبْ اٌ‪ٙ‬ذف اٌشئ‪١‬ض‪٘ ِٓ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد ٘‪ٛ‬االصزمظبء ػٓ طفبد ‪ِّٚ‬بسصبد ِذسس‬
‫اٌٍغٗ االَََ ََ ََ ََ ََ ٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬اٌفؼبي‪٠ٚ .‬مظذ ثّذسص‪ ٝ‬اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٕ٘ ٗ٠‬ب اٌئه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬دسص‪ٛ‬ا ٘ؤالء اٌطالة ا‪ ٚ‬ال ‪٠‬زاٌ‪ٛ‬ا ‪٠‬ذسص‪ُٙٔٛ‬‬
‫اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬وٍغٗ اخٕج‪ ِٓ ٗ١‬خالي اٌجشا ِح اٌزبص‪١‬ض‪١‬خ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رم‪ َٛ‬ثبػذاد اٌطالة ٌذساصٗ اٌزخظظبد اٌّخزٍفٗ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رذسس‬
‫ثبٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ .ٗ٠‬وّب ص‪١‬زُ احبؽٗ اٌطالة ػٍّب ثبْ اٌّؼٍ‪ِٛ‬بد اٌز‪ ٝ‬ص‪١‬زُ اٌحظ‪ٛ‬ي ػٍ‪ٙ١‬ب ِٓ اٌطالة اٌّشبسو‪ ٓ١‬ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد‬
‫صزى‪ ْٛ‬صش‪ٚ ٗ٠‬صزضزخذَ فمؾ الغشاع ثحث‪ .ٗ١‬وّب اْ اشزشان اٌطالة ف‪٘ ٝ‬زٖ اٌّمبثالد ٘‪ ٛ‬اخز‪١‬بس‪.ٜ‬‬

‫‪٠ .1‬م‪ٛ‬ي اٌطالة اْ اٌّذسس اٌفؼبي ٘‪ ٛ‬اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬خٍك خ‪ِٕ ٛ‬بصت ف‪ ٝ‬اٌفظً‪٘ ً٘ .‬زا ف‪ ٝ‬سا‪٠‬ه ِ‪ ُٙ‬ف‪ ٝ‬رؼٍُ اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٗ٠‬؟‬
‫ٌّبرا‪.‬؟ ِبرا ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌّذسس اْ ‪٠‬فؼً ٌى‪ٛ٠ ٝ‬فش ٌٍطبٌت ث‪١‬ئٗ ِٕبصجٗ ٌٍزؼٍُ؟ ً٘ رمزظش اّ٘‪ ٗ١‬خٍك خ‪ ٛ‬رؼٍ‪ ّٝ١‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌظف اَ‬
‫رزؼذ‪ ٜ‬اٌ‪ ٝ‬خبسج حذ‪ٚ‬د اٌفظً؟ و‪١‬ف؟‬

‫‪ٛ٠ ً٘ .2‬خذ ٕ٘بٌه ِذسص‪ٌ ٓ١‬ذ‪ ُٙ٠‬اٌحش اٌفىب٘‪ٝ‬؟ ِبرا ‪٠‬فؼً رٌه اٌّذسس؟ ً٘ ‪٠‬ؤثش اٌحش اٌفىب٘‪ ٝ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌزؼٍُ؟ و‪١‬ف؟‬

‫‪ٛ٠ ً٘ .3‬خذ ٕ٘بٌه ا‪ِ ِٓ ٜ‬ذسص‪١‬ه ‪٠‬ؼط‪ ٝ‬دس‪ٚ‬س ِّزؼخ؟ ِب اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬دؼٍه رم‪ٛ‬ي اْ دس‪ٚ‬صخ ِّزؼٗ؟ ِب اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬م‪ َٛ‬ثٗ اٌّذسس ٌى‪ٝ‬‬
‫‪٠‬دؼً دس‪ٚ‬صٗ ِّزؼٗ؟ اػط‪ِ ٕٝ١‬ثبي ٌحظٗ وبٔذ ِّزؼٗ‪.‬‬

‫‪ ً٘ .4‬رؼشف ا‪ِ ِٓ ٜ‬ذسص‪١‬ه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬وبٔ‪ٛ‬ا ‪٠‬ؼبٍِ‪ٛ‬ن ِؼبًِ طذالٗ؟ ِبرا وبٔ‪ٛ‬ا ‪٠‬فؼٍ‪ْٛ‬؟ اػط‪ ٝ‬اِثٍٗ ػٍ‪ ٝ‬رٌه؟‬

‫‪ٕ٘ ً٘ .5‬بٌه ا‪ِ ِٓ ٜ‬ذسص‪١‬ه اٌز‪ ٓ٠‬وبٔ‪ٛ‬ا ‪٠‬ضبػذ‪ٚ‬ن داخً اٌظف ‪ٚ‬خبسخٗ؟ ِب ٘‪ٛٔ ٝ‬ع رٍه اٌّضبػذح؟ ا‪ ٓ٠‬وٕذ رزٍم‪ ٝ‬اٌّضبػذح؟‬

‫‪ ً٘ .6‬ا‪ِ ِٓ ٜ‬ذسص‪١‬ه ِشْ ف‪ ٝ‬رطج‪١‬ك اٌم‪ٛ‬أ‪ٚ ٓ١‬ػٕذٖ اصزؼذاد ٌزض‪ ٗ٠ٛ‬االِ‪ٛ‬س؟ ً٘ ‪ّ٠‬ىٕه اْ رؼط‪ ٕٝ١‬ثؼغ االِثٍٗ؟ اال رؼزمذ اْ‬
‫ربن اٌّش‪ ٗٔٚ‬لذ ‪٠‬ى‪ٌٙ ْٛ‬ب اثش صٍج‪ ٝ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬اٌظف ‪ٚ‬ػٍ‪ ٝ‬رؼٍُ اٌطالة؟‬

‫‪ .7‬ػٕذِب ٔم‪ٛ‬ي اْ اٌّذسس اٌد‪١‬ذ ٘‪ ٛ‬اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬ضزخذَ اصبٌ‪١‬ت رذس‪٠‬ش ثض‪١‬طٗ و‪١‬ف ‪ّ٠‬ىٓ ٌٍّذسس اْ ‪٠‬جضؾ اصٍ‪ٛ‬ثٗ ف‪ ٝ‬اٌزذس‪٠‬ش؟ ً٘‬
‫ٌذ‪٠‬ه اِثٍٗ؟ ‪٠ٚ‬م‪ٛ‬ي اٌطالة ا‪٠‬ؼب اْ اٌّذسس اٌد‪١‬ذ ٘‪ ٛ‬اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬ضزخذَ اصبٌ‪١‬ت رذس‪٠‬ش ِزٕ‪ٛ‬ػٗ‪ِ .‬ب٘‪ ٝ‬رٍه االصبٌ‪١‬ت اٌّزٕ‪ٛ‬ػٗ‬
‫اٌز‪ ٝ‬رفؼٍ‪ٙ‬ب؟‬

‫‪ .8‬اػزجش ثؼغ اٌطالة اْ اٌّذسس اٌفؼبي ٘‪ ٛ‬رٌه اٌّذسس اٌز‪٠ ٜ‬ؼط‪ ٝ‬اٌىث‪١‬ش ِٓ اٌزّبس‪ٚ ٓ٠‬االٔشطٗ اٌز‪ ٝ‬رؼط‪ ٝ‬ااؽالة فشطٗ‬
‫خ‪١‬ذٖ ٌّّبسصٗ اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ٚ ٗ٠‬اصزخذاِ‪ٙ‬ب فىبٌزؼج‪١‬ش ػٓ خجشار‪ٚ ُٙ‬اسئ‪ ُٙ‬ف‪ ٝ‬اِ‪ٛ‬س ِخزٍفٗ‪ٌّ .‬برا ‪٠‬ؼط‪ ٝ‬اٌطالة ِضبٌٗ ٍِّشصٗ‬
‫اٌٍغٗ االٔدٍ‪١‬ز‪ ٗ٠‬ا٘زّبِب وج‪١‬شا‪.‬‬

‫‪ ً٘ .9‬رفؼً اْ ‪٠‬م‪ َٛ‬اٌّذسس ثزظح‪١‬ح اخطبئه اٌشف‪ٗ٠ٛ‬؟ و‪١‬ف رشغت اْ ‪٠‬ظحح ِذسصه اخطبئه اٌىالِ‪ٗ١‬؟ ً٘ ‪٠‬ظحح‪ٙ‬ب‬
‫ثطش‪٠‬مٗ ِجبششٖ ‪ٚ‬ف‪ٚ ٝ‬لذ حظ‪ٛ‬ي اٌخطأ اَ ِبرا؟‬

‫‪317‬‬
 Appendix J
Key for Coding Actual Data

Participants’ Perception of Effective English Teachers: Themes, Codes and Categories

Themes Code Categories
Instructional Presentation Skills (IPS) 1. Helps students understand
2. Teaching ability
3. Intellectual excitement
4. Uses suitable teaching methods
5. Speaks clearly and at suitable speed
6. Uses board
7. Uses teaching aids and clear demonstrations
8. Presents the material in an interesting way
9. Reviews previous materials
10. Adapts to students styles
11. Has a good style of teaching
12. Knows the subject matter well
13. Asks questions
14. Doesn‟t always follow the same teaching routine
15. Teaches students how to do things before asking them to
do these things
16. Gives interesting classes
17. Selects interesting materials
18. Integrates English language skills
19. Gives challenging exams
20. Interacts with students
21. Simplifies materials
Administrative Skills (AS) 1. Well organized
2. Advises students what to do and what they need to
improve in English
3. Gets everyone involved
4. Appropriate assessment
5. Takes into consideration student‟s level
6. Management of student behaviour/ class control
7. Encourages and motivates students
8. Systematic
9. Provides feedback
10. Emphatic to student needs
11. Is able to get and hold student attention
12. Lets students say their opinions, ideas, discuss things,
ask and answer questions and speak English
13. Invests class time efficiently
14. Suggests specific ways a student could improve
15. Management of classroom
16. Responsive to students concerns
17. Takes into consideration individual differences
18. Gives handouts, worksheets, exercises, films, cassettes
and extra information from outside the book
19. Is well prepared
20. Helps students inside and outside the class
21. Provides exam practice
22. Marks students‟ work
23. Helps weak students
24. Gives homework and other assignments
25. Makes students work in groups and pairs

318
 26. Doesn‟t talk or explain all the time
27. Active learning took place
28. Keeps students busy and active
29. Checks the understanding of students
30. Makes students compete with each other
31. Implements rules
32. Doesn‟t talk about things that are irrelevant to the
subject
33. Gives a lot of exercises and practice
34. Takes students to the computer lab and/or the library
35. Makes students like the course
36. Creates a good atmosphere
37. Changes the seating layout
38. Uses English only in class
39. Knows our first language
40. Gives exams regularly
Personal Qualities (PQ) 1. Has a charismatic personality
2. Cares for student
3. Likes teaching
4. Is patient
5. Shows enthusiasm
6. Is a role model for students
7. Is self confident
8. Is dedicated
9. Good hearted person
10. Energetic teacher
11. Kind
12. Takes care of his/her appearance
13. Smiles
14. punctual
15. Doesn‟t lose his/her temper quickly
16. Is happy
17. likes his/her students
Interpersonal Rapport with (IRS) 1. Is open to students
students 2. Respects students
3. Has a sense of humour
4. Develops a friendly relationship with students
5. Is understanding
6. Is flexible in the administration of rules/ willing to
compromise
7. Treats students as equals
8. Listens to students
9. Willing to help students in personal matters
10. Makes students feel safe and comfortable in the class
11. likeable
12. Friendly manner
13. Respects students‟ culture
14. Understands his students

319
 Appendix K
Sample Interview One from Phase One

S: Describe teacher number one whom you rated as an effective teacher. Why did consider him as
an effective teacher?
S4: Frankly to speak he did his best so that students can understand the lesson. We sometimes
asked him to repeat the lesson and he would repeat it. (IPS1) He tried to make us
understand. He gave us homework. (AS24) He gave us handouts from outside the textbook.
(AS18) Frankly, I benefited from him a lot. (AS27) He gave us things that are not available
in the textbook. That is to say he gave us extra information. (AS18)
S: Can you give examples about how he taught when he got into the classroom?
S4: He tended to divide up the class into groups. The best thing is grouping.
S: Why?
S4: Because when I don’t understand something, I ask another student. We ask each other
and if we didn’t understand, we ask the teacher. But when you are alone and you don’t
understand, you may not ask. There are things in English we haven’t studied before and
my English was not good. So I asked students to help me to understand. (AS25) The
teacher himself tried to make us understand.
S: What else?
S4: When we didn’t understand something, he repeats it again and again. (IPS1)
S: Do you remember one of his interesting classes?
S4: All his classes were interesting. (IPS16) I didn’t absent myself from any of his classes
because they were useful. (AS27)
S: Tell me more?
S4: He tended to ask us to read in class to see how we read (ETP3) and then asked us to write
the words we pronounce wrongly on the board and asks us to read them again.
S: What else?
S4: He gave us homework daily, (AS24) but not too much. You can do it in five or ten minutes.
Homework is very important.
S: Tell me more.
S4: He gave us words from outside the textbook. (ETP6) For example he when he would give us
an article, explain some words, write down some other words on a sheet of paper and ask us to
find their meanings. He would give us one week to do that. The number of words didn‟t exceed
12 words. Then we look up the meaning of the assigned words from the dictionary. (ETP6)
He taught us how to use the dictionary. It was English English dictionary. I personally used
English English Arabic dictionary so that I can understand the meanings.
S: Do you want to say anything else about this teacher?
S4: The most important thing about him is that he was a good hearted man. (PQ9) He did his
best to make us understand and learn. (IPS1) He didn‟t let us leave the class without
understanding the lesson. He would feel guilty if we leave the class without understanding the
lesson.
S: How would he know that you didn‟t understand the lesson?
S4: He would know this from the homework and quizzes.
S: What else?
S4: He was an old man. He knew how to deal with students. (AS6) He didn‟t ask students to
leave the class. His classes were interesting, (IPS8) but they were 8 o‟clock classes.
S: Why interesting?
S4: Because he tended to ask questions, (IPS11) divide us into groups (AS25) and give us paper
sheets. He always made us active. (AS28) After he finished presenting the lesson, he would
ask us if we understood the lesson or not. (AS29) Of course students would say yes we
understood. However, he tended to ask us a question or two to make sure we understood.

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S: What else?
S4: Nothing.
S: Can you describe teacher number 2? Why and how did you rate him as an effective teacher?
S4: He was excellent.
S: Why?
S4: He was funny. When he got into the class, he joked with us. (IRS3) He also was excellent
in his way of explaining the lesson. (IPS4) If we didn‟t understand the lesson, he would
repeat the lesson again. (IPS1)He would always ask us to do the exercises of the textbook in
the class after he finishes explaining the lesson. He made us as students compete with each
other. (AS30) He divided us into two groups. One group is girls and one group is boys.
Each group wanted to be better than the other. We girls did the exercises and tried to
know what our mistakes were. He gave questions to the two groups. It was like a
competition. Groups were the best thing. I think that to be in a group is better that being
alone. When you are alone, you might have some mistakes or you might be absent minded
or you might haven’t understood what the teacher said. But when you are in a group,
students ask each other. (AS25)
S: Any examples of his teaching practices?
S4: He gave us handouts of grammar exercises from outside our book. (AS18) He tended to
give us homework (AS24) and on the following day he would divide up the class into a
group of boys and a group of girls (AS25) and we participate in doing the homework. The
first question is for girls. If girls make a mistake, the question will be given to boys. He
sometimes gave us exercises to do in these groups. When he gave us the choice of working
individually or working in groups, we chose to work in groups.
S: Anything else about this teacher?
S4: He was understanding. (IRS5) He knew how to deal with students. (AS6) He never asked
any student to leave the class. His way was making students like the class. He had a sense of
humour. We had fun which made the atmosphere of the class interesting. Students need to
have some fun in class. It shouldn’t be always serious. The student will feel bored even if
she is a bright one. He shouldn’t be all the time funny. He can see when students feel
sleepy, he would change the atmosphere of the class directly. (IRS3)
S: What else?
S4: Nothing
S: You rated teacher number seven as an effective teacher. Can you describe him for me. Why
and how was he effective?
S4: He was very active and effective. (PQ10)
S: How?
S4: For example when he gave us an article to read, he gave us time limit to finish reading the
article. (ETP3)Then he asked us some questions on what was the article about. He said to us
you are level four and you should read the article in five minutes, but we didn‟t finish in five
minutes for the first time. In the second time we should read faster and finish it in five minutes.
After the second reading he would ask us about vocabulary. He would ask us for example,
“any vocabulary?” and then he would use the words in sentences. (ETP6) After that he
would talk about the lesson.
S: Tell me about his way of teaching.
S4: He would ask us to work in groups (AS25) and individually. If the task is not difficult such
as making a summary or writing down the main idea, he would ask us to work individually
because this kind of task doesn‟t need groups. Every one would work on her own. However,
when the question is long, he would divide up the class into groups and every group has a
question to discuss. Then the representative of each group would give the answer of her group.
S: What else?
S4: He would ask us to read a story. He would assign us a certain number of pages that we
should read in a week. Then we made a summary of what we read and give our opinion
on it. Then, after one week we hand in the assignment and he would read it and give his
opinion. (ETP3)Then he would assign a certain number of pages for us to read for the next

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 time. He wouldn‟t check the grammar or spelling. He would only check our writing style and
our opinion.
S: What else?
S4: He was strict in observing the rules, (AS31) but in teaching he was o.k. with us.
S: Tell me more.
S4: He sometimes would have a sense of humour. (IRS3)
S: Anything else?
S4: No.
S: What about teacher number eight? You rated him as an effective teacher. Describe him for me.
S4: He taught us grammar. He would always give us handouts. (AS18) He didn‟t rely completely
on the textbook. The textbook was not very helpful to me. He would always explain things
especially grammar and if students didn’t understand he would repeat again and again. If
we didn’t understand he would give us exercises and ask us to do them. He would explain
to us our mistakes until we understand. (IPS1)
S: What would he do in class?
S4: He would give every group a blank paper and assign a leader for each group. Then he would
give us verbs and we write down the past simple and past participle of the verb. (ETP5)
We should agree among each other in the group before we write the words. After that he would
ask the students to correct the words. This helped us in the spelling.
S: What else?
S4 He was not strict. He laughed and joked with us, (IRS3) but he was strict with silly
students. (AS6)
S: Anything else?
S4: He divided us into two groups.(AS25) Each student has a paper and I ask the student who is
in front of me questions such as “Do you like driving cars?” and I write down the answers.
Then he would collect the papers and check our grammar. So the teacher would give me a list
of questions. I ask one of my classmates and after I finish he would ask me. After we finish
asking each other, each student would summarize what he wrote in a paragraph form and
give it to the teacher to check our grammar. (ETP5) He did this for one time.
S: What else?
S4: He would always ask us to do exercises in class. (AS18) He would also ask us questions.
(IPS13) He didn‟t give homework because all exercises are done in class.
S: What else would you like to add about this teacher?
S4: He liked to help students and explain again and again until they understand. (IPS1) If
there was no time for that, he would ask them to go to his office. (AS20)
S: How would he know that a student didn‟t understand?
S4: From the students themselves. He would say, “do you understand?” (AS29)
S: Anything else?
S4: No.
S: You rated teacher number ten as an effective teacher. Describe her for me. Tell me how and
why she was effective.
S4: She was very effective. (PQ10) She would exhaust the student. (AS28) For example she
would show us action films which we liked. (ETP1) She taught us video lab. She met us one
class a week for six weeks. For example she would show us a film and after watching it she
would give us a handout that we should work on it. (ETP1) I felt that I improved. (AS27)
She wouldn‟t discuss things with us during the show. After the show and after answering the
questions of the handout, she would also ask us questions. (IPS13)
S: Anything else?
S4: No.
S: Describe teacher number 12 whom you considered effective.
S4: He was very effective. (PQ10) If a student didn’t understand, he would do his best to make
him understand. (IPS1) If a student didn’t understand in class, he would go to his office.
(AS20) He would always give handouts. (AS18) These handouts benefited us a lot and they
were more useful than the textbook. In the handouts you find examples and in the textbook
there are no examples.

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S: Can you give me examples about these handouts?
S4: For example, one of them was about how to write an essay. The handout was from another
book. It is sometimes prepared by the teacher himself. He would sometimes discuss the
common mistakes made by students without mentioning their names. (ETP4) He would
always us the board. (IPS6)
S: What else?
S4: He was a good man (PQ9) and flexible. He was understanding. (IRS6) He would always
explain. (IPS1) He would always give homework. ((AS24)
S: How was his teaching style?
S4: He would sometimes divide up the class into groups (AS25) and ask us to do the exercises in
the textbook. He would explain all important points. (IPS1) He would deal strictly with
irresponsible students. (AS6) He had a sense of humour. All the effective teachers I
mentioned have a sense of humour. (IRS3)
S: Anything else?
S4: No.
S: You rated teacher number six as an ineffective teacher. Can you describe him for me? Tell me
why you consider him ineffective.
S4: He taught is video lab. He didn’t care to help us understand. (IPS1-NE) When we ask him a
question, he would be angry or give you a certain look. He considered our questions silly.
(AS12 NE) He would insult you but in a funny way. (IRS2 NE) He sometimes would not
give questions for discussion. (IPS13-NE) We just complete the form he gave us and that‟s it.
Even when there is a chance for discussion, we tended to refrain from these discussions to
protect ourselves from his observations. As a result of his observations, we tended not to say
our opinions. (AS12-NE)
S: What else?
S4: Nothing.
S: Who was your favourite teacher among this list?
S4: Teachers number twelve and two?
S: Why?
S4: Because they knew how to deal with students (AS6) and they did their best to make
students understand. (IPS1) They would help the student. They had energy to help the
student. The student should understand the lesson. The teacher would say to the student
come to my office so that I can explain the lesson to you. He would repeat the lesson and
repeat it more than one time. He would not give up. (AS20)
S: What else?
S4: I liked dividing up the class into groups. (AS25) Their treatment with students was very
good. (IRS2) They knew how to deal with the students. They were able to make students
respect themselves without resorting to using bad word or threatening. (AS6)
S: Anything else?
S4: All students liked them because of their treatment. (IRS11)
S: What else?
S4: Nothing.
S: Who was the least favourite teacher among the list?
S4: Teacher number three.
S: Why?
S4: He was strict (AS31-NE) and there was no fun in class. (IRS3-NE) I once talked with my
neighbour, he threatened to dismiss us from class. (AS6-NE)
S: What else?
S4: His class was boring. (IRS3-NE)
S: Why?
S4: I didn’t understand his way of teaching. He would explain the lesson, but he didn’t make
us understand like other teachers. (IPS1-NE)
S: What else?
S4: Nothing.
S: What advice would you give a person who wanted to be a university teacher of English?

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S4: I advice him that he should know how to deal with students. Threatening should be the last
resort. (AS6) There should be a humour element in class. (IRS3) He should deal with
students according to their mentality and how those students think. (AS6)
S: What else?
S4: He should divide up the class into groups because students always like groups. We like to
ask each other and see what is correct and what is wrong. (AS25) He also should give
handouts. The best thing is the exercises in class. (AS18) If the teacher explains and
explains, the class will be very boring. We do the exercise and he would help us. (AS26)
For example, after we finish, each student would say his answer. (AS3) If it is wrong, he
would correct it and if it is correct we say to him its correct. That the teacher explains from
the beginning to the end of the class is very boring. (AS26)
S: What else?
S4: If he noticed that one of the students is irresponsible, he should be strict with him from
the beginning and he shouldn’t be flexible with him. (AS6)
S: What else?
S4: He should attract students’ attention to the class and not make them feel bored (AS11)
especially in the first class. Students in the first class feel sleepy and in the last class feel tired.
S: Anything else?
S4: No.
S: Thank you very much

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 Appendix L
Sample interview Two from Phase One

S: What words would you use to describe teacher number four whom you rated as an effective
teacher. Tell me why and how he was effective.
S8: He established a friendly relationship with students from the beginning. (IRS4)He was
flexible, not rigid. He didn’t impose his opinion on the class. For example, if a student
misses a test, he would consider his reason of missing the test and if it is a very good
reason he would let him sit for a make up exam. (IRS6) He didn’t stick too much to the
curriculum. We met five times a week. He gave us something from outside in two classes
every week. (AS18)
S: What did he teach you?
S8: He taught us listening. He tended to take us to the Multi Purpose Room and showed us
Films in English. Then, he would ask us what we understood from the film. I benefited a
lot from this. The textbook has the basics and doesn’t give you things from outside.
(AS18)
S: What else?
S8: He was flexible. For example, when a student came late or misses an exam, he would be
flexible. His flexibility would make him close to the students. (IRS6) There should be a
good relationship between the teacher and the students(IRS4) and as a result the teacher and
the students would understand each other. If you have a problem, you can discuss it with him
in class or outside the class. (AS20) For example, if you came late to the exam, he would ask
you about the reason of lateness and give you a solution for this. There should be a friendly
relationship between you and him. (IRS4) It is not just he is a teacher and you are a student.
S: What else?
S8: Nothing.
S: Can you describe teacher number two? Why did you consider him an effective teacher?
S8: Although he doesn‟t teach me at present, I have a good relation with him. (IRS4) When I
meet him, we talk.
S: How was his teaching style?
S8: Good.
S: How?
S8: The most useful thing was the things he gave us from outside. (AS18) He tended to take us
to the Multi Purpose room, show us films and ask us to talk about what we understood.
.(ETP1)
S: Do you remember one of his successful classes?
S8: When he changed the atmosphere of the class by giving things from outside the book, we
participated more. He showed us films that we liked and characters that we are familiar
with. (IPS17)
S: Do you have examples about his teaching practices that helped you to learn?
S8: Yes, he gave us the meaning and synonyms of every new word. He would let one of the
students who managed to understand the meaning of the word to say its meaning in
Arabic (ETP6) because some students will not understand the meaning of the word unless it is
given to them in Arabic.
S: What else?
S8: That‟s it.
S: Describe teacher number seven. Why and how you rated him as an effective teacher?
S8: He taught us reading last semester. There were a lot of difficult words in reading. He gave us
the reading passage in jumbled paragraphs. After explaining the title, he asked us to put
these paragraphs in correct order. (ETP3) We tried to find relation between paragraphs. This

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 made us think. We discuss why we put them in this order. Students may not have the same
order. So students say their opinions. (AS12)
S: What else do you want to say about this teacher?
S8: He tried to give us words and explain them. (ETP6) He explained grammar in reading. He
didn’t separate the parts of English. (IPS18) As for examinations, he gave us difficult
exams. The highest mark was thirty out of fifty. He said he gave us difficult exams to
make us ready for the major exams. (IPS19)
S: Any other examples of his teaching activities?
S8: He took us the lab.(AS34) He was strict. (AS31) If you come late, he would mark you late.
S: Do you have other examples about his teaching method?
S8: When we came across a difficult word, he explained it and he would also give us the
derivatives of the word. (ETP6) This helped me in using the word correctly.
S: What else?
S8: He was a good man. (PQ9) He was understanding. (IRS5) He had good relationship with
students. (IRS4) You can talk with him and shake hands with him. He would invite certain
students to his office (AS20) to discuss with them their mistakes and guide them.
S: What else?
S8: That‟s it.
S: who is your favourite teacher in the list?
S8: Teacher number eight.
S: Why?
S8: He taught us listening. He didn’t rely a lot on the textbook. He gave us the chance to listen
to outside materials. (AS18) He tended to take us the Multi Purpose Room and show us a
film. He would explain the title prepare us to listen the film. He would let us listen for five
or six minutes and then he would ask us to write down our notes and then let us say to the
class what we understood. He tended to do this two or three times a week. He would also
get the recorder to the class and let us listen instead of watching a film. (ETP1) He wanted
us to learn English through practice and not from the book
S: What else?
S8: He was understanding and knew students’ problems. (IRS5) He tried to help students in their
study. (AS20)
S: What else?
S8: Nothing.
S: Who was your least favourite teacher in the list?
S8: Teacher number three.
S: Why?
S8: I didn’t like him at all. He expected ideal students, so he had arguments with the students.
He once got into class on time and found some students talking. He left the class without
saying anything. He had arguments with the students and as a result asked students to
leave the class. He would open the door of the class and say to the student either you leave
or I would leave. The student would say to him you leave. So he would leave and the
student would stay in class and the class would be canceled. (IRS11 NE) This happened
several times.
S: What about his teaching?
S8: He stuck to the curriculum 100%.
S: How was his teaching?
S8: His teaching is ok if these arguments don‟t happen. The number of our class was 23 but the
number of the students who actually attended his classes was not more than 12 or 13. Students
absent themselves from his class especially those who don‟t like the teacher to talk with them.
The teacher who is not psychologically happy in class is not very productive. He is not
happy (PQ16) and we attend the class against our will. We listened to what he said but there
was no participation. He asked and answered at the same time. (AS3)
S: Why didn‟t you participate?
S8: We just sit down. If we participate we might have an argument with him.
S: What else?

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S8: Nothing.
S: What advice would you give a person who wanted to be a university teacher of English?
S8: First he should be understanding. (IRS5) He shouldn’t try to use his authority with
students otherwise the students would hate the subject. (IRS12) They wouldn‟t participate
in class. He shouldn‟t be too strict or too flexible. The teacher shouldn‟t stick to the
curriculum. He should give outside materials for practice. (AS18) The teachers themselves
say that you can not learn English through textbooks. You need practice. (AS33)
S: What else?
S8: That‟s it.
S: Thank you very much.

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 Appendix M
Sample Follow-up Interview One from Phase Three

S: Students said that effective EFL teachers create a good classroom atmosphere. What should
the teachers do so that he/she can create a suitable learning environment?
S1: A good learning environment includes a lot of things. It includes using the computer and
the overhead projector and anything else that help students in learning. This is the good
learning atmosphere. It also means that the teacher should not be very serious. There
should be time for fun so that the student can love the course and attend the classes and not wait
impatiently for the end of the class.
S: What else?
S1: There should be no noise in class; there should be order in class so that students can
understand the lesson.
S: What is meant by teacher‟s sense of humour? If a teacher wants to have a sense of humour,
what should he do?
S1: He should give a chance for laughing in the classroom. For example he can give a funny
comment on a sentence in a book or comment on something a student said. The sense of
humour makes the student interested in the class, it makes him like the class, work harder and
do his best not to miss any classes. On the other hand if the student feels bored of the class, his
absences will increase, this because he doesn‟t like these classes. This will affect his learning
negatively.
S: An effective teacher is the one who gives interesting classes. What does that mean?
S1: The classes are light and the teacher is kind with students. It is good to have discipline in
class, but the students need to have an opportunity for relaxation and refreshment. Some
teachers are too strict and they do not allow students to move or have fun.
S: What makes the classes interesting?
S1: The topic could be interesting and as a result you feel that the time flies quickly; the lesson
in this case is light and interesting.
S: Did you have an interesting class that you still remember it?
S1: Yes, the classes we tended to take in the library were interesting. We watched foreign
films there. Also giving presentations in speaking classes was interesting for us. This
reduces the pressure on the students. Also the teacher himself can create an interesting
atmosphere through his sense of humour.
S: An effective teacher is the one who is friendly with his students. How can the teacher be
friendly?
S1: He can treat students in a friendly manner. He tries to be close to them so that they can
love him and understand every word the teacher says.
S: The effective teacher is the one who helps students inside and outside the class. Can you give
examples on how and where the teacher can help students?
S1: The teacher should be willing to receive students in his office, the library or the computer
lab and explain things for them and answer their questions and if necessary allow
students to telephone him.
S: The participants agreed that the teacher should be flexible? What does that mean? Can you
give examples on teacher‟s flexibility?
S1: For example, the mobile is not allowed in the classroom. In case the mobile goes off, the
teacher takes the mobile from the student and keeps it for one month, but other teachers
tolerate it for one or two times. The student switches off the mobile and things go ok. Also
teacher can tolerate having a student talking or laughing with her friend in class. In
contrary, some other teachers do not allow students to move; they ask students to look toward
the teacher and say to the students that they don‟t want to hear any sound.
S: Don‟t you thing that teachers‟ flexibility may affect the learning of students negatively?

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S1: No, the teacher in this case helps the student. The teacher should warn the student for the first
time and explain to her that what she did or happened is not allowed. If the student was sick,
it won’t hurt the teacher if he gives the student a make up exam. Allowing one absence or
one lateness or giving a make up exam is considered a kind of assistance for the student
and encouragement for her. We hate many teachers because they are very strict in taking
attendance and do not give make up exams.
S: Does this mean that the teacher should not implement the rules?
S1: No, but he should not be too strict or though; he should be flexible. If he gives the student the
chance to have a make up exam for the first time, he can disallow the student at the second time
from taking a make up test.
S: How about taking attendance? Shouldn‟t the teacher take attendance?
S1: He can take attendance but he should warn the student several times; after that he can mark him
absent. The student might have car accident that makes her come to the class late.
S: The effective teacher is the teacher who simplifies his or her teaching. What does that mean?
Can you give examples?
S1: For example most teachers here are native speakers of English and they do not know Arabic.
Therefore, when they explains the meaning of a new word, they give a more difficult
meaning for the word, so when they use a picture they simplify the meaning of the new
word.
S: What about using a diversity of teaching methods?
S1: The teachers should not always use the computer or papers. They can also use different ways
in explaining the meaning of difficult words. They sometimes use the overhead projector
and other times give oral explanations. They also can teach using the whiteboard and
sometimes they let us watch films or listen to cassettes. They sometimes change from
listening to speaking. In reading for example they can give us reading passages from
outside the reading textbook. These passages could be easier or more difficult than the
ones in the textbook.
S: How about the teaching itself?
S1: For example, when teaching reading, teachers should sometimes teach the new words
before reading the passage and in other times they can teach them after reading it. Also
in listening, the teacher can sometimes let us read the questions before listening and in
other times while listening. In this case I know what my level is when I read the questions
before listening and have an idea about the listening and what my level is when reading the
questions while listening without having an idea about the listening. The same thing applies in
writing. The teacher gives me a topic (writing prompt) that I should write about one day
before the test. On the following day she gives me a test in which she asks me to write
about that topic that I already have an idea about. In other times the teacher gives me a
topic and asks me to write a composition about it in the same class. In this case the
teachers can change their teaching ways. A teacher sometimes notices in reading, for
example, that the textbook is below our level, in this case she gives us more difficult
reading passages and asks us to read them and sees how did in them. Or in contrary, if
the textbook is above our level she gives us easier reading passages from outside the
textbook.
S: The participants said that effective EFL teachers give students a good chance to practise
English. Why is this important
S1: This is important. The textbook is sometimes boring, so the teacher gives us activities and
stories from outside the textbook and as a result change occurs. For example, in listening
classes instead of listening to the cassette several times, I work with my partner; I listen to
what she says and draw something accordingly. This is practice. I ask her to what extent I
managed to draw what she described for me. This is a change. It is listening and speaking.
S: Are there any other activities that enabled you to practise English?
S1: We tended to access the internet websites of reading or writing; this was class work. For
example, the teacher asks us to find answers for certain questions. I should give the
answers to her at the end of the class as a class work.
S: Why is it important to practise English?

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S1: What I need to learn after all is speaking English more anything else. I learn reading and
writing but speaking and a wealth of vocabulary and to what extent I can speak English
are the most important things for me after all. Speaking is the most important thing. The
skills of reading, writing, listening and conversation help in learning a lot of words. As long as
I have this huge reservoir of words I can retrieve the words I want and use them in stead of
using the same words every time in conversation. I can also express my opinion in English. Of
course I can express my opinion in Arabic, but I like to be able of expressing my opinion in
English because it is an international language.
S: Do you think that the teacher should correct the mistakes students make?
S1: Yes, because if the teacher doesn’t correct students’ mistakes how can they learn English?
S: Don‟t you think that correcting students‟ mistakes may hinder their learning?
S1: It is necessary that the teachers correct students‟ mistakes even if their mistakes were many.
The student after all came to the university to learn English. If the teachers overlook students‟
mistakes, what is the benefit they gain out of this?
S: Don‟t you think that correcting students‟ mistakes may embarrass them in class?
S1: No, because I came here to learn English.
S: Do you prefer that the teacher corrects your mistakes on the spot or later on?
S1: I prefer my teacher corrects my mistakes when I make them.
S: Is there anything you would like to add?
S1: No.
S: Thank you very much.

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 Appendix N
Sample Follow-up Interview Two from Phase Three

S: Students mentioned that they preferred EFL teachers who could create a good classroom
atmosphere. What should the teachers do so that he/she can create a suitable learning
environment?
S2: When the teacher and students arrive the classroom, the class becomes active. You will not
find sleeping students in the classroom, but rather there is interaction in the class.
S: Should the good atmosphere be created inside the classroom only or should it be there beyond
the boarders of the classroom?
S2: It should also be outside the classroom, of course.
S: How? What are other places in which teachers should create a good learning atmosphere?
S2: You are talking in the context of English language, aren‟t you?
S: Yes.
S2: For example, a teacher can take his students to watch a film outside the classroom or even
outside the university. There should be trips for students. There is not conversation. They do
not care much for conversation. Therefore, there is nothing wrong if we go with our teacher
to markets and talk with sales assistants. There should also be activities inside the
university, inside and outside the classroom
S: Like what?
S2: For example, we can go to the computer lab and use the internet. This is an activity. We
access English language sites and learn words and other things.
S: Can you elaborate more on what you meant by the activities outside the classroom?
S2: Going to the cinema with our teacher and watching a film, or going to one of the shopping
centres so that we can improve our conversational skills.
S: To what extent do you think that teachers‟ sense of humour is necessary?
S2 I prefer the teacher who is not too strict and tough and at the same time is not very easygoing
one. Personally speaking teachers’ sense of humour is not very important for me.
S: The respondents said that the good teacher is the one who gives interesting classes. What does
that mean for you?
S2: I consider reading classes interesting. The same classes can be interesting with one teacher,
while they can‟t be interesting with another. This depends on teachers‟ way of teaching.
S: What else?
S2: Nothing.
S: Respondents also emphasized that effective teachers are friendly. How can the teacher be
friendly?
S2: Teachers should listen to us. How can you ask a teacher questions if he is not friendly and
good hearted person. In this case we will even be afraid to ask him questions. The friendly
teacher would allow us to ask questions and when we ask him he would not get angry at
with. Or say to us that you are stupid; I explained the lesson. So the teacher should be
normal and interacts with us and when we ask him, he should answer us. He should also
take into consideration students’ circumstances.
S: One of the practices of effective teachers that was given was that they helped students inside
and outside the classroom. Can you elaborate on that?
S2: This is good. This is the friendly teachers. A teacher is considered friendly when he helps
students by giving them advice for example.
S: Where can the teachers benefit their students outside the classroom?
S2: During the office hours.
S: Teachers‟ flexibility was considered important. Can you give me examples of teachers‟
flexibility?
S2: Agreeing to change the date of the test is an example of teachers’ flexibility.

331
S: Teachers‟ ability to simplify teaching things was found to be helpful for students to understand
things. What do you think simplifying things mean?
S2: It means that teachers use more than one way in explaining things. Students are of
different levels and abilities.
S: What is meant by diversifying teaching ways?
S2: For example in reading, when the teacher explains the meaning of a word, he gives its
definition in English. Another way could be by using pictures that simplify things and
sometimes the teacher acts so that we can understand.
S: Do you remember any of the teaching ways that you liked?
S2: I like reading classes the most because teacher‟s way of teaching is simple. When he gives us a
lesson he gives time limit, 7 or 10 minutes for a passage depending on the level of difficulty of
each. He gives us a simplified explanation at the beginning. For example, if the topic is about
traveling, he would ask students who traveled and where and what the strange situations they
had. After that he gives us ten minutes for reading and other ten minutes for questions. I
should say that he teaches the difficult words before answering the questions. If we come
across difficult words, we ask the teacher about them later on. We answer the questions and
after that he gives a test. Therefore, if you noticed, the marks of students in the reading skill
were the highest. This is because he doesn‟t leave the lesson and that‟s it but rather he gives us
test on it. He gives us a test on each unit. The test is not only on vocabulary that he taught
but also on all words that existed in that unit. In this case we learn the words in each unit and
also understand the lesson before moving to the following unit. In this case the teacher
simplifies things.
S: What else?
S2: The teacher should follow up the student.
S: Students like to be involved in many learning activities and practise English. Can you
elaborate on that?
S2: This is important. If I do not speak, I won’t be able to learn the language, but if I practise
speaking it and make mistakes, I will learn from my mistakes and the teacher will correct
my mistakes and then I speak again and in this case I learn.
S: Do you prefer that your teacher corrects your mistakes or just leave you speak freely without
any corrections?
S2: I prefer that the teacher corrects my mistakes. I came here to learn. If I make a mistake,
I will learn from my mistakes and I don’t care if others laughed at me.
S: Is there anything you would like to add?
S2: No.
S: Thank you very much.

332
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