Trajectory Planning and Obstacle Avoidance

Introduction Trajectory planning is a critical aspect of robotics and automated systems, where the
goal is to determine a path for a moving entity (like a robot or vehicle) from a starting point to a
destination while considering various constraints. Obstacle avoidance is an integral part of this
process, ensuring that the path taken does not collide with any obstacles in the environment.

Key Concepts

1. Trajectory Planning:

o Definition: It involves creating a smooth and feasible path for a moving object over
time, typically represented in terms of position, velocity, and acceleration.

o Types:

 Point-to-point planning: Moving from one specific point to another.

 Path planning: Finding a route through an environment with multiple

waypoints.

o Methods:

 Mathematical Optimization: Using algorithms to minimize a cost function

(e.g., distance, time).

 Sampling-based approaches: Methods like Rapidly-exploring Random Trees

(RRT) that explore the environment to find feasible paths.

 Grid-based methods: Dividing the space into a grid and using algorithms like
A* for pathfinding.

2. Obstacle Avoidance:

o Definition: Techniques used to ensure that the planned trajectory does not intersect
with static or dynamic obstacles.

o Types:

 Static Obstacles: Fixed objects that do not move (e.g., walls, furniture).

 Dynamic Obstacles: Moving entities (e.g., other robots, people).

o Strategies:

 Reactive methods: Real-time adjustments to avoid collisions, often using

sensors to detect obstacles (e.g., LIDAR, cameras).

 Predictive methods: Anticipating the movement of dynamic obstacles and

adjusting the trajectory accordingly.

Implementation Techniques

 Sensors and Perception: Utilizing sensors to gather information about the environment and
detect obstacles.
  Path Planning Algorithms: Implementing algorithms that can dynamically adjust the planned
path based on real-time data.

 Control Systems: Ensuring the moving entity follows the planned trajectory accurately while
adapting to unforeseen changes.

Challenges

 Computational Complexity: Real-time trajectory planning, especially in dynamic

environments, can be computationally intensive.

 Uncertainty: Variability in sensor data and unpredictable movement of dynamic obstacles

can complicate planning.

 Safety and Reliability: Ensuring that the planned path is not only optimal but also safe for
the robot and its environment.

1. Trajectory Planning

A. Definition

Trajectory planning refers to the process of determining a sequence of positions, velocities, and
accelerations that an entity must follow over time to achieve a specific goal.

B. Types of Trajectory Planning

 Point-to-Point Planning: This approach focuses on moving from an initial position to a target
position, often requiring the system to interpolate between the two points smoothly.

 Path Planning: Involves finding a route that might include multiple waypoints or navigation
through complex environments. This often includes avoiding obstacles along the way.

C. Methods of Trajectory Planning

 Mathematical Optimization:

o Formulates the trajectory as an optimization problem, where the goal is to minimize

a cost function (e.g., distance traveled, time taken).

o Algorithms like Linear Programming or Nonlinear Programming can be employed.

 Sampling-based Methods:

o Rapidly-exploring Random Trees (RRT): An algorithm that incrementally builds a

tree of feasible trajectories by randomly sampling the space and connecting to
existing nodes.

o Probabilistic Roadmap (PRM): Constructs a roadmap of possible paths through the

environment, which can be queried for feasible trajectories.

 Grid-based Methods:

o The environment is discretized into a grid, and algorithms such as A* or Dijkstra's

algorithm are used to find the shortest path through the grid while avoiding
obstacles.

D. Trajectory Representation
  Polynomial Interpolation: Trajectories can be represented using polynomial functions to
ensure smooth transitions.

 Splines: Cubic or B-splines provide a flexible way to model smooth paths.

 Dynamic Models: Incorporating the physical dynamics of the entity (like kinematics and
dynamics) can improve the realism of the planned trajectory.

2. Obstacle Avoidance

A. Definition

Obstacle avoidance encompasses strategies and algorithms designed to ensure that the moving
entity does not collide with obstacles in its environment during its trajectory.

B. Types of Obstacles

 Static Obstacles: Fixed structures that do not move (e.g., walls, furniture). The environment
can be pre-mapped for these obstacles.

 Dynamic Obstacles: Moving entities (e.g., other vehicles, pedestrians) that require real-time
monitoring and adaptation of the trajectory.

C. Strategies for Obstacle Avoidance

 Reactive Methods:

o Sensor-based Detection: Real-time feedback from sensors (like LIDAR, ultrasonic, or

cameras) allows the system to detect obstacles in its path.

o Immediate Response: If an obstacle is detected within a certain range, the system

can execute a rapid maneuver to avoid it (e.g., stopping, steering).

 Predictive Methods:

o Motion Prediction: Estimating the future positions of dynamic obstacles based on

their current velocities and trajectories.

o Path Re-planning: Adjusting the planned trajectory in response to the predicted

movements of obstacles, ensuring a safe passage.

D. Integration with Trajectory Planning

 Hybrid Approaches: Combining both trajectory planning and obstacle avoidance into a
unified framework. For example, a path can be initially planned using sampling-based
methods, and then real-time obstacle avoidance techniques can refine that path dynamically.

 Dynamic Programming: Using dynamic programming techniques can help in re-evaluating

the trajectory in real-time as new obstacles are detected.

3. Challenges in Trajectory Planning and Obstacle Avoidance

A. Computational Complexity

 Real-time processing of sensor data and the dynamic re-planning of trajectories can be
computationally intensive, particularly in environments with many obstacles.
B. Uncertainty

 Sensor noise and the unpredictable behavior of dynamic obstacles introduce uncertainty
that complicates planning and avoidance strategies. Robust algorithms must account for this
uncertainty.

C. Safety and Reliability

 Ensuring that the planned trajectory is not only optimal but also safe is crucial, particularly in
applications involving human interaction (e.g., autonomous vehicles, service robots).

4. Applications

 Autonomous Vehicles: Trajectory planning is vital for navigation, route optimization, and safe
driving in dynamic environments.

 Industrial Robotics: In manufacturing, robots must navigate through workspaces with fixed
and moving equipment while performing tasks.

 Drones and UAVs: Planning safe flight paths in environments with potential obstacles like
buildings and trees.