Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

M'HAMED BOUGARA UNIVERSITY - BOUMERDÈS

Faculty of Technology
Department
epartment of Electrical Systems Engineering
ngineering

Course:
Power Electronics
Third Year Bachelor's Degree in Electrotechnics

Prepared by: Dr. Aimad BOUDOUDA

Associate Professor

Dr. Aimad BOUDOUDA L3 Licence Electrotechnics-2024

Electrotechnics
 Contents

Contents
Introduction…………….…………………………...…………..……………………... 1

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to power electronics
1. Introduction……………………..……………..………………………..….……..… 2
2. Classification of power electronics..............................................................………… 3
3. Power semiconductor switches used in power electronics..……………………..….. 4
3.1 Static V-I characteristics of semiconductors ...............................................…… 4
3.2 Classifications of power semiconductor devices………..……..…………..……… 4
3.3 Dynamic characteristic (Switching Modes)..................................................…… 9
3.4 Losses in semiconductor components …………………..…………………..……… 10
4. Combining semiconductor components …………………….……………………… 11
5. Limits and applications of power semiconductors………………………………….. 12

CHAPTER 2
AC-DC conversion (Rectifiers)
1. Introduction…………..…..………………………..………………………………… 14
2. Basic definitions ………………...…………….....…..………………...…………… 14
2.1 Mean value.…………..….............................................................................…… 14
2.2 Root mean square value (RMS)……..….……………..………..…………..……… 14
2.3 Form factor………………………………………..………………………………….. 15
2.4 Ripple Factor………………………………..………………………………….. 15
2.5 Distortion factor of a rectifier (DF)…….……………………………………… 15
2.6 Displacement factor of a rectifier (DPF)……………………………………….. 16
2.7 Power factor of rectifier (PF)…………………………………………………… 16
3. Uncontrolled rectifiers (Using diodes)……………………………………………… 16
3.1 Single-phase half-wave rectifier...................................................................…… 16
3.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier ……..….……………..………..…………..……… 20
3.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier ……………………………………….…………….. 22
3.4 Three-phase fall-wave rectifier.....................................................................…… 23
4. Controlled rectifiers (Using Thyristors)…………..………………………………… 25
4.1 Single-phase half-wave rectifier...................................................................…… 25
4.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier ……..….……………..………..…………..……… 28
4.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier …………………………………………………….. 30
4.4 Three-phase fall-wave rectifier.....................................................................…… 32
5. Problems………………………………………………..…………………………… 34

i
 Contents

CHAPTER 3
AC-AC conversion (Dimmer)
1. Introduction………..……………………………………………………………….... 36
2. Single-phase AC voltage controller……...…………………………………………... 36
3. Cyclo-converters……………………………………………………………...……… 39

CHAPTER 4
DC-DC conversion (Choppers)
1. Introduction………...…………..……………………………………….…………… 42
2. Buck converter ………………………….......................................…………...……… 43
3. Boost converter…………………………………………….………………………… 45
4. Buck-Boost converter ……………………………………………...………………... 46
5. Problems…………...…………………………………………………………………. 48

CHAPTER 5
DC-AC conversion (Inverters)
1. Introduction……………….…………………...……………..…..…….……………. 50
2. Single-phase voltage inverters…………………………………………………….…. 51
2.1 Half-Bridge single-phase inverter……………………..……………..…………… 51
2.2 Single-phase Full-Bridge inverter…………………………..………..…………… 52
2.3 Different types of control for the single-phase inverter……………..…………… 52
a) Symmetrical control (full wave)…………………………….…………………… 52
b) Phase-shifted control……………………………………………….…………… 53
c) Pulse width modulation (PWM) control…………………………………………
54
3. Three-phase voltage inverters………………………….………………………………… 57
a) Symmetrical control (full wave)……………………………….………………… 58
b) Pulse width modulation (PWM) control………………………………………… 59
4. Problems…………………………………………………………………………….. 59

Appendix………………………………………………………………………………… 62

References ……………………………………..…………….………………………….. 66

ii
 Introduction

Introduction

This document serves as a course material for power electronics primarily intended for third-year
Bachelor's students specializing in Electrotechnics within the Department of Electrical Systems
Engineering. It serves as a guiding resource for understanding the fundamentals and essential concepts of
power electronics. The document assumes that the students are already familiar with general circuit
analysis techniques usually taught at the S3 semester. While a basic understanding of electronic devices
like diodes and transistors is expected, the primary focus of this document lies in circuit topology and
functionality rather than individual devices.
It is important to note that this work is not final and its writing is provisional; it does not claim to
be exhaustive.
The document is organized into five chapters, aligning with the official power electronics program
of the third year of the Bachelor’s degree in Electrotechnics. Some chapters are accompanied by practical
exercises.
The first chapter delves into the static and dynamic characteristics of components commonly used
in power electronics.
The second chapter is dedicated to the study of the main types of AC/DC converters,
encompassing both single-phase and three-phase rectifiers, in both controlled and uncontrolled
configurations.
The third chapter is dedicated to the study of AC/AC converters, including single-phase AC
voltage controller and cyclo-converters.
The fourth chapter focuses on the primary types of DC/DC converters, commonly known as
choppers.
The fifth chapter is devoted to the exploration of DC/AC converters, covering single-phase and
three-phase inverters.
These chapters are complemented by an appendix that provides essential mathematical tools.

Teaching objectives: By the end of this course, students should be able to:
- Recognize the various types of converters.
- Understand the components used in power electronics.
- Master the operation of key static converters.
- List the different power switches and comprehend their characteristics and modes of operation.

1
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics

Chapter 1
Introduction to power electronics

1. Introduction
Power electronics or switching electronics: a field of Electrical Engineering that deals with the
application of power semiconductor devices for the control and conversion of electric power.

The goals of power electronics:

• To process and control the transfer of electrical energy between a source and a load. To achieve
this, semiconductors are used as switches responsible for adapting the voltages and currents from
a distribution network to meet the requirements of the load to be powered.
• To enhance energy efficiency by reducing energy losses during the conversion process. This leads
to more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy usage, making power electronics crucial
in addressing today's energy challenges.

As shown in Figure 1.1, power electronics represents a median point at which the topics of energy
systems, electronics, and control converge. Any useful circuit design for the control of power must
address issues of both devices and control, as well as of the energy itself. Among the unique aspects of
power electronics are its emphasis on large semiconductor devices, the application of magnetic devices
for energy storage.
The development of semiconductor switches manufacturing regarding their very high ratings and their
ability in high frequency systems are the basic keys in the development of power electronics engineering.

Fig.1.1 Control, energy, and power electronics are interrelated

2
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
A basic power electronic system is shown in Figure 1.2. It consists of an energy source, an electrical load,
a power electronic circuit, and control circuit. The function of the power electronic positioned at the
middle is that of controlling energy flow between the energy source and the electrical load. The power
electronic circuit contains high power switches, lossless energy storage elements, and magnetic
transformers. The control circuit takes information from the source, load, and designer and then
determines how the switches operate to achieve the desired conversion. The control circuit is usually built
up with conventional low-power analog and digital electronics.

Power electronic
Electrical circuit Electrical
Energy source load

Control
circuit

Fig.1.2 A basic power electronic system

2. Classification of power electronics

The following graph shows the various conversion modes that exist depending on the nature of the
electrical energy sources. In power electronics, there are four possible conversions and converters:
• AC to DC converters – rectifiers that transform AC to DC with adjustment of voltage and current
Applications: Battery chargers, High voltage dc (HVDC) transmission line.
• AC to AC converters – AC frequency, phase, magnitude, and power converters, both with and
without an intermediary DC link
Applications: Fun regulator, lighting system for theatres.
• DC to DC converters – linear regulators and switching choppers
Applications: Robots, DC motor speed control.
• DC to AC converters – inverters that produce AC of controllable magnitude and frequency
Applications: Photovoltaic cell, UPS (uninterruptible power supplies). AC motor speed control

Rectifier

AC DC
Inverter

Ac power Chopper
controller

AC DC

3
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
3. Power semiconductor switches used in power electronics
3.1. Static V-I characteristics of semiconductors
A switch is defined by its two stable states in static mode (Fig.1.3a):
- Conducting state (ON state); vk= 0, ik≠ 0
- Blocking state (OFF state); vk≠ 0, ik= 0

The V-I characteristic provides the operating region of a switch. It consists of different segments on the
axes of the coordinate system (vk, ik). Thus, one can consider switches with 2, 3, or 4 segments that will
be adapted to the nature and reversibility of the sources and loads. Note that for an ideal switch, the static
characteristic is non-dissipative.
iK
ON state
Vk

K OFF state

Ik VK

(a) (b)

Fig.1.3 Symbol of a switch and its static characteristic

It is always desirable to have power switches perform as close as possible to the ideal case.
Semiconductors, when operating as ideal switches, should exhibit the following characteristics:

-No limit on the amount of current (referred to as forward or reverse current) the device can carry when in
the conduction state (on-state).
-No limit on the amount of device voltage (known as forward or reverse blocking voltage) when the
device is in the non-conduction state (off-state).
-Zero on-state voltage drop when in the conduction state.
-Infinite off-state resistance, meaning zero leakage current when in the non-conduction state.
-No limit on the operating speed of the device when changing states, i.e., zero rise and fall times.

3.2. Classifications of power semiconductor devices

• Uncontrolled switch: The switch has no control terminal. The state of the switch is determined by the
external voltage or current conditions of the circuit in which the switch is connected. A diode is an
example of such switch.
• Semi-controlled switch: In this case the circuit designer has limited control over the switch. For
example, the switch can be turned-on from the control terminal. However, once ON, it cannot be

4
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
turned-off from the control signal. The switch can be switched off by the operation of the circuit
or by an auxiliary circuit that is added to force the switch to turn-off. A thyristor or a SCR is an
example of this switch type.
• Fully controlled switch: The switch can be turned ON and OFF via the control terminal. Examples of
this switch are the BJT, the MOSFET, the IGBT, the GTO thyristor, and the MOS-controlled thyristor
(MCT)

Power diode: Among all the static switching devices used in power electronics, the power diode is
perhaps the simplest. Its circuit symbol shown in Figure 1.4 (a) is a two-terminal device involves the
anode terminal (A) and the cathode terminal (K). It is a non-controllable component; its behavior is
determined by the circuit in which it is placed.
If anode terminal is at a higher potential compared to cathode terminal, the device is said to be forward
biased and a forward current will flow through the device. This causes a small voltage drop across the
device (<1 V), which under ideal conditions is usually ignored. However, when cathode terminal is at
a higher potential compared to anode terminal, the diode is reverse biased. It does not conduct,
and the diode then experiences a small current flowing in the reverse direction called the leakage
current. This current is dependent on the reverse voltage until the breakdown voltage is reached.
After that, the diode voltage remains essentially constant while the current increases dramatically.
Only the resistance of the circuit limits the maximum value of the current. Simultaneous large current and
large voltage in the breakdown operation leads to excessive power dissipation that could quickly destroy
the diode. Therefore, the breakdown operation of the diode must be avoided. Figure 1.4(c) illustrates
diode characteristics where breakdown voltage is shown.
Both forward voltage drop and leakage current are ignored in an ideal diode. In power electronic
applications, a diode is usually considered to be an ideal static switch, Figure 1.4 (b).
i i

ON state
Vrated
A i K
(+) (-) OFF sate v Reverse VF v
blocking
v region

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic c) Real characteristic

Fig.1.4 The diode

When:
V ≥ 0 and i > 0, the diode is conducting (closed).
V < 0 and i < 0, the diode is blocking (open).
The diode is unidirectional in voltage and current (a two-segment switch).
5
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
Thyristor:
Thyristors known as Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) are usually three-terminal devices. The control
terminal of the thyristor, called the gate (G) electrode, which allows it to become conductive when the
voltage Vth across its terminals is positive. It is a semi-controllable component. The other two terminals,
anode (A) and cathode (K) handle the large applied potentials (often of both polarities) and conduct the
major current through the thyristor. Thyristors are capable of handling large blocking voltages and large
currents for use in high-power applications, but their frequency capabilities are not very high, being lower
than 10 kHz.
If positive voltage is applied without gate current, the thyristor constitutes the state of forward blocking.
A low-power pulse of gate current switches the thyristor to the ON state. The output characteristic of a
conducting thyristor in the forward bias is similar to the characteristic of the diode with a small leakage
current. Thus, the thyristor assumes very low resistance in the forward direction. Once turned ON, the
thyristor remains in this state after the end of the gate pulse if its current is higher than the latching value.
If the current drops below the holding value, the device switches back to the non-conducting region.
Switching off by gate pulse is impossible. Therefore, using the same arguments as for diodes, the
thyristor can be represented by the idealized switch.
The output characteristic of SCR in the reverse bias is similar to the characteristic of the diode with a
small leakage current. With negative voltage between anode and cathode, this corresponds to the reverse
blocking state. If the maximum reverse voltage exceeds the permissible value, the leakage current rises
rapidly, as with diodes, leading to breakdown and thermal destruction of the thyristor. Figure 1.5 (a), (b)
and (c) illustrate the SCR symbol, its ideal characteristic and its practical characteristic, respectively.

iTh

ON state
G A 1
2

A iTh K
D O B VTh
Reverse Forward
VTh
blocking blocking

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic c) Real characteristic

Fig.1.5 The thyristor

It can be inferred from the static V-I characteristic that the SCR consists of three segments (three modes
of operation):
OD, reverse blocking mode: Thyristor is blocked, with low reverse leakage current.

6
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
OB, forward blocking mode (no gate pulse since VTh became positive): Thyristor is blocked, with low
forward leakage current.
OA, forward conduction mode: Thyristor is conducting, low forward voltage drop, and the forward
current is determined by the circuit in which the thyristor is inserted.
When:
VTh ≥ 0:
If iTh= 0 and iG= 0 : the thyristor is blocked (can be triggered).
If iG> 0 : the thyristor is conducting (1).
VTh< 0 and iTh= 0 : the thyristor is blocked (2).

GTO Thyristor (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor):

GTO is a special type of thyristor, which provides more control. As opposed to normal thyristors, GTOs
are fully controllable switches which can be turned ON and OFF by switching the polarity of the gate
signal.
The GTO thyristor turns ON similarly to the SCR thyristor, i.e. after a current pulse is applied to the
gate terminal. To turn it OFF, a powerful negative current control pulse must be applied to the gate
terminal.

GTO thyristors are typically employed in high-power or very high-power converters where precise
control of the switching process is necessary.

Figure 1.6 (a) and (b) illustrate the GTO symbol and its ideal characteristic, respectively.

Natural iA Controlled turning

turning OFF ON turning OFF

G A 1
2

A iA K
D B VAK
VAK

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic

c) Real characteristic

Fig.1.6 The GTO thyristor

When:
VAK < 0 and iA = 0: The GTO thyristor is blocked (2).
VAK > 0 and iA > 0 and iG ≠ 0: The GTO thyristor is conducting (1).

7
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
When VAK > 0 and iA > 0, the GTO thyristor can be blocked by a negative gate current pulse (1). It can
also spontaneously block (like a diode) when iA = 0 (2).

Power transistor:
Power transistors are three-terminal semiconductor electronic devices that can be used as switches.
Transistors are turned ON when a current or voltage signal is applied to the control terminal. The
transistor remains in the ON-state so long as control signal is present. When this control signal is
removed, the power transistor is turned OFF. The switching speed of modern transistors is much higher
than that of thyristors. In addition, the control circuit is much simpler than that used in thyristors.
In power electronics, there are three types of power transistors:

C D C iT Controlled turning
ON and turning OFF
iT iT iT

A 2
iB VT iG iG VT
B G VT G
1

VGS VGE B VT

E S E

a) BJT b) MOSFET c) IGBT d) Ideal characteristic

Fig.1.7 The power transistor

-The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is controlled by the current iB:

iB = 0: The BJT is blocked (1).

iB > 0: The BJT is conducting (2).
It can be controlled for both turning on and turning off.

-The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is controlled by voltage VGS:

VGS = 0: The MOSFET is blocked (1).

VGS > 0: The MOSFET is conducting (2).

It can be controlled for both turning on and turning off, and it operates at very high switching frequencies.

-The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) combines characteristics of both BJT and MOSFET. It is
controlled by voltage VGE.

8
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
3.3 Dynamic characteristic (Switching Modes):
The static characteristic of a switch is insufficient to describe its dynamic properties, meaning how the
switch transitions from the blocking state to the conducting state, or vice versa. The dynamic switching
characteristic is the path followed by the operating point during the switch's transition, moving from one
half-axis to another perpendicular half-axis. This trajectory can only occur in quadrants where ik.vk>0
since the switch is considered a dissipative element.
During turn-on and turn-off processes, two modes of switch state changes can be distinguished:
spontaneous switching and controlled switching.

3.3.1 Spontaneous switching (Natural): This is the type of switching carried out by a diode. The
transition from the conducting state to the blocking state can only occur at zero current and from the
blocking state to the conducting state at zero voltage. The change in state is induced by the environment
in which the switch is located.
iK

VkiK < 0
VK
iK

VK
VkiK < 0
VkiK = 0

Fig.1.8 Spontaneous switching (Turn-On and Turn-Off)

State transitions occur along the axes, thus without energy losses, which are referred to as switching
losses.

3.3.2 Controlled switching (Forced): This is the type of switching carried out by a transistor or thyristor
(or any other controlled component). The transition from the conducting state to the blocking state (or
vice versa) occurs in response to an external command or control signal.

iK
VkiK > 0

VkiK < 0
VK
iK

VK
VkiK < 0

Fig.1.9 Controlled switching (Turn-On and Turn-Off)

9
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
The change in state occurs by crossing the Vkik>0 plane. Therefore, the switch experiences switching
losses (the switch is dissipative).

3.4 Losses in semiconductor components:

A non-ideal semiconductor component from a dynamic perspective (real) exhibits Joule losses during
both the opening and closing processes.

K A

Ideal

Real
i
u u
V0

Fig.1.10 Real characteristic of a switch

In reality, for a real switch, there is a small positive voltage drop (V0) when it becomes conducting. The
switching occurs in a non-spontaneous manner from one state to another. In this case, the switch
dissipates energy during each switching cycle and is therefore subject to switching losses.

iK
I
vK
V

0 Vo

ton toff

ON state OFF state

pK= vK.iK

Pcom
Pcond Pcom

ton toff
Fig.1.11 Switching losses in a switch

ton = rise time of IK during closing;

toff = fall time of IK during opening;
T = switching period.

The power dissipated due to switching losses is calculated as: =

Switching losses limit the frequency of use for components.

10
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
4. Combining semiconductor components
To achieve performance characteristics different from those of the three basic switches (diode, thyristor,
transistor), multiple basic components are sometimes combined.
-Reversible voltage switches: By adding a diode in series with a GTO thyristor or a transistor, a voltage-
reversible switch with controlled closing and opening can be obtained.

i
V

i T

V
D

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic

Fig.1.12 Bidirectional voltage switch

-Bidirectional current switches: These are achieved by adding two semiconductor devices connected in
parallel with reverse polarity.

i
V

i D

V
T, GTO

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic

Fig.1.13 Bidirectional current switch

-Bidirectional voltage and current switches: These are obtained either by placing two bidirectional current
switches in series or by connecting two bidirectional voltage switches in parallel.

V V i

i D1 D2 i
V
T1 T2

a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic

Fig.1.14 Bidirectional voltage and current switch

A bidirectional switch that is reversible in both voltage and current, with only the turn-on events being
controlled, can be obtained by connecting two symmetrical thyristors in anti-parallel (Figure 1.15).

11
Chapter 1 Introduction to power electronics
In low-power applications, the two thyristors can be replaced by a single component, the triac, which has
a single gate for triggering in both directions.
V
V i
Th1

i i
V
Tr
Th2
a) Symbol b) Ideal characteristic

Fig.1.15 Bidirectional current and voltage switch (Triac)

5. Limits and applications of power semiconductors

To give an idea of the application ranges of power semiconductors, they have been plotted on Figure 1.16
in the power breaking capacity/frequency plane.
The usage ranges extend from tens of Hertz for applications operating at the mains frequency to several
hundred kilohertz for applications using the fastest MOS transistors. Similarly, it can be observed that the
power range spans from a few VA (Volt-Amperes) to several hundred MVA (Mega-Volt-Amperes) for
the most powerful applications.

Fig.1.16 Zones of power ratings and switching speeds of power semiconductors

It’s astonishing to realize that there is hardly a home, office block, factor, car, sport hall, hospital or
theatre without an application, and sometimes many applications of power electronic equipment as
cleared in Figure 1.17.

12
Chapter 1 Introduction to power
p electronics

Fig.1.17 Some applications of power semiconductors

13
Chapter 2 Rectifiers

Chapter 2
AC-DC conversion (Rectifiers)

1. Introduction
Rectifier circuits are power electronic converters that convert alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC). When supplied with a single-phase or three-phase AC voltage source, they provide DC current to
the load connected at their output.
Rectifiers are employed whenever there is a need for direct current while the electrical energy source is in
alternating current form. Rectifiers find application in many areas due to their versatility and capability to
convert AC to DC power effectively.

~
DC
Source Load
AC
(R, L,…..)

Fig.2.1 AC-DC conversion

Diode or uncontrolled rectifiers do not allow for varying the ratio between the input alternating voltage
and the output direct voltage. Furthermore, they are irreversible, meaning power can only flow from the
alternating side to the direct side.

Thyristors or controlled rectifiers allow a fixed input alternating voltage to vary the output direct voltage.
Additionally, they are reversible; when they transfer power from the direct side to the alternating side,
they are referred to as non-autonomous inverters.

2. Basic definitions:
Certain terms will be frequently used in this lesson and subsequent lessons while characterizing different
types of rectifiers. Such commonly used terms are defined in this section.

2.1- Mean value :

1
〈 ( )〉 = ( ) = ( )

2.2-Root mean square value (RMS):

1
= ( )

14
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
2.3-Form factor:
The form factor in electrical engineering refers to a dimensionless ratio that characterizes the shape or
quality of a waveform, often used in the context of alternating current (AC) voltage or current. It
measures how closely the waveform resembles a pure sinusoidal waveform. The closer the form factor is
to 1, the closer the waveform resembles a pure sinusoidal waveform. A form factor close to 1 indicates a
smoother, less distorted waveform, which is desirable for many electrical applications. This coefficient is
used for comparing different rectifier configurations.
The formula for calculating the form factor is as follows:

Veff: RMS value of the considered voltage;

: Average value of the considered voltage.
F=1, the closer the obtained voltage is to a continuous quantity.

2.4- Ripple Factor:

The ripple factor measures the alternating current (AC) component or voltage ripple in a direct current
(DC) output. It is typically expressed as a ratio or percentage and is used to evaluate the quality of the DC
output from a rectifier or power supply. A lower ripple factor indicates a smoother, more stable DC
output, while a higher one suggests a less stable and noisier output. The ripple factor is an important

−
parameter in power electronics and electrical engineering. By definition, the ripple factor is defined as:

=
2
Vmax : Maximum value of the rectified voltage.
Vmin : Minimum value of the rectified voltage.
k=0, the closer the rectified voltage is to a continuous quantity.

2.5- Distortion factor of a rectifier (DF):

The ratio of the RMS value of the fundamental frequency to the total RMS value is the distortion factor:
= !
!

I1: is the fundamental component of current I.

Irms: is the root mean square (RMS) of current I.

The distortion factor represents the power factor reduction due to the current's non-sinusoidal property.

15
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
2.6- Displacement factor of a rectifier (DPF):
If V and I are the per-phase input voltage and input current of a rectifier, respectively, then the

" = cos &

displacement factor of a rectifier is defined as:

Where & is the phase angle between the fundamental components of V and I.

2.7- Power factor of rectifier (PF):

'( )*+ -./01 23-) . ℎ0 10( 25201

As for any other equipment, the definition of the power factor of a rectifier is:

" =
'--*103 -./01 23-) . ℎ0 10( 25201

6 76 cos &
If the per-phase input voltage and current of a rectifier are V and I, respectively, then

" =
8 9 78 9

If the rectifier is supplied from an ideal sinusoidal voltage source, then. 6 = 8 9

So, " = cos & = . "

!

3. Uncontrolled rectifiers (Using diodes)

3.1 Single-phase half-wave rectifier:
The half-wave rectifier is the simplest electronic circuit that converts alternating current (AC) into
pulsating direct current (DC) using a single diode. It is one of the simplest rectification circuits and is
typically used when a relatively low DC output voltage is required. The load type strongly influences the
output voltage and current of this rectifier. This section will discuss the operation of this rectifier with
resistive and inductive loads. A thorough understanding of the half-wave rectifier circuit will enable the
student to advance to the analysis of more complicated circuits with a minimum of effort.

Resistive load (R) :

A basic half-wave rectifier with a resistive load is shown in Fig.2.2a. The source is AC, and the objective
is to create a load voltage with a non-zero DC component. The diode is a basic electronic switch that only
allows current in one direction. The diode is forward-biased for the positive half-cycle of the source in
this circuit.
Considering the diode to be ideal, the voltage across a forward-biased diode is zero, and the current is
positive. The diode is reverse-biased for the negative half-cycle of the source, making the current zero.
The voltage across the reverse-biased diode is the source voltage, which has a negative value. Therefore,
the voltage across the resistive load is:

16
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
For 0 ≤ = ≤ > :

= = sin(= ), = 0, 2? =
DE
? 9 C F

For > ≤ = ≤ 2> :

? = 0, C = 9 = sin(= ), 2? = 0
The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.2b.

i(t) D ic(t
Vs

VD
Vc R
Vs
Wt

Vc
Vm

Wt
(a)
ic

Vm/R

Wt

VD

Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.2 (a) Half-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

The average value of the rectified voltage:

/
1 1
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = 0.318
>

The root mean square (RMS) value of the rectified voltage:

/ /
1 1
=J ?( ) =J ( sin(= )) =J (1 − cos(2= )) = = 0.5
?
2

17
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
The form factor:

>
= = 2 = = 1.57
?
〈 ?〉 2
>

Inductive load (RL):

Industrial loads typically contain inductance as well as resistance. As the source voltage goes through
zero, becoming positive in the circuit of Fig.2.3a, the diode becomes forward-biased. For an inductive
load, the diode remains conductive as long as the voltage Vs is positive and the current ic (t) is not zero.
Therefore, the diode is in forced conduction until the current ic (t) becomes zero at the instant β0.
The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.3b.

i(t) D ic(t Vs
)

VD
R
Vc
Vs
Wt
L
Vc
Vm

β0

Wt
(a)
ic

Vm/Z

β0 Wt

VD

β0

Wt
-Vm

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.3 (a) Half-wave rectifier with inductive load; b) Waveforms

18
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
For 0 ≤ = ≤ M :

= = sin(= ), = 0, 2? =
DE
? 9 C N

For M ≤ = ≤ 2> :
? = 0, C = 9 = sin(= ), 2? = 0
The Kirchhoff voltage law equation that describes the current in the circuit for the forward-biased ideal
diode is:

sin(= ) = O2( ) + Q
R (S)
RS

The solution can be obtained by expressing the current as the sum of the forced response and the natural

2( ) = 2 ( ) + 2 ( )
response:

The forced response for this circuit is the current that exists after the natural response has decayed to zero.
In this case, the forced response is the steady-state sinusoidal current that would exist in the circuit if the
diode were absent. This steady-state current can be found from phasor analysis, resulting in:
2 ( )= sin(= − T)
D
N

Where U = VO + (=Q) and T = *3W6 X F [

YZ

The natural response is the transient that occurs when the load is energized. It is the solution to the

2( )
homogeneous differential equation for the circuit without the source or diode:

O2( ) + Q =0

For this first-order circuit, the natural response is:

F
2 ( ) = '0 W Z S
Adding the forced and natural responses gets the complete solution:
F
2( ) = 2 ( ) + 2 ( ) = sin(= − T) + '0 W Z S
U
Constant A is evaluated using the initial condition for current. The initial condition in the inductor is zero
because it was zero before the diode started conducting and cannot change instantaneously.

The final result is:

F
2( ) = \sin(= − T) + sin(T) 0 W Z S ]
U

19
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
3.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier:
The primary goal of a full-wave rectifier (Bridge rectifier) is to generate a voltage or current that is purely
direct current (DC) or contains a specified DC component. Although the fundamental purpose of the full-
wave rectifier aligns with that of the half-wave rectifier, full-wave rectifiers offer notable advantages. In
the full-wave rectifier, the average current from the alternating current (AC) source is reduced to zero,
thus mitigating issues related to non-zero average source currents, particularly in transformers.
Furthermore, the output of the full-wave rectifier exhibits an inherently lower ripple than the half-wave
rectifier's.
The single-phase full-wave rectifier circuit (Bridge rectifier), employing diodes, comprises four diodes
interconnected in pairs in reverse, as depicted in Figure 2.4a.

For 0 ≤ = ≤ > : The voltage is positive, with diodes D1 and D4 conducting, while D2 and D3 are
Resistive load :

= = sin(= )
blocked.
? 9

C6 = 0, C^ =0

2? =
?
O

For > ≤ = ≤ 2> : The voltage is negative, with diodes D2 and D3 conducting, while D1 and D4 are

=− =− sin(= )
blocked.
? 9

C = 0, C_ =0
C6 = 9, C^ = 9

2? =
?
O

The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.4b.

-The DC component of the output voltage is the average value of the rectified voltage:

/ /
2 2 2
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = 0.636
>

20
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
-The root mean square (RMS) value of the rectified voltage:

/ /
1 2 2
=J ?( ) =J ( sin(= )) =J (1 − cos(2= )) = = 0.707
√2
?

-The form factor :

>
= = √2 = = 1.11
?
〈 ?〉 2 2√2
>

ic(t)
Vs, Vc Vc

D1 D2

Is Wt
Vc R

Vs iD1, iD4

Wt
D3 D4
iD2, iD3

(a)
Wt

Vs, Is
Vs

Is

Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.4 (a) Full-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

21
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
Inductive load :
The load now consists of a pure inductance L in series with a resistance R. The inductance L opposes the
current ic(t) variations and smoothes it out. If a sufficient value is provided, the current in the load
becomes continuous (the current does not pass through zero), known as continuous conduction mode.
If L is significant enough (L>>), the current ic(t) can be considered constant and equal to Ic.

Vc, Ic Vc, Ic
Vc Vc

Ic
Ic

Wt W
t
iD1, iD4 iD1, iD4

Wt W
t

iD2, iD3 iD2, iD3

Wt W
t

Vs, Is Vs
Vs, Is
Is
Is

Wt W
t

π 2π 3π 4π π 2π 3π 4π

(b) (a)

Fig.2.5 Waveforms: (a) inductive load; (b) Highly inductive load

3.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier:

As shown in Figure 2.6a, one diode is conducting at any given moment. It is the diode connected to the
phase with the highest instantaneous voltage. The output voltage varies from Vm/2 to Vm three times
during each input cycle.
The voltage waveforms across the load and diode D1 are shown in Fig.2.6b.

22
Chapter 2 Rectifiers

D1 Vc
Vs1 Vs2 Vs3
Vs1
D2

Vs2
D3 Wt

Vs3

Vc R

VD1

D3 D1 D2 D3 D1

(a) π/6 5π/6 π 2π

(b)

Fig.2.6 (a) Three-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

-The average or DC value of the output voltage is:

b /6 bc/d
3 3 3√3
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = = 0.827
2> 2>
/6 c/d

-The root mean square (RMS) value of the rectified voltage:

bc/d bc/d
3 3
=J ( sin(= )) = =J (1 − cos(2= )) = = 0.8407
?
2> 4>
c/d c/d

0.8407
-The form factor :

= = = 1.016
?
〈 ?〉 0.827

3.4 Three-phase full-wave rectifier:

The three-phase full-bridge rectifier is shown in Fig 2.7a. Kirchhoff's voltage law around any path
indicates that:
1-Only one diode in the top half of the bridge may be conducted at one time (D1, D3, or D5). The diode
conducting will have its anode connected to the highest phase voltage at that instant.

23
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
2- Only one diode in the bottom half of the bridge may be conducted at one time (D2, D4, or D6). The
diode conducting will have its cathode connected to the lowest phase voltage at that instant.
3-As a consequence of items 1 and 2, diodes on the same leg (D1 and D4, D3 and D6, D2, and D5)
cannot be conducted simultaneously.
4-The output voltage across the load is one of the source's line-to-line voltages. For example, the output
voltage is Vac when D1 and D2 are on. Furthermore, the diodes turned on are determined by which line-
to-line voltage is the highest at that instant. For example, the output is Vac when Vac is the highest line-

5-The fundamental frequency of the output voltage is 6=, where = is the frequency of the three-phase
to-line voltage.

source.

The voltage waveforms across the load and diode D1 are shown in Fig.2.7b.

Vc

D1 D3 D5 Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab

Vs1 Vs1 Vs2 Vs3

a
Vc R
Vs2
n b
Vs3 Wt
c

D4 D6 D2

VD1

D5 D1 D1 D3 D3 D5 D5 D1
(a)
D6 D2 D4 D6
π/3 2π/3 π 2π
(b)

Fig.2.7 (a) Three-phase fall-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

= sin =
If we define the three line-neutral voltages as follows:

i
96
g 2>
= sin j= − k
9
3 l
h 2>
g = sin j= + k
f 9_
3

24
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
The corresponding line-to-line voltages are:

>
i = − = √3 sin X= + [
m m
6
g >
= − = √3 sin X= − [ l
h
m? m ?
2
g 5>
f = − = √3 sin j= + k
? ?
6

Where: Vm is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source.

-The average or DC value of the output voltage is:

_ /6 c/ c/
6 3 3 2>
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = m( ) = = j sin(= ) − sin j= − kk = = 1.654
> > 3
/6 c/d c/d

-The root mean square (RMS) value of the rectified voltage:

c/
3 2>
=J j sin(= ) − sin j= − kk = = 1.6554
?
> 3
c/d

1.6554
-The form factor :

= = = 1.0008
?
〈 ?〉 1.654

4. Controlled rectifiers (Using Thyristors)

4.1 Single-phase half-wave rectifier
In this chapter, we've examined uncontrolled rectifiers, specifically half-wave rectifiers. Once the source
and load parameters are determined, the resulting DC output level and the power delivered to the load are
constant values. Using a thyristor instead of a diode, we can control the half-wave rectifier's output. Fig
2.8a shows the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load. Two conditions
must be met before the thyristor can conduct:
1. The thyristor must be forward-biased (Vth > 0).
2. A current must be applied to the gate of the thyristor.
Unlike the diode, the thyristor will not begin to conduct as soon as the source becomes positive.
Conduction is delayed until a gate current is applied, which is the basis for using the thyristor as a means
of control. Once the thyristor is conducting, the gate current can be removed, and the thyristor remains on
until the current goes to zero.

25
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
Resistive load:

to the thyristor at = = n, where n is the delay angle.

The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.8b. A gate signal is applied

Vc
ig
Th Vm
ie ic

vTh
α
Vs Vc Wt
R
ic

Vm/R

α Wt

Vth
(a)

α
Wt

ig

α 2π+α
Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.8 (a) Half-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

For 0 ≤ = ≤ n : The voltage Vs is positive, and ig=0, the thyristor is blocked.

2? = 0, ? = 0, So = 9

For n ≤ = ≤ > : The voltage Vs is positive, and ig>0, the thyristor is conducting.

= 0, = = sin(= ), 2? =
DE
So ? 9 F

For > ≤ = ≤ 2> : The voltage Vs is negative, and the thyristor is blocked.
2? = 0, ? = 0, So = 9

-The average value of the rectified voltage:

c
1 1
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = (1 + cos n)
2> 2>
p

26
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
The average value of the rectified voltage varies depending on α, the timing of the trigger pulse
application.

Inductive load :
The thyristor remains conducting for a negative voltage for an inductive load until the current ic (t)
cancels out at the angle (β). The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in
Fig.2.9b.
ig
Th
ie ic Vc
Vm
vTh R
Vs β
Vc
α
L Wt

ic

Vm/Z

α β
Wt
(a)
Vth

β
α
Wt

ig

α 2π+α
Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.9 (a) Half-wave rectifier with inductive load; b) Waveforms

-The average value of the rectified voltage:

q
1 1
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = (cos n − cos M)
2> 2>
p

27
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
4.2 Single-phase full-wave rectifier
The controlled full-wave rectifier circuit comprises four thyristors connected in reverse pairs, as shown in
Fig.2.10a. For the bridge rectifier, thyristors Th1 and Th4 will become forward-biased when the source
becomes positive but will not conduct until gate signals are applied. Similarly, Th2 and Th3 will become
forward-biased when the source becomes negative but will not conduct until they receive gate signals.
The delay angle α is the angle interval between the forward biasing of the thyristor and the gate signal
application. If the delay angle is zero, the rectifier behaves exactly as an uncontrolled rectifier with
diodes.

Resistive Load:
The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.10b.

For th1 and th4 : = = n, For th2 and th3 : = = n + >

The gate signals are sent to the gate terminals of the thyristors at the following angles:

ic
Vc
Th1 Th2 Vm

Vs R Vc α
Wt

Th3 Th4 ic

Vm/R

α Wt

Vth1
(a)
Vth4

α
Wt

ig1, ig4 ig2, ig3

α π+α
Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.2.10 (a) Full-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms

28
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
For 0 ≤ = ≤ n and > ≤ = ≤ > + n

2? = 0
(ig1=0, ig2=0, ig3=0, ig4=0): The four thyristors (th1, th2, th3, th4) are blocked.

? =0
So6 = So^ = 9 /2

For n ≤ = ≤ > :
The voltage Vs is positive, and ig1>0, ig4>0. In this case, the thyristors th1 and th4 are conducting, while

= =0
th2 and th3 are blocked.
So6 So^

? = 9 = sin(= )

2? =
?
O

For > + n ≤ = ≤ 2> :

The voltage is negative, and ig2>0, ig3>0. In this scenario, the thyristors th2 and th3 are conducting, while

= = sin(= )
th1 and th4 are blocked.
So6 So^

? =− 9 =− sin(= )

2? =
?
O

-The average value of the rectified voltage:

c
1 1
〈 ?〉 = ?( ) = sin(= ) = = (1 + cos n)
> >
p

Inductive load :

For an inductive load, the thyristors th1 and th4 remain conducting until the current ic (t) becomes zero at
the angle β (ic(β)=0). For a highly inductive load (L>>), the thyristors th1 and th4 remain conducting until
the thyristors th2 and th3 are triggered.
The voltage waveforms across the source, load, and diode are shown in Fig.2.11b and Fig.2.11c.

29
Chapter 2 Rectifiers

Vc Vc
Vm Vm

β
α α
Wt Wt

ic ic

I0

α Wt α β Wt

Vth1 Vth1
Vth4 Vth4

β
α α
Wt Wt

ig1, ig4 ig2, ig3 ig1, ig4 ig2, ig3

α π+α α π+α
Wt Wt

π 2π 3π 4π π 2π 3π 4π

(c) (b)

Fig.2.11 Fig.2.5 Waveforms: (b) inductive load; (c) Highly inductive load

4.3 Three-phase half-wave rectifier

The onset of conduction in any phase can be delayed by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristor
connected to that phase. To initiate conduction, the anode voltage of the thyristor needs to be positive
relative to its cathode. Consequently, thyristor th1, linked to phase 1 in Fig 2.12a, cannot be triggered
successfully until ωt = π/6. Before this moment, as illustrated in Fig 2.12b, the voltage vs1 is less positive
than vs3, causing thyristor th1 to be in a reverse-biased state. Hence, the crossover point of successive
phase voltages (i.e., ωt = π/6) is the zero or reference point from which the firing angle is measured.
When thyristor th1 is fired at ωt = α + π/6, voltage vs1 becomes across the load until zero current is
achieved (for a resistive load, Fig 2.12b) or until th2 is triggered at ωt = α + 5π/6 (for an inductive load,
Fig 2.13b). Once thyristor th2 is fired, th1 becomes reverse biased because the line-to-line voltage turns
negative and, thus, is turned off. Subsequently, voltage vs2 becomes across the load until zero current is

30
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
attained (for a resistive load, Fig 2.12b) or until th3 is triggered at ωt = α + 3π/2 (for an inductive load,
Fig 2.13b). When th3 is fired, th2 is turned off, and voltage vs3 appears across the load until zero current
is reached (for a resistive load, Fig 2.12b) or until th1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next cycle.
ig
Th1
Vc
Vs1 Vs2 Vs3
Vs1 ig
Th2
n
Vs2 ig
Th3 Wt

Vs3

Vc R
α

Th3 Th1 Th2 Th3

π/6 π/6+α π 2π
(a)
(b)

Fig.2.12 (a) Three-phase half-wave rectifier with resistive load; b) Waveforms (α=π/3)
ig
Th1

Vs1 ig
Th2 Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab

Vs2 ig Vc
Th3 Vs1 Vs2 Vs3

Vs3

Vc L
Wt

-
Vth1
(a)
Th3 Th1 Th2 Th3

π/6 π/6+α π 2π

(b)

Fig.2.13 (a) Three-phase half-wave rectifier with inductive load; b) Waveforms (α=π/3)

= − = − = −
-The voltage across thyristors th1, th2 and th3 is:
So6 96 ?, So 9 ?, So_ 9_ ?

=r 96 , 9 , 9_ s
and
Where: ?

31
Chapter 2 Rectifiers

-The average value of the rectified voltage:

bc
tp
d
3 3√3
〈 ?〉 = sin(= ) = = cos n
2> 2>
c
tp
d

4.4 Three-phase full-wave rectifier

Three-phase converters, often called 6-pulse converters, are widely used in industrial applications up to
the 120-kilowatt (kW) level. These converters are a power electronic device that plays a crucial role in
converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or vice versa in three-phase electrical systems.
They are commonly used in various industrial settings for various applications, including motor drives,
control systems, and power distribution. Figure 2.14a shows a full-converter circuit with a highly
inductive load. Its operation is similar to the three-phase full wave rectifier of Fig 2.7b, except that
commutation is delayed by α from when commutation occurs between diodes in Fig 2.7b. The output
voltage waveforms are given for firing angle α=π/6 in Fig 2.14b.

ig ig ig
Vc
Th1 Th3 Th5 Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab

Vs1 Vs1 Vs2 Vs3

a
Vc L
Vs2
b
Vs3 Wt
c
α
ig ig ig

Th4 Th6 Th2

-
Vth1

Th5 Th1 Th3 Th5

(a)
Th6 Th2 Th4 Th6
π/3 2π/3 π 2π
(b)

Fig.2.14 (a) Three-phase fall-wave rectifier with inductive load; b) Waveforms (α=π/6)

32
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
-The voltage across thyristor th1 is:

So6 = 96 − 9

= −
when th3 is conducting
So6 96 9_ when th5 is conducting

-The average value of the rectified voltage:

c c
tp tp
6 3 > 3√3
〈 ?〉 = = = √3 sin X= + [ = = cos n
2> m
> 6 >
c c
tp tp
d d

The output voltage waveforms are given for different firing angles (α=0, α=π/2, α= π) in Fig 2.15a, b, c.
Vc Vc

Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab
Vab

Vs2 Vs1 Vs2 Vs3

Vs1 Vs3

Wt Wt
α=0
α=π/2

π/3 π/3 π 2π
π 2π
(a) (b)

Vc

Vcb Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb Vab

Vs1 Vs2 Vs3

Wt
α=π

π/3 π 2π
(c)

Fig.2.15 Waveforms : a) α=0, b) α=π/2, c) α=π

33
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
5. Problems:

Problem 2-1:

Consider the following circuit representing an uncontrolled half-wave rectifier.

D
i ic

vd R
v(t) vc
L

1- Determine an expression for the circuit's current i(t).

2- Plot the waveform of the current ic(t), the voltage Vc, and Vd over the interval [0, 2π].
3- If a diode is added in parallel with the load (R, L), plot the new waveforms of the current ic(t), the
voltage Vc, and the voltage Vd over the interval [0, 2π].

Problem 2-2:

Consider the following circuit representing an uncontrolled full-wave center-tapped rectifier.

D1

V1 Vc

V2 R
E
D2

For both cases: (a) E=0 V and R=1 Ω, (b) E=90 V and R=1 Ω.

1- Plot the waveforms of voltage and current across the load.

2- Calculate the power dissipated in the load.

Given that: V1 =110 √2 sin (314 t) and V2 = -V1

34
Chapter 2 Rectifiers
Problem 2-3:

Consider a PD2 rectifier circuit with thyristors supplied by an ideal sinusoidal source, feeding a resistive
load R.

ic
Th1 Th2

v R Vc
Th3 Th4

1- For a firing angle α=45°, plot the waveforms of voltage Vc, current in the load ic, and voltage VTh1 for
a resistive load (R).
2- Calculate the power dissipated in the load.
3- Calculate the form factor of the rectified voltage.
4- Calculate the power factor at the secondary of the transformer.
5- For a firing angle α=45°, plot the waveforms of voltage Vc, current in the load ic, and voltage VTh1 for
a resistive-inductive load (R, L).

Data: Vm = 220 √2 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 10 Ohm.

Note: Thyristors are assumed to be ideal.

35
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller

Chapter 3
AC-AC conversion (Dimmer)
1. Introduction
AC/AC converters are power electronic devices that change the uncontrolled AC input voltage and
frequency into a controlled AC output voltage and frequency. They are also known as AC voltage
controllers or AC regulators.
The AC voltage controller has several practical uses, including light-dimmer circuits and speed control of
induction motors. The input voltage source is AC, and the output is AC (although not sinusoidal).

~
AC
Source Load
AC
(R, L,…..)
~

Fig.3.1 AC-AC conversion

AC-AC converters can be categorized into three topologies:

• AC-AC voltage controller
• AC cyclo-converter
• Matrix converter

They may be single-phase or three-phase types, depending on their power ratings. This chapter will focus
only on single-phase AC/AC converters.

2. Single-phase AC voltage controller:

A basic single-phase voltage controller is shown in Fig.3.2a. The electronic switches are shown as
parallel thyristors (SCRs). This SCR arrangement makes it possible to have current in either direction in
the load. This SCR connection is called anti-parallel or inverse parallel because the SCRs carry current in
opposite directions. A triac is equivalent to the anti-parallel SCRs. Other controlled switching devices can
be used instead of SCRs.

Resistive load (R) :

sin < < + < <2

Fig.3.2b shows the voltage waveforms for a single-phase AC voltage controller with resistive load.

=
0 ℎ w

36
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller
The root mean square (RMS) value of load voltage:
)
1 sin 2
= # %& sin '( = ,1 − +
,! "
√2 2
*

Note that for α=0, the load voltage is a sinusoid with the same RMS value as the source. The RMS
current in the load and the source is:

. =
,! "
,! "
/
Th1 ig1

Vc
ic Vm
ie vTh

α
Vs ig2 Th2 Vc Wt
R
ic

Vm/R

α Wt

Vth
(a)

α
Wt

ig1 ig2

α 2π+α
Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.3.2 (a) AC voltage controller with resistive load; b) Waveforms

37
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller
Inductive load (RL):
Fig.3.3b shows a single-phase AC voltage controller with inductive load.
Th1 ig1

Vc
ic Vm
ie vTh

β
R α
Vs ig2 Vc Wt
Th2
L ic

Vm/R

α β Wt

Vth
(a)

β
α
Wt

ig1 ig2

α 2π+α
Wt

π 2π 3π 4π

(b)

Fig.3.3 (a) AC voltage controller with inductive load; b) Waveforms

When a gate signal is applied to Th1 at = , Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the circuit is expressed as:

sin =/ +0

The solution for current in this equation, outlined in chapter 2, is:

= 1 2 3sin − 4 − sin −4 : ≤ ≤<

*567 /69

0 ℎ w
Where 2 = =/ ( + 0 ( and 4 = ?AB
5> 6@

38
 = <,
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller
The extinction β is the angle at which the current returns to zero when

< =0= 3sin < − 4 − sin −4 *5C /69

:
2
Which must be solved numerically for β

3. Cyclo-converters:
Cyclo-converters can convert input power at one frequency to output power at a different frequency
through one-stage conversion. They can also be used to change the output amplitude of the AC supply.
Usually, AC regulators provide a variable output voltage with a fixed frequency. It is also possible to
achieve a variable frequency by using two stages of conversions, one AC-DC and the other DC-AC.
However, cyclo-converters can eliminate the need for one or more intermediate converters. Cyclo-
converters are used in high-power applications driving induction and synchronous motors where precise
speed control is required since they can produce a wide range of output frequencies, including very low
frequencies. They are usually phase-controlled and traditionally use thyristors due to their ease of phase
commutation.

To understand the operation principles of cyclo-converters, the simplest one, single-phase to single-phase
cyclo-converter, will be described in this section. Figure 3.4 shows the principle circuit of a 1φ-1φ cyclo-
converter. This converter consists of a back-to-back connection of two full-wave rectifier circuits. Fig.3.5
shows the operating waveforms for this converter with a resistive load.

-Converter

ic

Vs V0 R

+Converter

Fig.3.4 Single-phase (1φ-1φ) cyclo-converter

39
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller

Fig.3.5 Single-phase cyclo-converter waveforms: (a) input voltage, (b) output voltage for zero firing
angle, (c) output voltage with firing angle π/3, (d) output voltage with varying firing angle

Principle of operation:
The input voltage, Vs, is an AC voltage at a frequency, fi, as shown in Fig.3.5a. For easy understanding,
assume that all thyristors are fired at α=0°, i.e., thyristors act like diodes. Note that the firing angles are as
αp for the positive converter and αN for the negative converter.
Consider the operation of the cyclo-converter to get one-fourth of the input frequency at the output. The
positive converter supplies current to the load for the first two cycles of Vs. It rectifies the input voltage
(Fig.3.5b). In the next two cycles, the negative converter supplies current to the load in the reverse
direction.
The frequency of the output voltage, V0, in Fig.3.5b is four times less than that of Vs, the input voltage,
i.e. f0/fi=1/4. Thus, this is a step-down cyclo-converter. On the other hand, cyclo-converters that have
f0/fi>1 are called step-up cyclo-converters. Note that step-down cyclo-converters are more widely used
than the step-up ones.

The frequency of V0 can be changed by varying the number of cycles the positive and the negative
converters work. It can only change as integer multiples of fi in 1φ-1φ cyclo-converters.
With the above operation, the 1φ-1φ cyclo-converter can only supply a certain voltage at a certain firing
angle α. The DC output of each rectifier is:
2√2
D = cos

Where V is the input RMS voltage

40
Chapter 3 AC voltage controller
Then, the peak of the fundamental output voltage is:
4 2√2
G> = cos

Thus, by varying α, the fundamental output voltage can be controlled.

Constant α operation gives a crude output waveform with rich harmonic content. The dotted lines in
Fig.3.5b and c show a square wave. The harmonics would be reduced if the square wave could be
modified to look more like a sine wave. For this reason, α is modulated as shown in Fig.3.5d.

41
Chapter 4 Choppers

Chapter 4
DC-DC conversion (Choppers)

1. Introduction
A DC-DC converter, or a DC chopper, is a static device that obtains a regulated DC voltage from a
constant DC voltage source. The output voltage regulation is ensured by power electronic components
used in switching (typically transistors). Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery-operated
vehicles, traction motor control, and control of many DC motors at variable speeds. The choppers'
systems offer smooth control, high efficiency, and fast response.
Variable

DC DC Vs Load (R, L…)

Ve
Fixed

Fig.4.1 DC-DC conversion

The principle:
A source of direct voltage Ve (such as a battery)
0 F powers a load through a switch (K) that opens
K i and closes very rapidly.

Vs Load The converter uses unidirectional electronic

Ve
switches with forced commutation (Transistor,
GTO).

A forced commutation switch is an electronic system that, under the influence of an electrical quantity
(control signal g), allows the opening or closing of a power circuit (Figure 4.2).

g Vs
Ve

T t T t
αT
ton toff

Fig.4.2 control signal of the switch

ton : conduction time of switch (K)

toff : blocking time of switch (K)

42
Chapter 4 Choppers
T=ton+toff : switching period
f=1/T : frequency period
α=ton/T : duty cycle

The switch opens and closes at a frequency (1/T), with the ratio of the on-time to the period defined as α,
the duty ratio. The resulting load voltage Vs is a chopped version of the input voltage Ve, as shown in Fig
4.2.
According to the ratio between the average value of the voltage across the load and that of the source, two
fundamental types of choppers are found:
1- Step-down choppers (buck converter)
2- Step-up choppers (boost converter)
3- Buck-Boost converter

2. Buck converter:
A buck or step-down converter is a DC-DC switch mode power supply intended to buck (or lower) the
input voltage of an unregulated DC supply to a stabilized lower output voltage. Buck converters are often
used instead of traditional, non-efficient linear regulators to provide low-voltage on-board power in
various applications such as microprocessors, communication equipment, control systems, and more. In a
buck converter, the transistor switch is connected in series with the input source, as shown in Fig.4.3a.

T IT IL Vs
L
Is Ve
g IC
Vs0
C Vs R t
Ve D V
IL αT T T+ 2T
ILmax αT
ID Is0 2∆i
ILmin
t
C
(a) IT
Q2 Q1
Q3 Q4 N

ID

Conducting switchs

T D T D T

(b)

Fig.4.3 (a) Buck converter, (b) waveforms

43
Chapter 4 Choppers
The operation of the converter can be deduced from the analysis of the behavior of the switch (Transistor
T). Subsequently, we will focus on the continuous conduction mode (IL>0), meaning that the circuit will
have two states during a switching period (chopping). We will also consider the ideal circuit (without
losses).

The generator imposes a voltage that remains substantially constant (Ve). Transistor T allows the current
of intensity IT to flow to the load for a duration ton. Then, the Transistor T is opened while the current
continues to flow in the load due to the inductance and the freewheeling diode.

• For [0, ton], Transistor T On and diode D Off: Ve reverse biases the diode D when the series Transistor
T closes.
VT=0, VD= -Ve, V=Ve, VL=Ve-Vs
IT = IL, ID=0, IC= IL-Is, Is=Vs/R
−
= + (0)

• For [ton, T], Transistor T Off and diode D On when the series Transistor T opens, the current continuity
in L forces the diode D to conduct.

VT= Ve, VD=0, V=0, VL=-Vs

IT = 0, ID= IL, IC= IL-Is, Is=Vs/R
−
= ( − )+ ( )

In continuous conduction (steady state): <VL> =0, IL(0)= IL(ton) and : IL(0)=ILmin, I(ton)=ILmax

1 1
= ( ) = ( − ) + (− ) =0

-Value of the average voltage across the load:

=

-Value of the average current in the load:

With α: The duty cycle, knowing that 0≤ α ≤1

44
Chapter 4 Choppers
3. Boost converter:
A boost or step-up converter is a DC-DC switch mode power supply that is intended to boost (or increase)
the input voltage of an unregulated DC supply to a stabilized higher output voltage. Like a buck
converter, a boost converter relies on an inductor, diode, capacitor, and power switch, but they are
arranged differently (the transistor is connected in a shunt to the source). The structure of the boost
converter is shown in Fig.4.4a.
ID Is Vs
IL L D Ic
Ve
T Vs Vs0
Ve V R t
VT C
IL αT T T+ 2T
IT ILmax αT
Is0 2∆i
ILmin
t
(a) IT

ID

Conducting elements

T D T D T

(b)

Fig.4.4 (a) Boost converter, (b) waveforms

• For [0, ton], Transistor T On and diode D Off:

The energy delivered by the source will be stored in the inductance L. During this state, there will be a
decoupling between the source and the load.
VT=0, VD=-Vs, VL=Ve
IT = IL, ID=0, IC= -Is, Is=Vs/R

= + (0)

• For [ton, T], Transistor T Off and diode D On:

The blocking of T causes the conduction of D through an inductive effect, thus establishing coupling
between the source and the load. During this state, the energy stored in inductance L will be released
during the on-time load.
VT= Vs, VD=0,VL=Ve-Vs
IT = 0, ID= IL, IC=ID-Is, Is=Vs/R
−
= ( − )+ ( )

45
Chapter 4 Choppers
In continuous conduction (steady state): <VL> =0, IL(0)= IL(ton) and : IL(0)=ILmin, I(ton)=ILmax

1 1
= ( ) = ( ) + ( − ) =0

1
=
1−

-Value of the average voltage across the load:

1
=
1−

-Average value of the current in the load:

= (1 − )

α: The duty cycle, knowing that 0≤ α ≤1

4. Buck-Boost converter:
A buck-boost converter can supply a regulated DC output voltage from a power source, delivering a
voltage either below or above the regulated output voltage. The transistor switch alternately connects the
inductor across the power input and output voltages in the buck-boost converter. This converter inverts
the polarity of the voltage and can either increase or decrease the voltage magnitude. The structure of the
buck-boost converter is shown in Fig.4.5a.
D Vs
L
IT IL
Ve
T Vs0
t
Vs
Ve V IL αT T T+ αT 2T
VD C R ILmax
T Is0 2∆i
ID Ic ILmin
Is
t

(a) IT

ID

Conducting elements

T D T D T

(b)

Fig.4.5 (a) Buck-Boost converter, (b) waveforms

The conversion ratio is: =

46
Chapter 4 Choppers
• For [0, ton], Transistor T On and diode D Off:
The energy delivered by the source will be stored in the inductance L. During this state, there will be a
decoupling between the source and the load.

VT=0, VD=-VL-Vs, VL=Ve

IL = IT, ID=0, IC= -Is, Is=Vs/R

= + (0)

• For [ton, T], Transistor T Off and diode D On:

The blocking of T causes the conduction of D through an inductive effect, thus establishing coupling
between the inductor and the load. During this state, the energy stored in inductance L will be released
during the on-time load.

VT= Ve +Vs, VD=0,VL=-Vs

IT = 0, ID= IL, IC=ID-Is, Is=Vs/R
−
= ( − )+ ( )

In continuous conduction (steady state): <VL> =0, IL(0)= IL(ton) and : IL(0)=ILmin, I(ton)=ILmax

1 1
= ( ) = ( ) + (− ) =0

=
1−

-Value of the average voltage across the load:

=
1−

-Average value of the current in the load:

=
(1 − )

α: The duty cycle, knowing that 0≤ α ≤1

If α <1/2, then Vs0 < Ve (Buck operation of the converter)

If α >1/2, then Vs0 > Ve (Boost operation of the converter)

47
Chapter 4 Choppers
5. Problems:
Problem 5-1 :
Buck converter: The supply voltage of the buck converter is constant and equals Vs=210V. D is an ideal
diode. K is a perfect controlled switch. α is the control duty cycle of this converter, and T (T=0.1ms) is
the operating period.
- For t ∈ [0 ; αT], K is closed
- For t ∈ [αT ; T], K is open

We consider that the voltage across the motor is equal to its electromotive force (fem) E, which is
proportional to the rotational speed of the motor: E=k N with k=5.25x10-2 V (rpm). We assume that the
current intensity i never becomes zero and varies linearly between the minimum and maximum values,
Imin and Imax.

1) Determine the expression for i(t) for t ∈ [0 ; αT] and then for t ∈ [αT ; T].
2) Plot the waveforms of vD(t) and i(t) over a duration of 2T.
3) Express the average value of the voltage vD(t) as a function of α and Vs. Deduce the relationship
between E, α, and Vs.
4) Express the current ripple ∆i=Imax – Imin as a function of α, Vs, L, and T.
5) Plot the waveform of ∆i as a function of α.
6) For what value of α is the current ripple maximal? Calculate (∆i)max.
7) Determine the value of α that adjusts the rotational speed to N = 1000 rpm.
8) Plot the waveforms of iD(t) and ik(t)

48
Chapter 4 Choppers
Problem 5-2:
iT L is
Consider a buck chopper circuit characterized by ve=28V, fc=50 Th
iL
kHz. vT

a- For what values of R and α will the load absorb power P=25W ve D C R vs
vD

under an average current Is=1.5A?

iD
b- Calculate the values of L and C for current and voltage ripples
∆IL=0.1A and ∆Vs=0.5V.

Note:

- The circuit is assumed to be ideal and operates in continuous mode.

- The capacitance is assumed to be sufficiently large such that ∆Xi=Ximax-Ximin

Ximin

Problem 5-3:
In this exercise, unless otherwise indicated, conduction will be assumed to be continuous: The current in
the inductance never becomes zero. The output voltage will be assumed constant.

1. The voltage Ve is 200V, and we desire an output voltage VS of 500V. Determine the necessary
necessa duty
cycle α.

2. The switching frequency is fc=100kHz, and the value of the inductance is L=1mH. Calculate the
current ripple in the inductance ∆IL.

49
Chapter 5 Inverters

Chapter 5
DC-AC conversion (Inverters)
1. Introduction
The DC-AC converter, also known as the inverter, is a static converter that converts DC power to AC
power at the desired output voltage and frequency. The DC power input to the inverter is obtained from
an existing power supply network or a rotating alternator through a rectifier, battery, fuel cell,
photovoltaic array, or magnetohydrodynamic generator. The filter capacitor across the input terminals of
the inverter provides a constant DC link voltage. The inverter, therefore, is an adjustable-frequency
voltage source. The configuration of an AC-to-DC converter and DC-to-AC inverter is called a DC link
converter.

Source
AC
DC Load
DC
(R, L,…..)
~

Fig.5.1 DC-AC conversion

We will distinguish three fundamental structures:

• Voltage inverters (the direct current source is a voltage source);

• Current inverters or current switches (the direct current source is a current source);
• Resonant inverters (voltage resonance, current resonance).

A standard single-phase voltage or current source inverter can be in the half-bridge or full-bridge
configuration. The single-phase units can be joined to have three-phase or multiphase topologies. Some
industrial applications of inverters are:
• Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS). They serve as backup power sources. The direct current
source is usually a battery pack. The frequency and amplitude of the output voltage are fixed.
• Variable speed drives for alternating current machines. The direct current source is obtained by
rectifying the network. The frequency and amplitude of the output voltage are controlled.

This chapter analyzes single-phase inverters and three-phase inverters and their operating principles in
detail. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for inverters is described with application to single and three-

50
Chapter 5 Inverters
phase inverters. Finally, the simulation results for a single-phase inverter using the described PWM
strategy are presented.

2. Single-phase voltage inverters

2.1 Half-Bridge single-phase inverter:
The half-bridge single-phase inverter of Fig.5.2 is the basic circuit to convert DC to AC. A single voltage
source is used, and the midpoint is created by connecting two capacitors in series with high values.
Switches S1 and S2 comprise GTO thyristors or transistors operating in forced commutation (controlled
for both opening and closing).
D1

S1
g1
Vd/2 C

Vd VAB
A B
iC

Vd/2 C
g2
S2

D2

Fig.5.2 Single-phase half-bridge inverter

Note that S1 and S2 should not be closed or opened simultaneously. Otherwise, a short circuit would exist
across the DC source and opened load. We assume that switch S1 is closed during the first half-cycle,
making the voltage VAB equal to +Vd, and switch S2 is closed during the other half-cycle, making uc
equal to -Vd. This control is called symmetrical control. There are different types of control, such as
phase-shifted control and PWM control.

S1
1
wt
π 2π
S2
1
wt
π 2π

VAB(V)
Vd
iC(A)
θ1 θ2 2π
wt
π

-Vd

Fig.5.3 Waveforms of voltage and current

51
Chapter 5 Inverters
2.2 Single-phase Full-Bridge inverter:
For this converter shown in Fig.5.4, the AC output voltage is synthesized from a DC input by closing and
opening four switches in an appropriate sequence. The output voltage VAB can be +Vd, -Vd, or zero,
depending on the closed switches. Note that S1 and S2 should not be closed simultaneously, nor should
S3 and S4.

S1 S3
D1 D3
g1 g3

Vd VAB
Ic
A B
+ -
S2 S4
D2 D4
g2 g4

Fig.5.4 Single-phase full-bridge inverter

2.3 Different types of control for the single-phase inverter:

a) Symmetrical control (full wave):
This control involves closing switches S1 and S4 of a single-phase inverter during one half-cycle and then
closing S2 and S3 during the second half-cycle. The periodic switching of the load voltage between +Vd
and –Vd produces a square wave voltage across the load. The current waveform in the load depends on
the load components. For inductive load, the current waveform is shown in Fig.5.5.

S1, S4
1
wt
π 2π
S2, S3
1
wt
π 2π

VAB(V)
Vd
iC(A)
θ1 θ2 2π
wt
π

-Vd

S1 S2 S1 S2 Controlled switches
S4 S3 S4 S3
D1 S1 D2 S2 D1 S1 D2 S2
D4 S4 D3 S3 D4 S4 D3 S3 Conducting
elements

Fig.5.5 Waveforms of voltage and current

52
Chapter 5 Inverters
The AC frequency is controlled by the rate at which the switches open and close. E can control
parameters of the AC voltage (its RMS value or the amplitude of its fundamental component, for
instance) by varying the DC input voltage. This requires a complicated DC system that might, for
example, use a phase-controlled rectifier or a DC/DC converter. An alternative technique is to employ a
third switch state, in which VAB creates the waveform of Fig.5.6. This state is obtained using the phase-
shifted control technique.

b) Phase-shifted control:
This control allows modifying the output voltage's characteristics, especially its fundamental effective
value, without intervening at the supply voltage Vd level. The control intervals remain equal to half a
cycle but are shifted as indicated below.

Output waveforms:
It is sufficient to shift the control of the switches by an angle δ (phase-shift angle) for this purpose.

S1

1
Wt
π 2π
S3 π-δ
1
Wt
δ π 2π

VAB(V)
Vd
ic(A)

θ2 Wt
θ1 π
δ π+δ 2π

-Vd

S1 S2 S1
Controlled switches
S3 S4 S3

D1 D1 S1 D2 D2 S2 D1 Conducting elements
S3 D4 S4 S4 D3 S3 S3

Fig.5.7 Waveforms of voltages and currents

Root mean square of the voltage:

As a function of our controlling variable δ, the effective value is given by: = 1−

53
Chapter 5 Inverters
By varying δ, we can change the effective value of the voltage provided by the inverter.
Note: The two types of control we have seen so far share a common feature: each semiconductor is
activated only once per period (period of the output voltage = period of the control). For this reason, these
methods are sometimes called fundamental pulsation control.

c) Pulse width modulation (PWM) control:

Pulse-width modulation control is the most efficient method for adjusting an inverter's output voltage
amplitude and frequency. In this method, a fixed DC input voltage is given to the inverter, and a
controlled AC output voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components.
The advantages of PWM techniques are:
(i) The output voltage control with this method can be obtained without any additional
components.
(ii) Allows the generation of a load current very close to a sine wave.
(iii) PWM pushes the lower-order harmonics towards higher frequencies, making their filtering
easier.
(iv) Enables the adjustment of the amplitude and frequency of the output voltage.

The output voltage and frequency of a single-phase inverter can be controlled using one of the two forms
of PWM, termed:
-Bipolar
-Unipolar

The general principle of PWM

A sinusoidal control signal is compared with a triangular waveform to produce sinusoidal output voltage
at a desired frequency, as shown in Fig.5.8.

1 Vcr
Vm

t1
t
-1
Ts

VAB
Vd

t
-Vd

Fig.5.8 Sinusoidal PWM

54
Chapter 5 Inverters
The instants of closing and opening of the "switches" are determined by the intersections of the
modulating waveform Vm with a frequency fm, representing the desired output voltage, and the triangular
(or carrier) modulation waveform Vcr, ranging between -1 and 1, with a frequency fcr significantly higher
than fm.
Two parameters are generally used to characterize sinusoidal PWM modulation:

• Frequency modulation ratio mf, equal to the ratio of the modulation frequency to the reference
frequency

• Amplitude modulation ratio ma, equal to the ratio of the reference amplitude to the peak value of the
modulation waveform (carrier)

The first indicates the number of pulses the voltage VAB contains per period of the reference waveform.
When multiplied by Vd, the second one provides the amplitude of the desired output voltage.

Bipolar PWM
For a single-phase bridge inverter based on bipolar PWM, the turn-on and turn-off instants of switches are
determined by comparing two signals:
- a high-frequency triangular carrier signal Vcr.
- a sinusoidal modulating wave signal Vm with variable amplitude and frequency fm.

Fig.5.9 Bipolar PWM, output waveforms at mf=15, ma=0.8, fm=60 Hz and fcr=900 Hz

55
Chapter 5 Inverters
Vg1 and Vg3 are the gate signals that control the opening and closing of the upper switches S1 and S3,
respectively. Therefore, (S1 and S4) are on when Vm > Vcr VAB= +Vd), and (S2 and S3) are on when
Vm < Vcr (VAB = -Vd).
The upper and lower switches in the same inverter leg operate complementary, with one switch turned on
and the other turned off. The inverter output voltage can be found from VAB=VAN-VBN. Since the
waveform of VAB switches between the positive and negative DC voltages ±Vd, this scheme is known as
bipolar modulation.

Unipolar PWM
The unipolar modulation requires two sinusoidal modulating waves, Vm and Vm-, which are of the same
magnitude and frequency but 180° out of phase, as shown in Fig.5.10. The two modulating waves are
compared with a common triangular carrier wave, Vcr, generating two gating signals, Vg1 and Vg3, for
the upper switches, S1and S3, respectively.
(S1, S4) are on Vm > Vcr
(S2, S3) are on Vm- > Vcr

Fig.5.10 Unipolar PWM, output waveforms at mf=15, ma=0.8, fm=60 Hz and fcr=900 Hz

It can be observed that the two upper switches do not commutate simultaneously, which is distinguished
from the bipolar PWM, where all four devices are commutated at the same time. The inverter output
voltage is switched from +Vd to zero during the positive half cycle or from -Vd to zero during the
negative half cycle of the fundamental frequency, rather than between high and low, as in bipolar
switching.

56
Chapter 5 Inverters
3. Three-phase voltage inverters:
The three-phase inverter is the assembly of three half-bridge inverters, thus forming a configuration with
three legs. These three legs are controlled by three signals shifted by 2π/3 relative to each other.
S1 S2 S3

T1 D1 T2 D2 T3 D3
vA
Vd/2 iA
A
vB
iB
Vd 0 B N
vC
iC
C
Vd/2 S4 S5 S6 Load

T4 D4 T5 D5 T6 D6

Fig.5.11 Three-phase VSI inverter circuit

Output voltage calculation:

If S1 is closed and S4 is open, vAO=Vd/2. If S1 is open and S4 is closed, vAO= -Vd/2.
u AB = v A0 −v B0
u BC = v B0 −vC 0
u CA = v C 0 −v A0
Then vAN, vBN, vCN if a star connection is used:
1
vAN = vA0 − ( vA0 + vB 0 + vC 0 )
3
v A0   q1 − q4 
    Vd
Knowing that: v B0  = q2 − q5 
2
vC 0   q3 − q6 

With: q1, q2, q3, q4, q5, and q6 being the control signals for switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, and S6
respectively.
u AB = v AN − vBN = v A0 − vBO (1)

uBC = vBN − vCN = vB 0 − vCO (2)
u = v − v = v − v (3)
 CA CN AN C0 AO

For a balanced three-phase load:

v AN + v BN + vCN = 0 (4)
 1
 v AN = v A0 − v N 0 = 3 (2v A0 − v B 0 − vC 0 )
 1
This leads to : v BN = v B 0 − v N 0 = 3 (−v A0 + 2v B 0 − vC 0 )

v 1
= vC 0 − v N 0 = (−v A0 − v B 0 + 2vC 0 )
 CN 3

57
Chapter 5 Inverters
The following table provides the state (F for closed or O for open) of the switches S1, S2, and S3 for the
eight configurations that the converter can take.

S1 S2 S3 UAB UBC UCA VA VB VC

F F F 0 0 0 0 0 0
F O F Vd - Vd 0 Vd/3 -2Vd/3 Vd/3
F F O 0 Vd - Vd Vd/3 Vd/3 -2Vd/3
F O O Vd 0 - Vd 2Vd/3 - Vd/3 - Vd/3
O F F - Vd 0 Vd -2Vd/3 Vd/3 Vd/3
O O F 0 - Vd Vd - Vd/3 - Vd/3 2Vd/3
O F O - Vd Vd 0 - Vd/3 2Vd/3 - Vd/3
O O O 0 0 0 0 0 0

a) Symmetrical control (full wave):

In this case, each switch conducts for half of the period T. Switches S1 and S4, S2 and S5, S3 and S6 in
each bridge arm must be in complementary states pairwise. The waveforms are the same for the other
voltages but shifted from each other by T/3.
VA0
Vd/2

T/2
0 T/3 T

-Vd/2
UAB
Vd

T/2
0 T/3 T

-Vd
vA

2Vd/3
Vd/3 T/2
0 T/3 T

S3 S6 S3 S6
S5 S2 S5 S2
S1 S4 S1 S4

Fig.5.12 Output voltage for symmetrical control (full wave)

58
Chapter 5 Inverters
b) Pulse width modulation (PWM) control:
The application of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) for a three-phase inverter is identical to its
application in single-phase, except instead of one (01) reference signal, three (03) sinusoidal reference
signals are used, each shifted by 2π/3.
The control signals (q4, q5, and q6) for S4, S5, and S6 are obtained by inverting the signals q1, q2, and q3,
respectively.
Figure 5.13 illustrates an example of obtaining the control signals for mf = 10, ma = 0.8.
Given that: Vd=20V, fm=50 Hz, fcr=500 Hz.
Vm Vcr

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

VA0
Vd/2

0
-Vd/2

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

Vd UAB

0
-Vd

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

Vd/2 VAN IA
0
-Vd/2

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04

Fig.5.13 Output voltage for PWM control

4. Problems:
Problem 4.1:
A single-phase inverter delivers the following voltage (Fig.2) to its load.

u(t)

β π-β π 2π

i K1 K3 -E
u q1
0

E Charge
q2
i
q3
K2 K4
q4

Fig.1 Fig.2

59
Chapter 5 Inverters
The switches K1, K2, K3, and K4 are of the (transistor with diodes in anti-parallel) type controlled by the
signals q1, q2, q3, and q4.

1- Plot on the document (Fig.2) the control signal for each switch corresponding to the voltage u(t) over
the interval [0, 2π].
2- Determine the expression for the rms value U in terms of E and β.
3- The load is a 10 Ω resistor, E=20V. For what value of β will the load receive a power of 30 W?
4- For an inductive load, the sinusoidal current lags the voltage by an angle of π/6.
- Plot the voltage wave u(t) and the current wave i(t) on the same document.
- Indicate the elements that are conducted during one period.

Problem 4.2:
The single-phase full-bridge inverter shown below is operated in the quasi-square-wave mode at the
frequency f =100 Hz with a phase-shift of β between the half-bridge outputs vao and vbo.
(a) With a purely resistive load R = 10 Ω, find β so that the average power supplied to the load is Po,av= 2
kW.
(b) With a purely inductive load L = 20 mH and β = 2π/3,
i. Find the peak-to-peak value (Ipp) of the load current io.
ii. Find the amplitude of io's fundamental component (Io1).

60
Appendix Non-sinusoidal periodic signals

Appendix

Non-sinusoidal periodic signals

I) Fourier series expansion:

Any periodic function (signal) with a period (T) such that x(t) = x(t+T) can be decomposed into a sum
comprising:

- a constant term (the DC component)

- a sinusoidal term with a frequency f=1/T, referred to as the fundamental (first harmonic).

- a finite or infinite series of sinusoidal terms with frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency (f), known as harmonics.

= + cos + sin

∞ ∞

= + cos + = + sin + , = +
2

" " "

1 2 2
= ! ; = cos ! ; = sin !

Sines and cosines of the same frequency can be combined into one sinusoid, resulting in an alternative
expression for a Fourier series.

= + cos +%

− -
=& ' + ' and % = tan* + .

Or

= + sin +%

=& ' + ' and % = tan* / - 0

61
Appendix Non-sinusoidal periodic signals
* This signal is often represented in the form of a spectrum. To each harmonic frequency fn, a
corresponding value of An is assigned.

I.1. Simplifications due to certain symmetries:

Often, the waveform of the analyzed quantity exhibits symmetries that allow simplification in calculating
the terms of its Fourier series expansion.

-Even periodic signal: ∀ , = −

So:

All sine terms are zero,

Cosine terms can be calculated over half a period:

"/'
2
= !

"/'
4
= cos !

62
Appendix Non-sinusoidal periodic signals
-Odd periodic signal: ∀ , =− −

So:

All cosine terms disappear,

The calculation of sine terms is simplified:

=0

"/'
4
= sin !

-Sliding symmetry: The negative half-wave is identical, up to sign, to the positive half-wave. If it is slid
underneath the positive half-wave, symmetry with respect to the time axis is obtained:

∀ , 5 + 6=−
2

So:

The constant term a0 is zero,

The series expansion does not contain harmonics of even order,

63
Appendix Non-sinusoidal periodic signals
The calculation of odd harmonics is simplified:

"/'
4
'7 = cos8 29 + 1 :!

"/'
4
'7 = sin8 29 + 1 :!

I.2. Effective values (RMS):

1 1 1
∞ ∞ ∞
'
= '
+ '
+ '
= '
+ '
= '
+ '
;<=
2 2 2 ;<=

?@
=| |, ;<= =
√'
Where:

I.3. Form and ripple factors:

Form factor Ripple factor relation

;<= & '

+∑ '
;<= ?DE;<= &∑ '
;<=
B= = = =
∞ ∞

B' = 1 + '

I.4. Harmonic distortion rate: it is used to quantify the deformation of a signal that should be
sinusoidal.

&∑ '
;<= & '
+ '
+ ⋯+ '
;<= …
FG = =
' ';<= H;<=
∞

;<= ;<=

If the signal is sinusoidal (THD=0)

I.5. Power:

K =L +∑ ∞
L √2cos + ;L =K ,M = M

M =N + N √2cos + ; L =L ;<= , N =N ;<=

-Instantaneous power: O =K ×M

64
Appendix Non-sinusoidal periodic signals

-Active power or average power: O = O = L N + ∑∞ L N cos Q = ∑∞ O ; Q = −

-Apparent power: R = LN = & L ' + ∑ ∞

L ' × N' + ∑ ∞
N'

S
-Power factor: BO =
T

*Special case: for a sinusoidal voltage u(t) and a periodic alternating current i(t) (I0=0).

K = L √2cos + ; L = L;<=

M = N √2cos + ; N =N ;<=

- Active power: O = LN cos Q ; Q = −

- Reactive power: U = LN sin Q

- Apparent power: R = LN = L& ∑ ∞

N'

- Distortion power: G = &R ' − O' − U ' = L& ∑ 'N

∞ '

V WX YZ[ \X
- Power factor: BO = T
= W
= B!M] × B!^O

Fdis : Distortion factor (Fdis=I1/I)

Fdep : Displacement factor (Fdep=cos φ1)

The power factor of a load drawing a non-sinusoidal current can thus be expressed in terms of the
YZ[ \X
harmonic distortion rate of the current: BO = √
"_`a

Therefore, it turns out that the more "polluted" the current is, the more the power factor will be degraded.

65
 References

Re fe re nc es
[1] John G. Kassakian, Martin F. Schlecht and George C. Verghese, "Principles of Power Electronics",
Addison-Wesley, 1991.

[2] Muhammad Rashid, " Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices & Applications 4th Edition", Pearson;
4th edition (July 19, 2013).

[3] Daniel W. Hart, "Power Electronics", McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., New York, 2010.

[4] Robert W. Erickson, Dragan Maksimovic, "Fundamentals of Power Electronics", Springer; 2nd
edition (January 31, 2001).

[5] Guy Séguier, Francis Labrique, Philippe Delarue, "Electronique de puissance, structures,
commandes, applications", Cours et exercices corrigés, 10e édition, Dunod, Paris, 2015.

66