Angle Modulation, II

Lecture topics
I FM bandwidth and Carson’s rule

I Spectral analysis of FM

I Narrowband FM Modulation

I Wideband FM Modulation

Based on lecture notes from John Gill

Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Waves
Angle modulation is nonlinear and complex to analyze.
Early developers thought that bandwidth could be reduced to 0.
They were wrong. FM has infinite bandwidth.
Two approximations for FM:
I Narrowband approximation (NBFM)
I Wideband approximation (WBFM)

These depend on whether the FM modulation is larger than the signal

bandwidth.
If we define Z t
a(t) = m(u) du
−∞
Then the frequency modulated signal is
ϕFM (t) = cos(2πfc t + kf a(t))
since phase modulation is the integral of frequency modulation.
For the narrow band case
|kf a(t)|  1
We will show that the NBFM bandwidth is the same as the signal
bandwidth
2Bs ≈ 2Bm
and

ϕFM (t) ≈ A 2πfc t − kf a(t) sin ωc t
This is what we saw last time. The NBFM case looks like a small
modulation in quadrature with the carrier.
For the wideband case, if the peak frequency modulation is

∆f = max |kf m(t)|

then the bandwidth of the WBFM signal is

2Bs = 2∆f + 2Bm

This is known as known as Carson’s rule.

J.R. Carson, Proc. IRE, 1922.
Narrowband FM
Recall that Z t
a(t) = m(u) du
−∞
The complex FM signal from last time is
ϕ̂FM (t) = Aej(2πfc t+kf a(t))
= Aejkf a(t) ej2πfc t


The transmitted signal is just the real part, ϕFM (t) = Re ϕ̂FM (t) .
Using the Maclaurin power series for the exponential ejkf a(t) in ϕ̂FM (t):
 
kf2 2 kn
n f n
ϕ̂FM (t) = A 1 + jkf a(t) − a (t) + · · · + j a (t) + · · · ej2πfc t
2! n!
If a(t) has a bandwidth 2B Hz, then the nth term has a bandwidth n2B!
This expansion for ϕ̂FM (t) shows that the bandwidth is infinite.
However, things aren’t quite that bad ...
Since kfn /n! → 0, all but a small amount of power is in a finite band.
Using ϕFM (t) = R {ϕ̂FM (t)}, the FM signal is

( ! )
kf2 2
ϕFM (t) = R A 1 + jkf a(t) − a (t) + · · · + (cos(2πfc t) + j sin(2πfc t)
2!
 kf2 2 
= A cos 2πfc t − kf a(t) sin 2πfc t − a (t) cos 2πfc t + · · ·
2!
If |kf a(t)|  1 then all but first two terms are negligible.
The narrowband FM approximation is


ϕFM (t) ≈ A cos(2πfc t) − kf a(t) sin(2πfc t)

NBFM signal has bandwidth 2B, same as bandwidth of AM.

NBFM has power 21 A2 , which does not depend directly on m(t).
A narrowband argument for phase modulation gives is similar result:


ϕPM (t) ≈ A cos(2πfc t − kp m(t) sin(2πfc t)
Tone Frequency Modulation, fc = 20, fm = 1


ϕFM (t) = cos 2πfc t + ka a(t) , |kf a(t)| = 0.2, 0.8, 3.2
1
0.5
0
−0.5
−1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
ka = 0.2

1
0.5
0
−0.5
−1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
ka = 0.8

1
0.5
0
−0.5
−1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
ka = 3.2
Fourier Transforms of Tone FM


ϕFM (t) = cos 2πfc t + ka a(t) , |kf a(t)| = 0.2, 0.8, 3.2
6

0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
ka = 0.2

0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
ka = 0.8

0
−40 −30 −20 −10 0 10 20 30 40
ka = 3.2
Wideband FM (WBFM) Bandwidth
For wideband FM, the frequency deviation contributes to the FM
bandwidth. If the message signal is m(t), and the FM signal is
ϕFM (t) = cos(2πfc t + kf a(t))
where again Z t
a(t) = m(τ )dτ.
∞
If m(t) has a bandwidth 2B Hz, then a(t) also has a bandwidth of 2B Hz.
What is the bandwidth of ϕFM (t)? This is a difficult question in general.
There are explicit solutions for only a few signals, such as sinusoids.
In practice, there are two contributors to the bandwidth
I Signal bandwidth 2B
kf mp
I FM deviation frequency ∆f = 2π

This leads to Carson’s rule.

 Signal
mp
m(t)

t
mp

Signal Spectrum
M (f )

B B f
Z
Intergral Spectrum A(f )
t
a(t) = m(⌧ )d⌧
1

B B f
FM Spectrum kf mp
f=
A(f (fc f )) A(f (fc + f )) 2⇡
fc f B fc + f +B

fc f fc fc + f f
2 f + 2B

Carson’s Rule for the FM bandwidth is then

BF M = 2∆f + 2B
where BF M is the total signal bandwidth (not the half bandwidth).
Frequency Modulation of Tone
Spectral analysis of FM is difficult/impossible for general signals.
The special case of a sinusoidal input m(t) = cos(2πfm t) is tractable. In
this case Bm = fm , and
Z t
1
a(t) = m(u) du = sin(2πfm t)
−∞ 2πfm
assuming a(−∞) = 0. Then
ϕ̂FM = Aej2πfc t ejβ sin 2πfm t
where β = kf / 2πfm is frequency deviation ratio (also called FM
modulation index).
Since ejβ sin(2πfm t) is periodic with a fundamental frequency fm we can
compute it’s Fourier series as
X
ejβ sin(2πfm t) = Jn (β)ejn2πfm t
n
where the coefficients are
Z π
1
Jn (β) = ej(β sin t−nt) dt
2π −π
Each frequency component n has a coefficient that is Jn (β), where n is the
order of the Bessel function, and β is the frequency deviation ratio. Jn (β)
is negligible if n > β + 1.
1
β=1 kf
<latexit sha1_base64="o6jWn08wOqUj/UUlqvht8fnLXUs=">AAACBXicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/oh71sFgETyUpol6EghePFewHNCFstpt26W4SdjdCCb148a948aCIV/+DN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5YcqZ0o7zbZVWVtfWN8qbla3tnd09e/+grZJMEtoiCU9kN8SKchbTlmaa024qKRYhp51wdDP1Ow9UKpbE93qcUl/gQcwiRrA2UmAfeyHVGF0jL5KY5KMgmuR1L2UoCsQksKtOzZkBLRO3IFUo0AzsL6+fkEzQWBOOleq5Tqr9HEvNCKeTipcpmmIywgPaMzTGgio/n30xQadG6aMokaZijWbq74kcC6XGIjSdAuuhWvSm4n9eL9PRlZ+zOM00jcl8UZRxpBM0jQT1maRE87EhmEhmbkVkiE0c2gRXMSG4iy8vk3a95l7U3LvzasMp4ijDEZzAGbhwCQ24hSa0gMAjPMMrvFlP1ov1bn3MW0tWMXMIf2B9/gCm25f9</latexit>

β=2 β=3 =
β=4 β=5 β=6 2⇡fm
Amplitude

0.5

-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Harmonic Index
US Broadcast FM
I Frequency range: 88.0 − 108.0 MHz
I Channel width: 200 KHz (100 channels)
I Channel center frequencies: 88.1, 88.3, . . . , 107.9
I Frequency deviation: ±75 KHz
I Signal bandwidth: high-fidelity audio requires ±20 KHz, so bandwidth is
available for other applications:
I Muzak (elevator music) (1936)
I Stock market quotations
I Interactive games
I Stereo uses sum and difference of L/R audio channels

FM radio was assigned the 42–50 MHz band of the spectrum in 1940. In 1945, at the behest of
RCA (David Sarnoff CEO), the FCC moved FM to 88–108 MHz, obsoleting all existing receivers.
NBFM Modulation
For narrowband signals, |kf a(t)|  1 and |kp m(t)|  1,

ϕ̂NBFM ≈ A(cos(2πfc t) − kf a(t) sin(2πfc t))

We can use a DSB-SC modulator with a phase shifter. In practice, this

modulation will not be perfect, and there will be some amplitude
modulation remaining.
To fix this up, follow with a limiter and a bandpass filter. For the case of
FM,
Z ˆF M (t) F M (t)
m(t) a(t)
⇥<latexit sha1_base64="x/KLYLYmD9VJhoRT5cb89lynhxY=">AAAB+3icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/Yj16WSxCPViSIuqx4sVjBfsBTQib7aZdutmE3Y1YSv+KFw+KePWPePPfuG1z0NYHA4/3ZpiZF6acKe0431ZhbX1jc6u4XdrZ3ds/sA/LbZVkktAWSXgiuyFWlDNBW5ppTruppDgOOe2Eo9uZ33mkUrFEPOhxSv0YDwSLGMHaSIFdPr/xFBPVupcyFAUE6bPArjg1Zw60StycVCBHM7C/vH5CspgKTThWquc6qfYnWGpGOJ2WvEzRFJMRHtCeoQLHVPmT+e1TdGqUPooSaUpoNFd/T0xwrNQ4Dk1njPVQLXsz8T+vl+no2p8wkWaaCrJYFGUc6QTNgkB9JinRfGwIJpKZWxEZYomJNnGVTAju8surpF2vuZc19/6i0qjncRThGE6gCi5cQQPuoAktIPAEz/AKb9bUerHerY9Fa8HKZ47gD6zPH92ikv0=</latexit>
+
A sin(2⇡fc t)
⇡/2 <latexit sha1_base64="b+kGHHo7bEo2hSmzohGj200QMPc=">AAAB+nicbVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/Uj16WSxCvZSkiHqsePFYwX5AE8Jmu2mXbjZhd6KU2p/ixYMiXv0l3vw3btsctPXBwOO9GWbmhangGhzn2yqsrW9sbhW3Szu7e/sHdvmwrZNMUdaiiUhUNySaCS5ZCzgI1k0VI3EoWCcc3cz8zgNTmifyHsYp82MykDzilICRArt87dFEV+teynEUUAxngV1xas4ceJW4OamgHM3A/vL6Cc1iJoEKonXPdVLwJ0QBp4JNS16mWUroiAxYz1BJYqb9yfz0KT41Sh9HiTIlAc/V3xMTEms9jkPTGRMY6mVvJv7n9TKIrvwJl2kGTNLFoigTGBI8ywH3uWIUxNgQQhU3t2I6JIpQMGmVTAju8surpF2vuRc19+680qjncRTRMTpBVeSiS9RAt6iJWoiiR/SMXtGb9WS9WO/Wx6K1YOUzR+gPrM8faWSSwQ==</latexit>

A cos(2⇡fc t)

Narrowband FM Modulator Limiter Bandpass

Filter
NBFM Envelope and Carrier
I I
<latexit sha1_base64="ImRtkJYBliFBh5sSnnaqnjfIPAU=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsJ+3SzSbd3Qgl9E948aCIV/+ON/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRU8epYthgsYhVO6AaBZfYMNwIbCcKaRQIbAWj25nfekKleSwfzSRBP6IDyUPOqLFSO+syKsj9tFeuuFV3DrJKvJxUIEe9V/7q9mOWRigNE1Trjucmxs+oMpwJnJa6qcaEshEdYMdSSSPUfja/d0rOrNInYaxsSUPm6u+JjEZaT6LAdkbUDPWyNxP/8zqpCW/8jMskNSjZYlGYCmJiMnue9LlCZsTEEsoUt7cSNqSKMmMjKtkQvOWXV0nzoupdVb2Hy0rNzeMowgmcwjl4cA01uIM6NICBgGd4hTdn7Lw4787HorXg5DPH8AfO5w+pkY+r</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="ImRtkJYBliFBh5sSnnaqnjfIPAU=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsJ+3SzSbd3Qgl9E948aCIV/+ON/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRU8epYthgsYhVO6AaBZfYMNwIbCcKaRQIbAWj25nfekKleSwfzSRBP6IDyUPOqLFSO+syKsj9tFeuuFV3DrJKvJxUIEe9V/7q9mOWRigNE1Trjucmxs+oMpwJnJa6qcaEshEdYMdSSSPUfja/d0rOrNInYaxsSUPm6u+JjEZaT6LAdkbUDPWyNxP/8zqpCW/8jMskNSjZYlGYCmJiMnue9LlCZsTEEsoUt7cSNqSKMmMjKtkQvOWXV0nzoupdVb2Hy0rNzeMowgmcwjl4cA01uIM6NICBgGd4hTdn7Lw4787HorXg5DPH8AfO5w+pkY+r</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

ej2⇡fc t <latexit sha1_base64="ZJ6o552Vj5h/Rqo126UEbEttvTI=">AAAB8XicbVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSLUS0lE1GPBi8cK9gPbUDbbTbt2swm7E6GE/gsvHhTx6r/x5r9x2+agrQ8GHu/NMDMvSKQw6Lrfzsrq2vrGZmGruL2zu7dfOjhsmjjVjDdYLGPdDqjhUijeQIGStxPNaRRI3gpGN1O/9cS1EbG6x3HC/YgOlAgFo2ilh0cy6oWEVvCsVyq7VXcGsky8nJQhR71X+ur2Y5ZGXCGT1JiO5yboZ1SjYJJPit3U8ISyER3wjqWKRtz42eziCTm1Sp+EsbalkMzU3xMZjYwZR4HtjCgOzaI3Ff/zOimG134mVJIiV2y+KEwlwZhM3yd9oTlDObaEMi3srYQNqaYMbUhFG4K3+PIyaZ5Xvcuqd3dRrrl5HAU4hhOogAdXUINbqEMDGCh4hld4c4zz4rw7H/PWFSefOYI/cD5/ABPTj9I=</latexit>

jkf a(t)

1 R
<latexit sha1_base64="DfZS2DjG3v3tDeg4Q3Ezo1Yk8zY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseCF48t2A9oQ9lsJ+3azSbsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgobm1vbO8Xd0t7+weFR+fikreNUMWyxWMSqG1CNgktsGW4EdhOFNAoEdoLJ3dzvPKHSPJYPZpqgH9GR5CFn1Fip6Q3KFbfqLkDWiZeTCuRoDMpf/WHM0gilYYJq3fPcxPgZVYYzgbNSP9WYUDahI+xZKmmE2s8Wh87IhVWGJIyVLWnIQv09kdFI62kU2M6ImrFe9ebif14vNeGtn3GZpAYlWy4KU0FMTOZfkyFXyIyYWkKZ4vZWwsZUUWZsNiUbgrf68jppX1W9WtVrXlfqbh5HEc7gHC7Bgxuowz00oAUMEJ7hFd6cR+fFeXc+lq0FJ585hT9wPn8AdyuMqQ==</latexit>

R
<latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit>

Output of the Modulator

Carrier Envelope

I I
<latexit sha1_base64="ImRtkJYBliFBh5sSnnaqnjfIPAU=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsJ+3SzSbd3Qgl9E948aCIV/+ON/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRU8epYthgsYhVO6AaBZfYMNwIbCcKaRQIbAWj25nfekKleSwfzSRBP6IDyUPOqLFSO+syKsj9tFeuuFV3DrJKvJxUIEe9V/7q9mOWRigNE1Trjucmxs+oMpwJnJa6qcaEshEdYMdSSSPUfja/d0rOrNInYaxsSUPm6u+JjEZaT6LAdkbUDPWyNxP/8zqpCW/8jMskNSjZYlGYCmJiMnue9LlCZsTEEsoUt7cSNqSKMmMjKtkQvOWXV0nzoupdVb2Hy0rNzeMowgmcwjl4cA01uIM6NICBgGd4hTdn7Lw4787HorXg5DPH8AfO5w+pkY+r</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="ImRtkJYBliFBh5sSnnaqnjfIPAU=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi94q2A9oQ9lsJ+3SzSbd3Qgl9E948aCIV/+ON/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSK4Nq777RTW1jc2t4rbpZ3dvf2D8uFRU8epYthgsYhVO6AaBZfYMNwIbCcKaRQIbAWj25nfekKleSwfzSRBP6IDyUPOqLFSO+syKsj9tFeuuFV3DrJKvJxUIEe9V/7q9mOWRigNE1Trjucmxs+oMpwJnJa6qcaEshEdYMdSSSPUfja/d0rOrNInYaxsSUPm6u+JjEZaT6LAdkbUDPWyNxP/8zqpCW/8jMskNSjZYlGYCmJiMnue9LlCZsTEEsoUt7cSNqSKMmMjKtkQvOWXV0nzoupdVb2Hy0rNzeMowgmcwjl4cA01uIM6NICBgGd4hTdn7Lw4787HorXg5DPH8AfO5w+pkY+r</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

j2⇡fc t
e <latexit sha1_base64="7j2s1KaUaK+wbITluDk/rkl6YMU=">AAAB9HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoMQL2FXRD0GvHiMYB6QrGF2MpuMmZ1dZ3oDYcl3ePGgiFc/xpt/4+Rx0GhBQ1HVTXdXkEhh0HW/nNzK6tr6Rn6zsLW9s7tX3D9omDjVjNdZLGPdCqjhUiheR4GStxLNaRRI3gyG11O/OeLaiFjd4TjhfkT7SoSCUbSSz++zh2E3JLSMp5NuseRW3BnIX+ItSAkWqHWLn51ezNKIK2SSGtP23AT9jGoUTPJJoZManlA2pH3etlTRiBs/mx09ISdW6ZEw1rYUkpn6cyKjkTHjKLCdEcWBWfam4n9eO8Xwys+ESlLkis0XhakkGJNpAqQnNGcox5ZQpoW9lbAB1ZShzalgQ/CWX/5LGmcV76Li3Z6Xqu4ijjwcwTGUwYNLqMIN1KAODB7hCV7g1Rk5z86b8z5vzTmLmUP4BefjGwDekYs=</latexit>

ejkf a(t)

1 R
<latexit sha1_base64="DfZS2DjG3v3tDeg4Q3Ezo1Yk8zY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseCF48t2A9oQ9lsJ+3azSbsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgobm1vbO8Xd0t7+weFR+fikreNUMWyxWMSqG1CNgktsGW4EdhOFNAoEdoLJ3dzvPKHSPJYPZpqgH9GR5CFn1Fip6Q3KFbfqLkDWiZeTCuRoDMpf/WHM0gilYYJq3fPcxPgZVYYzgbNSP9WYUDahI+xZKmmE2s8Wh87IhVWGJIyVLWnIQv09kdFI62kU2M6ImrFe9ebif14vNeGtn3GZpAYlWy4KU0FMTOZfkyFXyIyYWkKZ4vZWwsZUUWZsNiUbgrf68jppX1W9WtVrXlfqbh5HEc7gHC7Bgxuowz00oAUMEJ7hFd6cR+fFeXc+lq0FJ585hT9wPn8AdyuMqQ==</latexit>

R
<latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit>

Output of the Limiter and Filter

Carrier Envelope
NBFM: Bandpass Limiter
The input-output diagram for an ideal hard limiter is
(
+1 vi (t) > 0
vo (t) =
−1 vi (t) < 0
This is a signum function, the output of a comparison against 0. <latexit sha1_base64="BM2CycC5T+MmSFNZhJst2+d9TdM=">AAAB7nicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKqMeAF48RzAOSJcxOJsmQ2ZllpjcQlnyEFw+KePV7vPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXdXlEhh0fe/vcLG5tb2TnG3tLd/cHhUPj5pWp0axhtMS23aEbVcCsUbKFDydmI4jSPJW9H4fu63JtxYodUTThMexnSoxEAwik5qTXqZTnHWK1f8qr8AWSdBTiqQo94rf3X7mqUxV8gktbYT+AmGGTUomOSzUje1PKFsTIe846iiMbdhtjh3Ri6c0icDbVwpJAv190RGY2unceQ6Y4oju+rNxf+8ToqDuzATKkmRK7ZcNEglQU3mv5O+MJyhnDpCmRHuVsJG1FCGLqGSCyFYfXmdNK+qwU01eLyu1Pw8jiKcwTlcQgC3UIMHqEMDGIzhGV7hzUu8F+/d+1i2Frx85hT+wPv8Adfyj9k=</latexit>

vout
1
<latexit sha1_base64="DfZS2DjG3v3tDeg4Q3Ezo1Yk8zY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseCF48t2A9oQ9lsJ+3azSbsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgobm1vbO8Xd0t7+weFR+fikreNUMWyxWMSqG1CNgktsGW4EdhOFNAoEdoLJ3dzvPKHSPJYPZpqgH9GR5CFn1Fip6Q3KFbfqLkDWiZeTCuRoDMpf/WHM0gilYYJq3fPcxPgZVYYzgbNSP9WYUDahI+xZKmmE2s8Wh87IhVWGJIyVLWnIQv09kdFI62kU2M6ImrFe9ebif14vNeGtn3GZpAYlWy4KU0FMTOZfkyFXyIyYWkKZ4vZWwsZUUWZsNiUbgrf68jppX1W9WtVrXlfqbh5HEc7gHC7Bgxuowz00oAUMEJ7hFd6cR+fFeXc+lq0FJ585hT9wPn8AdyuMqQ==</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="TZWiREJ3blNDQbVEesw/0nPEz3U=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgMxFL3js9ZX1aWbYBFclRkRdVlw47KCfUA7lEyatrGZZEjuFMrQf3DjQhG3/o87/8a0nYW2HggczrmX3HOiRAqLvv/tra1vbG5tF3aKu3v7B4elo+OG1alhvM601KYVUculULyOAiVvJYbTOJK8GY3uZn5zzI0VWj3iJOFhTAdK9AWj6KTGuJsJNe2Wyn7Fn4OskiAnZchR65a+Oj3N0pgrZJJa2w78BMOMGhRM8mmxk1qeUDaiA952VNGY2zCbXzsl507pkb427ikkc/X3RkZjaydx5CZjikO77M3E/7x2iv3b0OVJUuSKLT7qp5KgJrPopCcMZygnjlBmhLuVsCE1lKErqOhKCJYjr5LGZSW4rgQPV+Wqn9dRgFM4gwsI4AaqcA81qAODJ3iGV3jztPfivXsfi9E1L985gT/wPn8A7LaPTg==</latexit>

vin
1
<latexit sha1_base64="qh2eEc7IU/MqzHN2fOPGVFg1vcg=">AAAB6XicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBiyWRoh4LXjxWsR/QhrLZbtqlm03YnQgl9B948aCIV/+RN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSKFQdf9dgpr6xubW8Xt0s7u3v5B+fCoZeJUM95ksYx1J6CGS6F4EwVK3kk0p1EgeTsY38789hPXRsTqEScJ9yM6VCIUjKKVHi68frniVt05yCrxclKBHI1++as3iFkacYVMUmO6npugn1GNgkk+LfVSwxPKxnTIu5YqGnHjZ/NLp+TMKgMSxtqWQjJXf09kNDJmEgW2M6I4MsveTPzP66YY3viZUEmKXLHFojCVBGMye5sMhOYM5cQSyrSwtxI2opoytOGUbAje8surpHVZ9a6q3n2tUnfzOIpwAqdwDh5cQx3uoAFNYBDCM7zCmzN2Xpx352PRWnDymWP4A+fzB+BwjOA=</latexit>

A hard limiter can be implemented by an op amp inverting amplifier, with

back-to-back zener diodes to limit the output amplitude.

x(t) R2
- y(t)
R1
+
NBFM: Bandpass Limiter (cont.)
Input to bandpass limiter is
vi (t) = A(t) cos θ(t) , where θ(t) = 2πfc t + kf a(t)
Ideally, A(t) is constant, but it may vary slowly. We assume A(t) > 0. The
input to the bandpass filter is
(
+1 cos θ > 0
vo (θ) =
−1 cos θ < 0
which is periodic in θ with period 2π. Its Fourier series is
4

vo (θ) = cos θ − 13 cos 3θ + 51 cos 5θ + · · ·
π
4
     
= cos 2πfc t + kf a(t) − 13 cos 3 2πfc t + kf a(t) + · · ·
π
The bandpass filter eliminates all but the first term.
Note that the angle modulation for the third term is three times greater.
We’ll return to this next time.
WBFM Modulation: Direct Generation Using VCO
A voltage controlled oscillator generates a signal whose instantaneous
frequency proportional to an input m(t):
kf
fi (t) = fc + m(t)
2π
The signal with frequency fi (t) is bandpass filtered, then used in a
modulator.
VCO can be constructed by using input voltage to control one or more
circuit parameters in an oscillator
One example is using a reverse-biased diode as a variable capacitor in the
tank circuit of an oscillator.
I Input voltage is the message signal, and it modulates the reverse bias
potential
I This changes the capacitance, and hence the frequency of the oscillator
FM Direct Digital Synthesis
Currently, it is very common to synthesize the FM waveform digitally either
at an intermediate frequency fi and then mix it up to the desired carrier, or
to directly synthesize the waveform at the carrier frequency.
This is Direct Digital Synthesis, or DDS.
Typical intermediate frequencies are a few MHz, so that the calculations are
accurate but manageable, and the undesired sidebands can be suppressed
easily.

F M (t)
m(t)
FM DDS @ fi ⇥ fc fc

cos(2⇡(fc fi )t)
F M (f )
M (f )

fi fi fc fc fc fc