Modulation

I Modulation encodes a real message m(t) on a carrier cos(2πfc t)

I There are many ways to do this.
I So far we’ve looked at various amplitude modulation methods such as
AM, SSB, or QAM. Here a carrier is multiplied by a real envelope.
I We can also encode information in the phase or frequency of the carrier.
I This can be described as a carrier multiplied by a complex envelope.

Based on lecture notes from John Gill

Amplitude Modulation
The DSB-SC modulated signal is

2m(t) cos(2πfc t) = m(t)ej2πfc t + m(t)e−j2πfc t

If we just focus on the positive frequency term we have

I The envelope which is the message m(t) multiplied by
I The carrier ej2πfc t
If we plot these in the complex plane at some time t, this looks like
I I
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<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

j2⇡fc t
e
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m(t)

R R
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Carrier Envelope

The message m(t) scales the amplitude of the carrier.

If we modulate a sine instead,
2m(t) sin(2πfc t) = −jm(t)ej2πfc t + jm(t)e−j2πfc t
Again we just focus on the positive frequency term, which we can consider
to be
I The envelope −jm(t) which includes the message m(t)
I The same carrier ej2πfc t
Note that the fact that we multiplied by a sine is reflected in the −j in the
envelope. The carrier is the same. This looks like
I I
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<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

j2⇡fc t
e
j⇡
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jm(t) e 2 m(t)

R R
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Carrier Envelope

The envelope is now imaginary (the −j) or can be thought of as phase

shifted by −π/2. This turns the cosine carrier into a sine.
With QAM we have two messages, one modulated by a cosine, and a
second with a sine
2m1 (t) cos(2πfc t) + 2m2 sin(2πfc t)
= (m1 − jm2 (t))ej2πfc t + (m1 (t) + jm2 (t))e−j2πfc t
The positive frequency term is then
I The complex envelope m1 (t) − jm2 (t) which has m1 (t) as the real part,
and m2 (t) as the imaginary part.
I The same carrier ej2πfc t .
I I
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j2⇡fc t
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jm2 (t) <latexit sha1_base64="STzVeUlUcfbBJN/dfTcqCyJksZg=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgNBEJyNrxhfUY9eBoMQL2FXRD0GvHiMYB6QLGF2MpuMmccy0yuEJf/gxYMiXv0fb/6Nk2QPmljQUFR1090VJYJb8P1vr7C2vrG5Vdwu7ezu7R+UD49aVqeGsibVQptORCwTXLEmcBCskxhGZCRYOxrfzvz2EzOWa/UAk4SFkgwVjzkl4KSW7AdVOO+XK37NnwOvkiAnFZSj0S9/9QaappIpoIJY2w38BMKMGOBUsGmpl1qWEDomQ9Z1VBHJbJjNr53iM6cMcKyNKwV4rv6eyIi0diIj1ykJjOyyNxP/87opxDdhxlWSAlN0sShOBQaNZ6/jATeMgpg4Qqjh7lZMR8QQCi6gkgshWH55lbQuasFVLbi/rNT9PI4iOkGnqIoCdI3q6A41UBNR9Iie0St687T34r17H4vWgpfPHKM/8D5/AJSYjmw=</latexit>

m1 (t)

R R
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Carrier Envelope

The magnitude of m1 (t) − jm2 (t) scales the amplitude of the carrier, and
the angle adds to the phase of the carrier.
Broadcast AM is like DSB-SC with an additional bias which makes the
envelope always positive

2(1 + m(t)) cos(2πfc t) = (1 + m(t))ej2πfc t + (1 + m(t))e−j2πfc t

This looks like

I I
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<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

j2⇡fc t
e
<latexit sha1_base64="rYtzOVVnoerOdj3nHEAJlikSrkU=">AAAB73icbVBNSwMxEJ31s9avqkcvwSJUhLIRUY8FLx4r2A9ol5JNs21okl2TrFCW/gkvHhTx6t/x5r8xbfegrQ8GHu/NMDMvTAQ31ve/vZXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHDYNHGqKWvQWMS6HRLDBFesYbkVrJ1oRmQoWCsc3U791hPThsfqwY4TFkgyUDzilFgntfG57OGKPeuVyn7VnwEtE5yTMuSo90pf3X5MU8mUpYIY08F+YoOMaMupYJNiNzUsIXREBqzjqCKSmSCb3TtBp07poyjWrpRFM/X3REakMWMZuk5J7NAselPxP6+T2ugmyLhKUssUnS+KUoFsjKbPoz7XjFoxdoRQzd2tiA6JJtS6iIouBLz48jJpXlTxVRXfX5Zrfh5HAY7hBCqA4RpqcAd1aAAFAc/wCm/eo/fivXsf89YVL585gj/wPn8AbE6O3A==</latexit>

1 + m1 (t)

R R
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1
<latexit sha1_base64="DfZS2DjG3v3tDeg4Q3Ezo1Yk8zY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseCF48t2A9oQ9lsJ+3azSbsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgobm1vbO8Xd0t7+weFR+fikreNUMWyxWMSqG1CNgktsGW4EdhOFNAoEdoLJ3dzvPKHSPJYPZpqgH9GR5CFn1Fip6Q3KFbfqLkDWiZeTCuRoDMpf/WHM0gilYYJq3fPcxPgZVYYzgbNSP9WYUDahI+xZKmmE2s8Wh87IhVWGJIyVLWnIQv09kdFI62kU2M6ImrFe9ebif14vNeGtn3GZpAYlWy4KU0FMTOZfkyFXyIyYWkKZ4vZWwsZUUWZsNiUbgrf68jppX1W9WtVrXlfqbh5HEc7gHC7Bgxuowz00oAUMEJ7hFd6cR+fFeXc+lq0FJ585hT9wPn8AdyuMqQ==</latexit>

Carrier Envelope

We are transmitting the AM bias term all the time.

Is there something else we could do with it?
Instead of mutiplying the carrier by the message, we can include the
message as the phase of the carrier
2 cos(2πfc t + km(t)) = ej(2πfc t+km(t)) + ej(2πfc t+km(t))
= ejkm(t) ej2πfc t + e−jkm(t) ej2πfc t
Now we have
I A complex envelope ejkm(t) , which has unit magnitude and phase km(t)
I The same carrier ej2πfc t .
This looks like
I I
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<latexit sha1_base64="Z8/jsxRhQefg3Zr8hFJOhjAIpms=">AAAB+HicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxgfWfXoZTAInsJuEPUY8OIxgnlAEpfZSW8yZvbBzKwQl3yJFw+KePVTvPk3TpI9aGJBQ1HVTXeXnwiutON8W4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b79sHxy2VJxKhk0Wi1h2fKpQ8AibmmuBnUQiDX2BbX98PfPbjygVj6M7PUmwH9JhxAPOqDaSZ5fxPnuo9RJOAo8RPfXsilN15iCrxM1JBXI0PPurN4hZGmKkmaBKdV0n0f2MSs2ZwGmplypMKBvTIXYNjWiIqp/ND5+SU6MMSBBLU5Emc/X3REZDpSahbzpDqkdq2ZuJ/3ndVAdX/YxHSaoxYotFQSqIjsksBTLgEpkWE0Mok9zcStiISsq0yapkQnCXX14lrVrVvai6t+eVupPHUYRjOIEzcOES6nADDWgCgxSe4RXerCfrxXq3PhatBSufOYI/sD5/AAJTkp0=</latexit>

ej2⇡fc t <latexit sha1_base64="dkVCIuc49LTBmN7PuNua4CC9uc8=">AAAB83icbVBNS8NAEN34WetX1aOXxSLUS0lE1GPBi8cK9gPaWDbbSbt2swm7E6GE/g0vHhTx6p/x5r9x2+agrQ8GHu/NMDMvSKQw6Lrfzsrq2vrGZmGruL2zu7dfOjhsmjjVHBo8lrFuB8yAFAoaKFBCO9HAokBCKxjdTP3WE2gjYnWP4wT8iA2UCAVnaKUuPGSPdESjCp5NeqWyW3VnoMvEy0mZ5Kj3Sl/dfszTCBRyyYzpeG6CfsY0Ci5hUuymBhLGR2wAHUsVi8D42ezmCT21Sp+GsbalkM7U3xMZi4wZR4HtjBgOzaI3Ff/zOimG134mVJIiKD5fFKaSYkynAdC+0MBRji1hXAt7K+VDphlHG1PRhuAtvrxMmudV77Lq3V2Ua24eR4EckxNSIR65IjVyS+qkQThJyDN5JW9O6rw4787HvHXFyWeOyB84nz/td5Do</latexit>

ejkm(t)

1 R
<latexit sha1_base64="DfZS2DjG3v3tDeg4Q3Ezo1Yk8zY=">AAAB6HicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lEqseCF48t2A9oQ9lsJ+3azSbsboQS+gu8eFDEqz/Jm//GbZuDtj4YeLw3w8y8IBFcG9f9dgobm1vbO8Xd0t7+weFR+fikreNUMWyxWMSqG1CNgktsGW4EdhOFNAoEdoLJ3dzvPKHSPJYPZpqgH9GR5CFn1Fip6Q3KFbfqLkDWiZeTCuRoDMpf/WHM0gilYYJq3fPcxPgZVYYzgbNSP9WYUDahI+xZKmmE2s8Wh87IhVWGJIyVLWnIQv09kdFI62kU2M6ImrFe9ebif14vNeGtn3GZpAYlWy4KU0FMTOZfkyFXyIyYWkKZ4vZWwsZUUWZsNiUbgrf68jppX1W9WtVrXlfqbh5HEc7gHC7Bgxuowz00oAUMEJ7hFd6cR+fFeXc+lq0FJ585hT9wPn8AdyuMqQ==</latexit>

R
<latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="aDzRWEBZk+mfsOepPjcYCAN20YI=">AAAB73icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBU0lE1GPBi8cq9gPaUDbbSbt0s0l3N0IJ/RNePCji1b/jzX/jts1BWx8MPN6bYWZekAiujet+O4W19Y3NreJ2aWd3b/+gfHjU1HGqGDZYLGLVDqhGwSU2DDcC24lCGgUCW8Hodua3nlBpHstHM0nQj+hA8pAzaqzUzrqMCvIw7ZUrbtWdg6wSLycVyFHvlb+6/ZilEUrDBNW647mJ8TOqDGcCp6VuqjGhbEQH2LFU0gi1n83vnZIzq/RJGCtb0pC5+nsio5HWkyiwnRE1Q73szcT/vE5qwhs/4zJJDUq2WBSmgpiYzJ4nfa6QGTGxhDLF7a2EDamizNiISjYEb/nlVdK8qHpXVe/+slJz8ziKcAKncA4eXEMN7qAODWAg4Ble4c0ZOy/Ou/OxaC04+cwx/IHz+QO3Po+0</latexit>

Carrier Envelope

For small angles, this looks like the quadrature version of AM!
Could we do something like QAM here?
Angle Modulation
I We can encode information as either
I Time varying phase
I Time varying frequency

I Both result in angle modulation

I Both are very closely related

I Easy to do with an sdr, just another complex envelope!

Instantaneous Frequency
I In general, the frequency of a signal at an instant in time depends on the
entire signal.
I For generalized sinusoids, we can use a simpler approach. Suppose

ϕ(t) = A cos θ(t) .

Then θ(t) is the generalized angle. For a true sinusoid,
θ(t) = ωc t + θ0 ,
linear with slope ωc and offset θ0
I The generalized angle is not limited to [0, 2π]. Wrapping introduces
discontinuities.
I Phase unwrapping is easy at an IF, where the phase changes are small
from on sample to the next.
Instantaneous Frequency (cont.)
I Instananeous frequency is derivative of generalized angle:

dθ
ωi (t) = = θ0 (t)
dt
I The phase is just the integral of the frequency
Z t Z t
θ(t) = ωi (u) du = θ(0) + ωi (u) du
−∞ 0

I We can modulate a generalized sinusoid by using a signal m(t) to vary

either θ(t) or ωi (t).
I In either case, the frequency of the modulated signal changes as a
function of m(t).
Instantaneous Frequency (cont.)
✓
<latexit sha1_base64="Z5IYeWlUTnsHCg93k9/NwYc+KIY=">AAAB7XicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKqMeAF48RzAOSJcxOJsmY2ZllplcIS/7BiwdFvPo/3vwbJ8keNLGgoajqprsrSqSw6PvfXmFtfWNzq7hd2tnd2z8oHx41rU4N4w2mpTbtiFouheINFCh5OzGcxpHkrWh8O/NbT9xYodUDThIexnSoxEAwik5qdnHEkfbKFb/qz0FWSZCTCuSo98pf3b5macwVMkmt7QR+gmFGDQom+bTUTS1PKBvTIe84qmjMbZjNr52SM6f0yUAbVwrJXP09kdHY2kkcuc6Y4sguezPxP6+T4uAmzIRKUuSKLRYNUklQk9nrpC8MZygnjlBmhLuVsBE1lKELqORCCJZfXiXNi2pwVQ3uLys1P4+jCCdwCucQwDXU4A7q0AAGj/AMr/Dmae/Fe/c+Fq0FL585hj/wPn8AoIWPHA==</latexit>

Carrier Phase
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✓(0) + 2⇡fc t
˙
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!(t) = ✓(t)
Signal Frequency
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✓(0)
Signal Phase
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✓(t)

0 t
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I Dashed line is the carrier phase

I Solid line is the phase of the transmitted signal
I Slope of the solid line is the instantaneous frequency of the transmitted
signal.
Phase Modulation (PM)
I In PM, phase is varied linearly with m(t):

θ(t) = 2πfc t + kp m(t)

which produces a transmitted signal

ϕPM (t) = cos 2πfc t + kp m(t)

I The instantaneous frequency is

dθ
ωi (t) = = 2πfc + kp ṁ(t)
dt
I If m(t) varies rapidly, then the frequency deviations are larger.
I The bandwidth of the signal is determined by ṁ(t), similar to AM.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
I In FM, frequency is is varied linear in m(t):

ωi (t) = 2πfc + kf m(t)

which produces a signal

ϕFM (t) = cos (2πfc + kf m(t))t)

I The bandwidth of the signal is determined by the amplitude of kf m(t)

(obvious), and also the bandwidth of m(t) (less obvious).
I The angle is
Z Z
t
t
θ(t) = 2πfc + kf m(t) du = 2πfc t + kf m(u) du
−∞ −∞

I We could apply this θ(t) to a phase modulator, and get exactly the same
effect as applying ωi (t) to a frequency modulator.
Relationship Between FM and PM
I Phase modulation of m(t) = frequency modulation of ṁ(t).
R
I Frequency modulation of m(t) = phase modulation of m(u) du.

Frequency Modulator

Z
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m(t) <latexit sha1_base64="3LyFHLb5JMB4fgYD5tH5gRwQ1OM=">AAAB9HicbVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWIS6KTMi6rLgxmUF+4B2KJlMpg1NMmNyp1CGfocbF4q49WPc+Tdm2llo64HA4Zx7uScnSAQ34Lrfztr6xubWdmmnvLu3f3BYOTpumzjVlLVoLGLdDYhhgivWAg6CdRPNiAwE6wTju9zvTJg2PFaPME2YL8lQ8YhTAlby+1wBljW4wCGUB5WqW3fnwKvEK0gVFWgOKl/9MKapZAqoIMb0PDcBPyMaOBVsVu6nhiWEjsmQ9SxVRDLjZ/PQM3xulRBHsbbPhpirvzcyIo2ZysBOSgIjs+zl4n9eL4Xo1s+4SlJgii4ORanAEOO8ARxyzSiIqSWEam6zYjoimlCwPeUleMtfXiXty7p3XfcerqoNt6ijhE7RGaohD92gBrpHTdRCFD2hZ/SK3pyJ8+K8Ox+L0TWn2DlBf+B8/gALoZDr</latexit>

F M (t)
Phase
m(t)dt
Modulator

Phase Modulator
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m(t) P M (t)
d
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Frequency
m(t) Modulator
dt

I We can produce both types of modulation with either modulator.

I Direct digital synthesis (DDS) chips will do this for you.
Generalized Angle Modulation
I We can generalize modulation by convolving the message signal with an
impulse response h(t)


ϕEM (t) = A cos 2πfc t + h(t) ∗ m(t)

This is a filter with a transfer function H(f ).

I We recover m(t) from phase by using inverse filter H −1 (f ).
E.g., for FM the inverse of integration is differention.
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m(t) <latexit sha1_base64="55X/rUIi9+Y9KPwJBiP5vIUO05E=">AAAB63icbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/oh69LBahXkoioh4LXnqsYD+gDWWz3bRLdzdhdyOU0L/gxYMiXv1D3vw3btoctPXBwOO9GWbmhQln2njet1Pa2Nza3invVvb2Dw6P3OOTjo5TRWibxDxWvRBrypmkbcMMp71EUSxCTrvh9D73u09UaRbLRzNLaCDwWLKIEWxyqVmLLodu1at7C6B14hekCgVaQ/drMIpJKqg0hGOt+76XmCDDyjDC6bwySDVNMJniMe1bKrGgOsgWt87RhVVGKIqVLWnQQv09kWGh9UyEtlNgM9GrXi7+5/VTE90FGZNJaqgky0VRypGJUf44GjFFieEzSzBRzN6KyAQrTIyNp2JD8FdfXiedq7p/U/cfrqsNr4ijDGdwDjXw4RYa0IQWtIHABJ7hFd4c4bw4787HsrXkFDOn8AfO5w8fwY2V</latexit>

H(f ) Phase
Modulator
Transmission

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Phase
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1 m(t)
H (f )
Detector

I PM (h(t) = kp δ(t)) and FM (h(t) = kf u(t)) are special cases.

I Also used for pre-emphasis to improve noise characteristics, and pulse
shaping to reduce signal bandwidth.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
I Basic idea is to send a string of bits as two different frequencies
I These are encoded in m(t) as a value of 1 for a bit 1, and a value of -1
for a bit 0.
I We then transmit a frequency 2πfc t + kf for a 1, and 2πfc − kf for a
zero.
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m(t) F M (t)
1 1
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t t
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1 1
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!i (t) = 2⇡fc + kf m(t)

I This type of modulation is very common in modems, and also digital

radio
I We’ll see this later in one of the labs.
FSK with a Phase Modulator
I We could achieve the same effect with a phase modulator.
R
I The input is now ot m(u)du
Z
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m(u)du P M (t)
1 1
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t t
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1 1
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Z t
✓(t) = 2⇡fc t + kp m(u)du
0

I This results in exactly the same waveform given kp is properly scaled.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
I Basic idea is to send a string of bits as two (or more) phases of a carrier
I These are encoded in m(t) as a value of 0 for a bit 1, and a value of 1
for a bit 0, which is then scaled to 0 and π.
I This inverts the carrier for zero bits
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P M (t)
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m(t)
1
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1
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t t
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1 0 0 1 0 1
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1
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✓(t) = ⇡m(t)

I This is also common for digital radio and modems

I Some car key fobs used this. We will also see this later.
PSK with a Frequency Modulator
I We could achieve the same effect with a frequency modulator
I The input is now d
dt m(t).

d
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m(t) F M (t)
1
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1 1 1
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dt

t t
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1 1 1
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1
<latexit sha1_base64="qh2eEc7IU/MqzHN2fOPGVFg1vcg=">AAAB6XicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBbBiyWRoh4LXjxWsR/QhrLZbtqlm03YnQgl9B948aCIV/+RN/+N2zYHbX0w8Hhvhpl5QSKFQdf9dgpr6xubW8Xt0s7u3v5B+fCoZeJUM95ksYx1J6CGS6F4EwVK3kk0p1EgeTsY38789hPXRsTqEScJ9yM6VCIUjKKVHi68frniVt05yCrxclKBHI1++as3iFkacYVMUmO6npugn1GNgkk+LfVSwxPKxnTIu5YqGnHjZ/NLp+TMKgMSxtqWQjJXf09kNDJmEgW2M6I4MsveTPzP66YY3viZUEmKXLHFojCVBGMye5sMhOYM5cQSyrSwtxI2opoytOGUbAje8surpHVZ9a6q3n2tUnfzOIpwAqdwDh5cQx3uoAFNYBDCM7zCmzN2Xpx352PRWnDymWP4A+fzB+BwjOA=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="6q1JzkXEu0UeW4KxQOa2bwU5v3o=">AAACEHicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g0WsCCUpom6EghuXFewDmhIm00k7dCYJMzdCCf0EN/6KGxeKuHXpzr9x2mah1QMDh3Pu4c49QSK4Bsf5sgpLyyura8X10sbm1vaOvbvX0nGqKGvSWMSqExDNBI9YEzgI1kkUIzIQrB2Mrqd++54pzePoDsYJ60kyiHjIKQEj+faxF0s2ID6vwAm+wjUv4Tj0KT7FIz/EXj+GTE6M59tlp+rMgP8SNydllKPh258mTFPJIqCCaN11nQR6GVHAqWCTkpdqlhA6IgPWNTQikuleNjtogo+M0sdhrMyLAM/Un4mMSK3HMjCTksBQL3pT8T+vm0J42ct4lKTAIjpfFKYCQ4yn7eA+V4yCGBtCqOLmr5gOiSIUTIclU4K7ePJf0qpV3fOqe3tWrjt5HUV0gA5RBbnoAtXRDWqgJqLoAT2hF/RqPVrP1pv1Ph8tWHlmH/2C9fENQ1eayw==</latexit>

!i (t) = 2⇡fc + kf ṁ(t)

I Again, this results in exactly the same waveform given kf is properly

scaled.
Direct Digital Synthesis
Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS) system block diagram
✓i
<latexit sha1_base64="P+rSAVFR+Xo+pb9U2Z5tfH/a1cw=">AAAB73icbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKqMeAF48RzAOSJcxOepMhsw9neoUQ8hNePCji1d/x5t84SfagiQUNRVU33V1BqqQh1/12CmvrG5tbxe3Szu7e/kH58KhpkkwLbIhEJbodcINKxtggSQrbqUYeBQpbweh25reeUBuZxA80TtGP+CCWoRScrNTu0hCJ92SvXHGr7hxslXg5qUCOeq/81e0nIoswJqG4MR3PTcmfcE1SKJyWupnBlIsRH2DH0phHaPzJ/N4pO7NKn4WJthUTm6u/JyY8MmYcBbYz4jQ0y95M/M/rZBTe+BMZpxlhLBaLwkwxStjsedaXGgWpsSVcaGlvZWLINRdkIyrZELzll1dJ86LqXVW9+8tKzc3jKMIJnMI5eHANNbiDOjRAgIJneIU359F5cd6dj0VrwclnjuEPnM8fHuSP+A==</latexit>

16b

32b Accumulator Address Value <latexit sha1_base64="s8nlDHnlJpEU6QNvkyczQmJ4A/Q=">AAAB7nicbVDLSgNBEOz1GeMr6tHLYBDiJeyKqMeAF48RzAOSJcxOJsmQ2dlhplcISz7CiwdFvPo93vwbJ8keNLGgoajqprsr0lJY9P1vb219Y3Nru7BT3N3bPzgsHR03bZIaxhsskYlpR9RyKRRvoEDJ29pwGkeSt6Lx3cxvPXFjRaIecaJ5GNOhEgPBKDqp1dUjUcGLXqnsV/05yCoJclKGHPVe6avbT1gac4VMUms7ga8xzKhBwSSfFrup5ZqyMR3yjqOKxtyG2fzcKTl3Sp8MEuNKIZmrvycyGls7iSPXGVMc2WVvJv7ndVIc3IaZUDpFrthi0SCVBBMy+530heEM5cQRyoxwtxI2ooYydAkVXQjB8surpHlZDa6rwcNVuebncRTgFM6gAgHcQA3uoQ4NYDCGZ3iFN097L96797FoXfPymRP4A+/zB68YjxY=</latexit>

(t)
Cosine
!i ⌃ +
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A/D
<latexit sha1_base64="AI4YuQEDHaquNgRm0WWn5JNy+/k=">AAAB73icbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKeyKqMeAF48RzAOSJcxOepMhMzvrzKwQQn7CiwdFvPo73vwbJ8keNLGgoajqprsrSgU31ve/vcLa+sbmVnG7tLO7t39QPjxqGpVphg2mhNLtiBoUPMGG5VZgO9VIZSSwFY1uZ37rCbXhKnmw4xRDSQcJjzmj1kntrpI4oD3eK1f8qj8HWSVBTiqQo94rf3X7imUSE8sENaYT+KkNJ1RbzgROS93MYErZiA6w42hCJZpwMr93Ss6c0iex0q4SS+bq74kJlcaMZeQ6JbVDs+zNxP+8Tmbjm3DCkzSzmLDFojgTxCoye570uUZmxdgRyjR3txI2pJoy6yIquRCC5ZdXSfOiGlxVg/vLSs3P4yjCCZzCOQRwDTW4gzo0gIGAZ3iFN+/Re/HevY9Fa8HLZ47hD7zPHwsEj+s=</latexit>

LUT
32b 16b 16b 16b

10 MHz
Clock

I LUT is 216 samples of a cosine. It takes an index and outputs the value
I Generating the FM or PM waveform consists of stepping through this
array at the right speed
I The 10 MHz clock sets the speed. Every 0.1 µ s there is a new output
I The step size is set by ωi . For the current ω(t), how much does the
address advance in 0.1 µ
 
I The phase θi is just an offset into the 0..216 samples for [0..2π].
Next Time
I Narrowband FM (Police, Amateur Radio)
I Wideband FM (Commercial FM)
I Spectral bandwidth of FM signals
I Modulation and demodulation systems