University of Zimbabwe

HHE203/HCE204/HSE204 Mathematics 2

Chapter 1
Department:
Facilitator:
Mathematics and
Mr D. Muzadziwa
Computational Sciences

October 21, 2024

Differentiation

Increments. The increment ∆x of a variable x is the change in x as it increases or decreases from

one value x = x0 to another value x = x1 in its domain. Here, ∆x = x1 − x0 and we may write
x1 = x0 + ∆x. If the variable x is given an increment ∆x from x = x0 (i.e., if x changes from x = x0
to x1 = x0 + ∆x) and a function y = f (x) is thereby given an increment ∆y = f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
from y = f (x0 ), then the quotient
∆y change in y
= ,
∆x change in x
is called the average rate of change of the function on the interval between x = x0 and x1 = x0 +∆x.

Let f (x) be defined at any point x0 in (a, b). The derivative of f (x) at x = x0 is defined as

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists. A function is called differentiable at a point x = x0 , if it has a derivative at
that point, i.e., if f ′ (x0 ) exists. If we write x = x0 + h, then h = x − x0 and h approaches 0 if and
only if x approaches x0 . Therefore, an equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, is
f (x) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim .
x→x0 x − x0

Example: If f (x) = x3 − x, find a formula for f ′ (x).

Solution:

′ f (x + h) − f (x) [(x + h)3 − (x + h)] − [x3 − x]

f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
x + 3x h + 3xh + h3 − x − h − x3 + x
3 2 2
= lim
h→0 h
2 2 3
3x h + 3xh + h − h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3x2 + 3xh + h2 − 1) = 3x2 − 1.
h→0

√
Example: If f (x) = x, find the derivative of f .

1
Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
h→0
√ h
√ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h− x
(x + h) − x
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1 1
= √ √ = √ .
x+ x 2 x
dy d d
The derivative at x may be denoted by f ′ (x), y ′ , , (f (x)). The symbol is called differ-
dx dx dx
entiation operator because it indicates the operation of differentiation. The process of finding
derivatives of functions is called differentiation.

A function f is differentiable at x0 if f ′ (x0 ) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a, b)

[or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)], if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Example: Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution: If x > 0, then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough that x + h > 0 and hence
|x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for x > 0,
|x + h| − |x|
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 x
(x + h) − x h
= lim = lim = 1,
h→0 h h→0 h
and so f is differentiable for any x > 0.

Similarly, for x < 0, we have |x| = −x and h can be chosen small enough that x + h < 0 and so
|x + h| = −(x + h). Therefore, for x < 0,
|x + h| − |x|
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
−(x + h) − (−x) −h
= lim = lim = −1,
h→0 h h→0 h
and so f is differentiable for any x < 0.

For x = 0 we have to investigate

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim
h→0 h
|0 + h| − |0|
= lim (if it exists).
h→0 h

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Let’s compute the left and right limits separately;

|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
|0 + h| − |0| |h|
lim− = lim = lim− (−1) = −1.
h→0 h h→0− h h→0

Since these limits are different f ′ (0) does not exist. Thus, f is differentiable at all x except 0.

0.1 Differentiation Techniques (Finding Derivatives)

1.
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f ′ (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.

2. The derivative of any constant function is zero, i.e., c′ = 0.

3. For any real number n,

(xn )′ = nxn−1 .
When differentiating, results can be expressed in a number of ways. For example, (i) if
dy
y = 3x2 then = 6x, (ii) if f (x) = 3x2 then f ′ (x) = 6x, (iii) the differential coefficient
dx
of 3x2 is 6x.
√ 1 1 1 1 1
For example, if f (x) = x = x 2 , then f ′ (x) = x 2 −1 = 12 x− 2 = √ .
2 2 x
You Try It: Using the general rule, differentiate the following with respect to x :
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(a) f (x) = 5x7 (b) f (x) = 2 .
x
4. For any constant c, (cf (x))′ = cf ′ (x). For example, (5x3 )′ = 5(x3 )′ = 5(3x2 ) = 15x2 .

5. The derivative of a sum (difference) is the sum (difference) of the derivatives,

(f (x) ± g(x))′ = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x).

For example,

(3x5 − 2x2 + 1)′ = (3x5 )′ − (2x2 )′ + 1′ = 3(x5 )′ − 2(x2 )′ + 0 = 3(5x4 ) − 2(2x) = 15x4 − 4x.

6. Product Rule
(f (x)g(x))′ = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x).

7. Quotient Rule ′
g(x)f ′ (x) − f (x)g ′ (x)

f (x)
= .
g(x) (g(x))2

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 8. Parametric Equations. If the coordinates (x, y) of a point P on a curve are given as
functions x = f (u) and y = g(u) of a third variable or parameter u, the equations x = f (u)
and y = g(u) are called parametric equations of the curve. For example, x = 12 t, y = 4 − t2 or
x = cos θ, y = 4 sin2 θ.
dy
The First Derivative is given by
dx
dy dy/du
= .
dx dx/du

d2 y
The Second Derivative is given by
dx2
d2 y
 
d dy du
2
= .
dx du dx dx

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = θ − sin θ and y = 1 − cos θ.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = 1 − cos θ and = sin θ, so
dθ dθ
dy dy/dθ sin θ
= = .
dx dx/dθ 1 − cos θ

Also
d2 y
 
d sin θ dθ
2
=
dx dθ 1 − cos θ dx
cos θ − 1 1 1
= · = − .
(1 − cos θ)2 1 − cos θ (1 − cos θ)2

dy d2 y
Example: Find and 2 given x = et cos t and y = et sin t.
dx dx
dx dy
Solution: Note that = et (cos t − sin t) and = et (sin t + cos t), so
dt dt
dy dy/dt sin t + cos t
= = .
dx dx/dt cos t − sin t

Also
d2 y
 
d sin t + cos t dt
2
=
dx dt cos t − sin t dx
2 1 2
= 2
· t = t .
(cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t) e (cos t − sin t)3

x2 − 1 ′ (x2 + 1)(2x) − (x2 − 1)(2x) 4x

Example: f (x) = 2
, then f (x) = 2 2
= 2 .
x +1 (x + 1) (x + 1)2

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 x ′ (x2 + 1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
Example: If f (x) = , then f (x) = = .
x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2

1 1
Example: If f (x) = , then f ′ (x) = − 2 .
x x

dy
Example: If x = cos t and y = t sin t, find .
dx

Solution:
d
dy (t sin t) sin t + t cos t
= dt = .
dx d − sin t
(cos t)
dt

0.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Recall :
sin h 1 − cos h
lim = 1 and lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin x)′ = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x(cos h − 1) + cos x sin h
= lim
h→0
 h  
(1 − cos h) sin h
= lim − sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
= − sin x(0) + cos x(1).

Hence (sin x)′ = cos x.

dy
Example: Find if y = x3 sin x.
dx

dy
Solution: = (x3 sin x)′ = x3 (sin x)′ + sin x(x3 )′ = x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x.
dx

Example: Determine whether the function,

  
 3 1
x sin , if x ̸= 0
f (x) = x
0, if x = 0,


is differentiable at x = 0.

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Solution: Observe that
h3 sin h1 − 0 1
lim = lim h2 sin = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Logarithmic Functions. Assume a > 0 and a ̸= 1. If ay = x, then define y = loga x. Let

ln x ≡ loge x (ln x is called the natural logarithm of x).

Basic Properties of Logarithms

1. loga 1 = 0 (In particular, ln 1 = 0).

2. loga a = 1 (In particular, ln e = 1).

3. loga uv = loga u + loga v.

u
4. loga = loga u − loga v.
v
5. loga ur = r loga u.

d x d 1 d x
Derivatives of ln x and ex are e = ex and ln x = . Also (a ) = ax ln x, a > 0.
dx dx x dx

d
Example: Calculate the derivative [(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)].
dx

d d d 3 d 1
Solution: We know that sin x = cos x, x = 1, x = 3x2 and ln x = . Therefore, by
dx dx dx dx x
the addition rule,
d d d
(sin x + x) = sin x + x = cos x + 1
dx dx dx
and
d 3 d 3 d 1
(x − ln x) = x − ln x = 3x2 − .
dx dx dx x
Now we may conclude the calculation by applying the product rule;
d d d
[(sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)] = (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x) + (sin x + x) · (x3 − ln x)
dx dx  dx 
3 2 1
= (cos x + 1) · (x − ln x) + (sin x + x) · 3x −
x
1
= 4x3 − 1 + x3 cos x + 3x2 sin x − sin x − ln x cos x − ln x.
x

You Try It: Calculate the derivative

  
d x
sin x · cos x − x .
dx e + ln x

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0.3 Derivative of a Composition [The Chain Rule]

We calculate the derivative of a composition by

[f ◦ g(x)]′ = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x).

If y = f (u) where u = g(x), then

dy dy du du
= · = f ′ (u) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x).
dx du dx dx
Similarly, if y = f (u) where u = g(v) and v = h(x), then

dy dy du dv
= · · .
dx du dv dx

d
Example: Calculate the derivative (sin(x3 − x2 )).
dx

Solution: This is the composition of functions, so we must apply the Chain Rule. It is essential
to recognize what function will play the role of f and what function will play the role of g. Notice
that, if x is the variable, then x3 − x2 is applied first and sin applied next. So it must be that
d d
g(x) = x3 − x2 and f (s) = sin s. Notice that f (s) = cos s and g(x) = 3x2 − 2x. Then
ds dx
sin(x3 − x2 ) = f ◦ g(x)

and
d d
(sin(x3 − x2 )) = (f ◦ g(x))
dx dx
 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
= cos(g(x)) · (3x2 − 2x)
= [cos(x3 − x2 )] · (3x2 − 2x).

x2
 
d
Example: Calculate the derivative ln .
dx x−2

x2 x2
 
Solution: Let h(x) = ln . Then h = f ◦ g, where f (s) = ln s and g(x) = . So
x−2 x−2

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d 1 d (x − 2) · 2x − x2 · 1 x2 − 4x
f (s) = and g(x) = = . As a result,
ds s dx (x − 2)2 (x − 2)2

d d
h(x) = (f ◦ g)
dx dx 
df d
= (g(x)) · g(x)
ds dx
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
g(x) (x − 2)2
1 x2 − 4x
= ·
x2 (x − 2)2
x−2
x−4
= .
x(x − 2)

You Try It: Calculate the derivative of tan(ex − x).

0.4 Continuity and Differentiation

What is the relationship between continuity and differentiation? It appears that functions that
have derivatives must be continuous.

Theorem 0.4.1. If a function f is differentiable at a point x, then it is continuous at x.

Proof. We want to show that f is continuous at x, i.e., lim f (t) = f (x) or lim f (x + h) = f (x),
t→x h→0
where h = t − x. It will be sufficient to show that lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = 0.
h→0

Now,
 
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim [f (x + h) − f (x)] = lim h
h→0 h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim lim h
h→0 h h→0
= f ′ (x) · 0
= 0,

because f ′ (x) is finite. Thus f is continuous at x.

Converse is false: For example, the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not
differentiable there.

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0.5 Higher Order Derivatives

dy
If f (x) is differentiable in an interval, its derivative is given by f ′ (x), y ′ or where y = f (x).
dx

d2 y
 
′ ′′ ′′d dy
If f (x) is also differentiable in the interval, its derivative is denoted by f (x), y or = .
dx dx dx2

dn y
Similarly, the nth derivative of f (x), if it exists, is denoted by f (n) , y (n) or where n is called
dxn
the order of the derivative.

Example: Let y = f (x) = 12 x4 − 3x2 + 1.

d 1 4
Solution: Derivative y ′ = f ′ (x) = ( x − 3x2 + 1) = 2x3 − 6x.
dx 2

′′ d2 y
′′ d
Second derivative y = f (x) = 2 = (2x3 − 6x) = 6x2 − 6.
dx dx

d3 y d
Third derivative y ′′′ = f ′′′ (x) = 3
= (6x2 − 6) = 12x.
dx dx

d4 y d
Fourth derivative y (4) = f (4) (x) = 4
= (12x) = 12.
dx dx

0.6 Implicit Differentiation

Compare

√
1. x2 − y 3 = 3 ⇐⇒ y = 3
x2 − 3.
√
2. x2 + y 2 = 1 ⇐⇒ y = ± 1 − x2 .

3. x3 + y 2 = 3xy ⇐⇒????????.

Implicit Functions. A function in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of
the independent variable x, namely y = f (x), is said to be an explicit function, for example,
y = 12 x3 − 1. An equation f (x, y) = 0, on perhaps certain restricted ranges of the variables, is said
to define y implicitly as a function of x.

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 1−x
Example: (a) The equation xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0, with x ̸= 2, defines the function y = .
√ x−2
(b) The equation 4x2 + 9y 2 − 36 = 0 defines the function y = 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≥ 0
√
and the function y = − 23 9 − x2 when |x| ≤ 3 and y ≤ 0.

The derivative y ′ may be obtained by one of the following procedures:

1. Solve, when possible, for y and differentiate with respect to x.

2. Thinking of y as a function of x, differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect
to x and solve the resulting relation for y ′ . This differentiation process is known as implicit
differentiation.

dy
Example: Find if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx

Solution: We differentiate both sides of the equation

d 2 d d
x + y2 = 4
dx dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0 .
dx
Solving the derivative yields
dy x
=− .
dy y

d2 y
Example: Find 2 if x2 + y 2 = 4.
dx

Solution: From the above example, we already know that the first derivative is
dy x
=− .
dx y
Hence by the Quotient Rule

d2 y
 
d x
2
= −
dx dx y
dy
y·1−x·
= − dx
y2
 
x
y−x −
y dy
= − 2
Substituting for
y dx
y + x2
2
= − .
y3

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Noting that x2 + y 2 = 4 permits us to write the second derivative as

d2 y 4
2
= − 3.
dx y

dy
Example: Find if sin y = y cos 2x.
dx

Solution:
d d
sin y = y cos 2x
dx dx
dy dy
cos y = y(− sin 2x · 2) + cos 2x
dx dx
dy
(cos y − cos 2x) = −2y sin 2x
dx
dy 2y sin 2x
= − .
dx cos y − cos 2x

Example: Find y ′ , given xy + x − 2y − 1 = 0.

Solution: We have
d d d d d d
x (y) + y (x) + (x) − 2 (y) − (1) = (0)
dx dx dx dx dx dx
1+y
or xy ′ + y + 1 − 2y ′ = 0, then y ′ = .
2−x

Example: Find y ′ , given x2 y − xy 2 + x2 + y 2 = 0.

Solution:
d 2 d d 2 d 2
(x y) − (xy 2 ) + (x ) + (y ) = 0
dx dx dx dx
d d d d d 2 d 2
x2 (y) + y (x2 ) − x (y 2 ) − y 2 (x) + (x ) + (y ) = 0.
dx dx dx dx dx dx
y 2 − 2x − 2xy
Hence, x2 y ′ + 2xy − 2xyy ′ − y 2 + 2x + 2yy ′ = 0 and y ′ = .
x2 + 2y − 2xy

Example: Find y ′ and y ′′ , given x2 − xy + y 2 = 3.

Solution:
d 2 d d 2 2x − y
(x ) − (xy) = (y ) = 2x − xy ′ − y + 2yy ′ = 0. So y ′ = .
dx dx dx x − 2y

11
Then
d d
(x − 2y) (2x − y) − (2x − y) (x − 2y) (x − 2y)(2 − y ′ ) − (2x − y)(1 − 2y ′ )
y ′′ = dx dx =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
 
2x − y
3x − 3y
3xy ′ − 3y x − 2y 6(x2 − xy + y 2 )
= = =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
18
= .
(x − 2y)2

You Try It: Find y ′′ , given x3 − 3xy + y 3 = 1.

0.7 Logarithmic Differentiation

Take natural logarithm (ln) both sides, differentiate implicitly and solve for y ′ .
√
2 3
x 7x − 14
Example: Compute y ′ if y = .
(1 + x2 )4
√  2√
x2 3 7x − 14

x 3 7x − 14
Solution: y = ⇒ ln y = ln .
(1 + x2 )4 (1 + x2 )4
1
ln y = 2 ln x + ln(7x − 14) − 4 ln(1 + x2 )
  3 
1 (7x − 14)′ (1 + x2 )′
  
1 ′ 1
y = 2 + −4
y x 3 7x − 14 1 + x2
2 7 8x
= + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
 
′ 2 7 8x
y = y + −
x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2
√
x2 3 7x − 14 2
 
7 8x
= + − .
(1 + x2 )4 x 3(7x − 14) 1 + x2

0.8 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

If x = sin y, the inverse function is written y = sin−1 x or y = arcsin x. The inverse trigonometric
functions are multivalued functions.

Example: Find the derivative of y = sin−1 x.

12
Solution: Differentiate implicitly with respect to x. Then sin y = x. Hence,

(sin y)′ = x′
cos yy ′ = 1
1
y′ =
cos y
1
y′ = p
1 − sin2 y
1
= √ .
1 − x2

d 1 d 1 d 1
Some Derivatives. (cos−1 x) = − √ , (cot−1 x) = − , (sec−1 x) = √ .
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 + x2 dx x x2 − 1

1
You Try It: Show that the derivative of tan−1 x = .
1 + x2

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