UNIT – 01

TEACHING OF
MATHEMATICS
"Mathematics should be taught on compulsory basis
to all pupil as a part of general education during the first ten years of schooling."
Kothari Commission
MEANING OF MATHEMATICS
Mathematics in its widest significance is the development of all types of formal
deductive reasoning. The term 'mathematics' may be defined in a number of
ways as no one definition of mathematics is universally accepted. There are so
many definitions in it. Generally it is said to be science of calculation. Someone
says that it is a science of numbers and space and others say that it is a science
of measurement, quantity and magnitude. The meaning of term Mathematics is
the science of calculations. It is also highlighted in National Policy on
Education (1986), as follows-
"Mathematics should be visualized as the vehicle to train a child to think reason,
analyse, articulate, logically. Apart from being a specific subject it should be
treated as a concomitant to any subject involving analysis and meaning."
According to Marshal H Stone "Mathematics is the study of abstract system
built of abstract elements. These elements are not described in concrete
fashion.”

According to a new "Mathematics in strict sense which investigates deductively

the conclusions implicit in the elementary conception of spatial and numerical
relations."
In Hindi we call mathematics as 'Ganita', which means the science of
calculations. It is a systematized, organized and exact branch of science.
Locke said "Mathematics is a way to settle in the mind of children a habit of
reasoning."
According to Bertrand Russell "Mathematics may be defined as the subject in
which we never know what we are talking about, not whether what we are
saying is true."
Galileo said "Mathematics is the language in which God has written the
Universe."
On the basis of above definitions we can say or conclude that
(1) Mathematics is the science of measurement, quantity and magnitude.
(2) Mathematics is the systematized, organized and exact branch of science.
(3) Mathematics is the science of calculations.
(4) Mathematics is the science of measurement, quantity and magnitude.
(5) It deals with quantitative facts and relationships.
(6) It is the abstract form of science.
(7) It is a science of logical reasoning.
(8) It settles in the mind a habit of reasoning.
(9) It is an inductive and experimental science.
10) Mathematics is the science, which draws necessary conclusions.

SCOPE OF MATHEMATICS
By the term scope we mean the breadth, comprehensiveness, variety and the
extent of the learning experiences, the utility in the real-life situations, provided
through the teaching of mathematics. The subject will be important for its
subject matter as well the values it develops among the students. According to
Kothari Commission (1964–66) 'We cannot overstress the importance of
mathematics in relation to science, education and research. This has always
been so, but at no time has the significance of mathematics been greater than
today—it is important that deliberate effort is made to place India in the "world
map of mathematics" within the next two decades or so'.
The scope of mathematics is huge. It encompasses the whole of the universe.
1.3.1 Subject Matter of Mathematics
The subject matter of mathematics includes:
1. Pure or Basic mathematics
2. Applied mathematics
1. Pure Mathematics
Comprehensively, pure mathematics is mathematics that reviews altogether
theoretical ideas. It includes methodical and deductive thinking. It treats just
theories and principles without regard to their applications to concrete things. It
is produced on an abstract, independent premise without any regard to any
conceivable sort of functional applications that may take after. It comprises of
each one of those statements as that assuming such and such proposition is valid
for anything, such and such another proposition is valid for that thing.
Russell (1903) has defined it as "Pure mathematics is the class of all
propositions of the form 'p implies q', where p and q are propositions,
containing one or more variables, the same in two propositions, and neither p
nor q contains any constants except logical constants". Some of the branches
and corresponding fields of pure mathematics are illustrated through Table
Applied Mathematics
Applied mathematics is the application of pure mathematics to serve a given
purpose. It has some direct or practical applications to objects and happenings
in the material world. When problem solutions or proven theorems are adopted
and used in other fields, this becomes applied mathematics. To quote Coulson
(1952), “Applied mathematics is an intellectual adventure in which are
combined creative imagination and authentic canons of beauty and fitness; they
combine to give insight into the nature of the world of which we ourselves, and
our minds are part."
Making use of only pen and paper, we can weigh the earth, prepare for any
space flight, determine the paths of planets, and solve complicated problems of
business in the world. Applied mathematics thus helps in solving the intricate
problems of the physical world. Some of modern applications of mathematics in
fields of applied mathematics are given in Table:
NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
On the basis of what we have studied above, the nature of mathematics can
be listed as follows:
(i) Mathematics is the numerative and calculative part of human life and
knowledge. It deals with quantitative facts and relationships as well as with
problems involving space and form.
(ii) Mathematics deals with relationship between magnitudes of quantitative
and qualitative facts.
(iii) Mathematics is a systematized, organized and exact branch of science as
it provides exact interpretation to the things to be studied. Here answers of
each and every question is judged by yes or no. There is no gap for
discussion between yes and no.
(iv) Mathematics is a kind of language with its own vocabulary and
grammar. This vocabulary consists of concepts, terms, facts, assumptions
and symbols, while the syntax relates to the principles, processes, functional
relationships and the like.
(v) Mathematics develops the ability of induction, deduction and
generalization.
(vi) Rules, laws and formulae of mathematics remain same in the whole
universe and that can be verified at any place and time.
(vii) Mathematics develops the scientific attitude among the children.
Mathematics involves high cognitive powers of human being.
(viii) Mathematics helps in solving the problems of our life and disclosing
the realm of nature and it also deals with quantitative facts and relationships.
(ix) Mathematics is not only related to all the subjects, but also provides
basis for the development of each discipline of human knowledge. The
development of all the sciences depends on the progress of mathematics as
its knowledge is applied to them very frequently.
(x) Mathematics possesses immense aesthetic value.
(xi) Mathematics plays an important role in the organization and
maintenance of our social structure.
(xii) Mathematics finds extensive application in all vocations. A sound and
productive vocational life demands a sound mathematical background.
(xiii) Mathematics induces logical thinking. In mathematical disposition
every step has its rationale and thus the chain of steps leading to a conclusion
or solution is logical.
(xiv) Mathematics is the backbone of modern civilization. It has played a
decisive role in building up every civilization.
(xv) Mathematics is a sequential subject.
(xvi) Mathematics provides a definite way of thinking. During the process of
solving a mathematical problem, students apply logic in a definite sequence
of truth.
(xvii) Mathematics is a study of sets with structures.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

BEFORE WE START the teaching of a subject, it is important for us to
know as to why we are going to teach it. The process of teaching can be kept
on right lines only with the help of clear-cut aims. Aimlessness in teaching
would result in the wastage of time, energy and other resources.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
Education is imparted for achieving certain ends and goals. Various subjects
of the school curriculum are different means to achieve these goals. The term
aims of teaching mathematics stands for the goals, targets or broader
purposes that may be fulfilled by the teaching of mathematics in the general
scheme of education. Aims are like ideals. Their attainment needs a long-
term planning. Their realisation is not an easy task. Therefore, they are
divided into some definite, functional and workable units named as
objectives. The objectives are those short-term, immediate goals or purposes
that may be achieved within the specified classroom situation. They help in
bringing about behavioural changes in the learners for the ultimate
realisation of the aims of teaching mathematics. The aims are broken into
specified objectives to provide definite learning experiences for bringing
about desirable behavioural changes.
AIMS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS
We can prepare a long list of aims of teaching mathematics. These aims
pertain to the entire school stage. Apart from enabling the students to acquire
essential mathematical knowledge, skills, interests and attitudes, the teaching
of mathematics has to help them in many ways:
1. Utilitarian aim
Mathematics will be taught primarily for its practical values and aims. The
student will be given mathematical knowledge and skills needed in his day-
to- day life and enabled to make use of that knowledge and skill. This aim
makes the study of mathematics functional and purposeful and establishes
relation between the subject and practical life.
2. Disciplinary aim
The subject has also to be taught for its disciplinary and intellectual values. It
has to aim at providing training to the mind of the learner and developing
intellectual habits in him.
3. Cultural aim
This aim helps the learner to understand the contribution of mathematics in
the development of civilisation and culture. It has enabled him to understand
the role of mathematics in fine arts and in beautifying human life.
4. Adjustment aim
It is to help the learner to develop a healthy, purposeful, productive, explora-
tory and controlling adjustment with environment.
5. Social aim
It is to help the learner to imbibe essential social virtues.
6. Moral aim
It enables the learners to imbibe the attributes of morality.
7. Aesthetic aim
It is to develop their aesthetic sensibilities, meet their varying interests and
help them in the proper utilisation of their leisure time.
8. International aim
To develop in them international outlook and understanding.
9. Vocational aim
It is to prepare them for technical and other vocations where mathematics is
applied.
10. Inter-disciplinary aim
To give them insight into the application of mathematics in other subjects.
11. Self-education aim
It is to help them to become independent in learning.
12. Educational preparation aim
It is to prepare them for higher education in sciences, engineering,
technology etc.
13. Development of powers aim
It pertains to the development of powers of thinking, reasoning,
concentration, expression, discovery, etc.
14. Harmonious development aim
Ultimately the overall aim of teaching all the subjects including mathematics
is to ensure alround and harmoneous development of the personality of the
child.

OBJECTIVES AT THE ENTIRE SCHOOL STAGE

The objectives of teaching mathematics at the secondary stage may be
classified as under:
a) Knowledge and understanding objectives.
b) Skill objectives.
c) Application objectives.
d) Attitude objectives.
e) Appreciation and interest objectives.
To make them unambiguous and attainable, these objectives are further
expressed in behavioural terms. What the student is expected to achieve is
clearly known to the teacher in the form of desirable behavioural changes.
Different objectives alongwith the relevant behavioural changes are given
below:
A. KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OBJECTIVES
The student acquires knowledge and understanding of:
1. Language of Mathematics: The language of its technical terms, symbols,
statements, formulae, definitions, logic, etc.
2. Various Concepts: concept of number, concept of direction, concept of
measurement.
3. Mathematical Ideas like facts, principles, processes and relationships.
4. The development of the subject over the centuries and contributions of
mathematicians.
5. Inter-relationship between different branches and topics of mathematics,
etc.
6. The nature of the subject of mathematics.
B. SKILL OBJECTIVES
The subject helps the student to develop the following skills :
1. He acquires and develops skill in the use and understanding of
mathematical language.
2. He acquires and develops speed, neatness, accuracy, brevity and precision
in mathematical calculations.
3. He learns and develops technique of problem-solving.
4. He develops the ability to estimate, check and verify results.
5. He develops the ability to perform calculations orally and mentally.
6. He develops ability to think correctly, to draw conclusions, generalisa-
tions and inferences.
7. He develops skills to use mathematical tools, and apparatuses.
8. He develops essential skill in drawing geometrical figures.
9. He develops skill in drawing, reading, interpreting graphs and statistical
tables.
10. He develops skill in measuring, weighing and surveying.
11. He develops skill in the use of mathematical tables and ready refer-
ences.
C. APPLICATION OBJECTIVES
The subject helps the student to apply the above mentioned knowledge and
skills in the following way:
1. He is able to solve mathematical problems independently.
2. He makes use of mathematical concepts and processes in everyday life. 3.
He develops ability to analyse, to draw inferences, and to generalise from the
collected data and evidence.
4. He can think and express precisely, exactly, and systematically by making
proper use of mathematical language.
5. He develops the ability to use mathematical knowledge in the learning of
other subjects especially sciences.
6. He develops the students' ability to apply mathematics in his future
vocational life.
D. ATTITUDE OBJECTIVES
The subject helps to develop the following attitudes :
1. The student learns to analyse the problems.
2. Develops the habit of systematic thinking and objective reasoning. 3. He
develops heuristic attitude and tries to discover solutions and proofs with his
own independent efforts.
4. He tries to collect enough evidence for drawing inferences, conclusions
and generalisations.
5. He recognises the adequacy or inadequacy of given data in relation to any
problem.
6. He verifies his results.
7. He understands and appreciates logical, critical and independent think- ing
in others.
8. He expresses his opinions precisely, accurately, logically and objec- tively
without any biases and prejudices.
9. He develops personal qualities, e.g., regularity, honesty, objectivity,
neatness and truthfulness.
 10. He develops self-confidence for solving mathematical problems. 11. He
develops mathematical perspective and outlook for observing the realm of
nature and society.
12. He shows originality and creativity.

E. APPRECIATION AND INTEREST OBJECTIVES

The student is helped in the acquisition of appreciations and interests in the
following way:
ment.
1. He appreciates the role of mathematics everyday life.
2. He appreciates the role of mathematics in understanding his environ-
3. He appreciates mathematics as the science of all sciences and art of all
arts.
4. He appreciates the contribution made by mathematics in the develop-
ment of civilisation and culture.
5. He appreciates the aesthetic nature of mathematics by observing sym-
metry, similarity, order and arrangement in mathematical facts, principles
and processes.
6. He appreciates the contribution of mathematics in the development of
other branches of knowledge.
7. He appreciates the recreational values of the subject and learns to utilise it
in his leisure time.
8. He appreciates the vocational value of mathematics.
9. He appreciates the role of mathematical language, graphs and tables in
giving precision and accuracy to his expression.
10. He appreciates the power of computation developed through the subject.
11. He appreciates the role of mathematics in developing his power of a
quiring knowledge.
12. He appreciates mathematical problems, their intricacies and difficulties.
13. He develops interest in the learning of the subject.
14. He feels entertained by mathematical recreations.
15. He takes an active interest in the activities of mathematics club. 16. He
takes an active interest in active library reading, mathematical projects, and
doing practical work in mathematics laboratory.

BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The word taxonomy is derived from the Greek word 'Taxis', which means a
system of classification. The taxonomy of educational objectives, often
called Bloom's Taxonomy, is a classification of the different learning
objectives that educators set for educands.
Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago,
propounded this taxonomy in 1956. It has been worked out on the
assumptions that the teaching-learning process may be conceived as an
attempt to change the behaviour of the pupils with respect to some subject
matter or learning experiences. Behaviour is divided into three domains:
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Accordingly, Bloom's Taxonomy
divides educational objectives into three domains.
Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the
higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and
skills at lower levels (Orlich, et al. 2004). Dr. Bloom and his associates gave
the classification of objectives of all the three domains. Bloom's taxonomy
was created to motivate teachers to center around all three domains of human
behavior in order to achieve all round development of the children.
Main Aspects/Domains of Taxonomy
The taxonomy has the following three aspects:
1. Cognitive Domain (knowing): Cognition refers to the ability of the mind
to assimilate and process information received and convert it into new
knowledge and understanding. The source of the information could be
anything, from tangible to intangible like classrooms, experiences (personal
or others), senses etc. It simply refers to the ability to acquire new
knowledge through mental processing of the information. Through cognitive
processing we construct new knowledge using existing knowledge. The
cognitive domain is concerned with cognition i.e. the mental ability to
process information. Cognitive objectives are the high end points of
expected mental ability of students for a particular age and connote the level
of information processing by the students. The objectives stipulate the
standard of knowledge the students should possess to perform certain tasks
following learning. Cognitive processes like memory, evaluation,
computation, reasoning, recognition of facts etc. are employed while
performing a task. The cognitive domain thus encompasses all objectives
that deal with cognitive processes.
2. Affective Domain (feeling): The affective domain is related with feelings.
The domain incorporates attitudes, interests, emotions, values, appreciations
and social adjustments. Affective learning and cognitive learning are not
totally independent.
3. Conative/Psychomotor Domain (doing): Oxford dictionary defines
conation as the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or will to perform an
action; volition. Conation refers to the mental processes that relate to
wanting or intending or desiring to do something. It is closely related to
volition i.e. personal and intentional motivation of behavior. Why do we do
something? Why did I do this and not something else? are the kind of
questions that belong to this domain.
The subject matter of this domain is the learning of physical skills and thus it
includes objectives dealing with motor skills. Motor activities are the ones
that require physical action like writing, swimming, painting, driving etc and
are controlled by the cerebral cortex of our brain. Our muscles contract and
movements happen under instruction from the cerebral cortex using a
complex system of signal transmission through the nerves that finally end in
the muscles. Every activity requires a different set of muscles and different
muscles are controlled by a different areas of the cortex. Thus motor skills
involve mental as well as muscular component and close coordination
between them. The objectives of this domain pertain to attainment of
proficiency in the motor skills by increasing the coordination between the
mental and physical components as well as the coordination between the
different muscles involved in the activity.
4.4.2 Taxonomic Categories of Domains
While Bloom presented his taxonomy related to cognitive domain (1956),
his associate Krathwohl related to affective domain (1964) and Simpson
related to psychomotor/conative domain (1966). In Table 4.3, the taxonomic
categories of each domain have been presented.
These categories are in hierarchical order. The first is the prerequisite of the
second and the last category; previous categories are the prerequisites. The
three taxonomies could be called the CAP (Cognitive, Affective and
Psychomotor) classification of objectives. Figure 4.2 shows hierarchical
nature of categories of the three domains
1. Instructional Objectives in Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain may be presented in the following hierarchical order:
(i) Knowledge: This lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive
domain is characterized as recollecting of already learned material by
recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers.
(a) Knowledge of specifics: Specific knowledge means that knowledge
which can be isolated from other knowledge. It includes dates, events,
particular persons and places. In short, it is concerned with the general
information and recalling of specific facts.
(b) Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics: In this class,
organized study and criticism of the various ways and means of the
knowledge are carried out. Each subject area has its own technique, own
criteria, own classification and own structure. These are used in the search
for specifics. With this knowledge, evaluation of the specific is done. This
knowledge is concerned with ways and means. These exhibit the activity
instead of results. This knowledge tells us how a person deals with some
problem. It is concerned with the results of the efforts. (c) Knowledge of the
universals and abstractions: This knowledge is concerned with those ideas,
plans and systems which organize the events and ideas. There are many
principles and generalizations which are very peculiar in some subject, and
these principles and generalizations are very frequently used in solving some
problem.
(ii) Comprehension: It is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of
material. Objectives at the comprehension level require some degree of
understanding. A student who has acquired understanding level will be able
to grasp meaning, translate from one medium to another, interpret facts,
compare, contrast, predict consequences, organize and select facts and ideas.
(iii) Application: This is the third stage in the hierarchical order in cognitive
domain. Objectives written at the application level require the student to use
previously learned information or knowledge in unfamiliar situations and
solve problems. Application objectives differ from comprehension objectives
in that application requires the presentation of a problem in a different and
applied context. Thus the student can rely on neither the content nor the
context in which the original learning occured to solve the problem.
(iv) Analysis: It implies ability to break down information into its constituent
parts with the goal that its organizational structure may be comprehended.
Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than
understanding and application because they require an understanding of both
the content and structural form of information. It includes analysis of
elements, analysis of relationship and analysis of organizational principles.
(a) Analysis of elements: It involves the identification elements included in a
particular problem.
(b) Analysis of relationship: At this stage, a student is expected to know that
the elements identified are related to the problem, idea or thought and also to
each other. (c) Analysis of organizational principles: It involves the
organizational, systematic arrangement and structuring of principles
involved in the problem.
A student who has acquired analysis level will be able to see patterns,
organize the parts, recognize hidden meaning, identify components,
subdivide something to show how it is put together, separation of a whole
into components parts.
(v) Synthesis: Synthesis can be defined as the ability of joining together
elements or parts of a concept arranging and combining them so as to form a
whole. Objectives written at this level require students to use already
discovered knowledge to create a new one. At this level, students will be
able to solve unfamiliar problem in a unique manner. (vi) Evaluation: The
highest category of objectives in the cognitive domain. Objectives written at
this level require the student to form judgments and make decisions about
the value of methods, ideas, people, products that have specific purposes.
There are two components in the evaluation objectives.
(a) Judgement in terms of internal evidence: This is based on the logical
accuracy, consistency and other internal criteria.
(b) Judgement in terms of external criteria: It includes the evaluation of
material with reference to scientific, social and economic standards.
A student who has acquired evaluation level will be able to compare and
discriminate between ideas, assess value of theories, presentations, make
choices based on reasoned argument, verify value of evidence, make value
decision about issues, decisions and so on.
Some critiques of Bloom's Taxonomy (cognitive domain) admit the presence
of a sequential, hierarchical link. Also, the revised edition of Bloom's
taxonomy has moved synthesis in higher order than evaluation. Some
consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered and the three higher
levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to
application before presenting concepts.
2. Instructional Objectives in Affective Domain
There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest
order processes to the highest.
(i) Receiving: This is the first and lowest category under this domain. The
learners are sensitized to the existence of a certain stimuli. It means willing
to receive or to attend the stimuli. This category includes:
(a) Awareness of stimuli or situation or phenomena
(b) Willingness to receive these stimuli or to attend situations or phenomena
(c) Controlled or selected attention of learners
(ii) Responding: This category refers to greater motivation and regularity in
attention. It may also for practical consideration be described as interest - a
tendency to respond to a particular object or stimuli. The sublevels of this
category are:
(a) Acquiescence in responding
(b) Willingness to respond
(c) Learner's satisfaction in response
(iii) Valuing: This is the third level under affective domain and implies
commitment to certain goal ideals or values. This objective includes
development of attitudes. The subcategories
are:
(a) Acceptance of a value
(b) Preference for a value
(c) Commitment to a value
Valuing is the process of internalization in which the individual personalizes
the worth of certain beliefs, objects or attitudes. At the first level, valuing is
fairly passive. The learner accepts the value, but without going out of his
way to practice it. In the succeeding stages, the valuing becomes more
active. Testing for valuing seeks evidence of some considerable intensity. At
the stage of commitment, the duration of the valuing is significant and is not
forced from the outside - the learner accepts it as part of himself.
(iv) Organization: This level is related to building a system of values. At this
level, values are conceptualized and clashes between values are settled and
interrelationships are set up. This level of affective domain includes the
cognitive behaviour of analysis and synthesis. Development of one's own
code of conduct or standard of public life is an example of the organization
of a value system. It has three levels:
(a) Organization of values into a system
(b) Determination of interrelationship among them
(c) Establishment of dominant values
For the organization of these values, their conceptualization is very essential.
This provides a proper place to the values.
(v) Characterization by a value or value complex: The last category includes
generalized set and characterization. The individual acts persistently and
consistently in accordance with the values he has internalized. It regulates a
person's behaviour through certain values, ideas or beliefs and the integration
of values and attitude into a world view or total philosophy of his own life. It
has also the following two levels:
(a) Generalized set
(b) Specification or characterization of values

Many students move towards becoming characterized by a value complex as

they commit themselves to become scientists, doctors, historians or
humanitarians. As their dedication and role specification increase, the
externalization of their role concept becomes increasingly obvious.

3. Instructional Objectives in Psychomotor Domain

Simpson (1966) has described the process of skill development involving
five steps in a hierarchical order. A brief description of these is:
(i) Perception: The first step in acquiring a physical skill is becoming aware
of objects, qualities or relations through sense organs. To know the external
objects, knowledge of characteristics or relations, knowing the objects in
terms of their names, forms and characteristics differences are said to be
perception. In simple words, assigning some nomenclature to some object or
an event after looking at them is known as perception. (ii) Set: It seeks the
cooperation of all the three aspects - mental, physical and emotional. The
adjustment of these sets gives birth to a specific type of set.
(iii) Guided response: The guided response is considered the first stage of the
development of psychomotor skills. Guided response is the overt behavioural
act of an individual under the guidance of another individual.
(iv) Mechanism: A particular type of mechanism develops when a pupil
succeeds in developing certain quantity of a skill through the continuous
practice or doing an activity. In short, the collection of possible responses is
known as a mechanism; but it includes correct responses.
(v) Complex overt response: This level includes all those abilities of persons
with the help of which they are able to accomplish the most difficult task.
Hence, the level of this object is considered of the highest order. Proficiency
plays an important role. On the basis of this proficiency, skill can be
acquired. After acquiring the skill, convenient methods of doing the tasks get
developed. Hence, the accomplishment of the task consumes minimum
energy and time.

Mathematical system and structure

Mathematics includes many components which are in themselves a
mathematical system. These components are called fundamental building
blocks of mathematics. The knowledge and understanding of mathematical
system is quite essential for carrying out the process of deductive reasoning
in mathematics.
Mathematics also provides mathematical structures. In a structure we study
elements of a set together with the results of the operations on the elements
of the set. These structures exhibit a set pattern of properties. Let us try to
get acquainted with mathematical system and structure one by one.
2.1 MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM
Mathematical system has the following four parts:
1. Undefined Terms
2. Defined Terms
3. Axioms or Postulates and Conjectures
4. Theorems
2.1.1 Undefined Terms
In mathematical system, we come across many terms which cannot be
precisely defined. In modern mathematics we accept certain undefined or
primitive terms. The choice of the undefined terms is completely arbitrary
and generally to facilitate the development of the structure. Mathematicians
are free to fix undefined terms according to the system.
For example: Point, line, plane, surface etc. have been accepted as undefined
terms in geometry. Similarly in arithmetic the undefined terms are '0',
'number' (in the sense of non- negative whole number) and 'successor' (in the
sense that x + 1 is the successor of x).
2.1.2 Defined Terms
There are certain terms of mathematical system that are defined in terms of
undefined terms. For example: Angle, line segment, circle, point etc.
2.1.3 Axioms or Postulates and Conjecture
From defined terms we develop propositions or statements concerning
mathematical principles.
1. Propositions
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true (denoted either by T
or 1) or false (denoted either by F or 0), but not both. Variables are used to
represent propositions. The most common variables used are p, q and r.
Here are some examples of mathematical propositions:
■ 2 × 2 = 5 (false proposition)
■ 3+3 = 6 (true proposition)
■ 'Y+2=2Y when Y = -2'
☐ 6 is a prime number.
Here are some sentences that are not propositions:
■ '2Y=2+Y'. This is a declarative sentence, but unless Y is assigned a value
or is otherwise prescribed, the sentence can neither be true nor be false,
hence, not a proposition.
■p + q> 4. Is this true or false? It depends on the value of p and q, the
statement takes a true or false value.
■ y = 5. You cannot associate a truth value to this because it simply assigns a
value to y. The truth value of a statement is true (T) or false (F), according as
it is true or false, respectively.
Thus, 2+3 = 5 being true, its truth value is T
And, 4 + 6 = 11 being false, its truth value is F
Sometimes a statement is not really a single statement. It is a combination of
statements called a compound statement.
(a) Different modes of combining statements (Use of 'if' and 'then', ‘and/or',
'if and if only') Following are the different modes of combining statement:
(i) Conjunction: A compound statement joining two statements by “and” is
called a conjunction. If we denote one statement by 'p' and another statement
by ‘q' then a conjunction is denoted as p^ q.
e.g. p: 5>3
q: 7 <10
р^q: 5 > 3 л 7 < 10

Hence it can be said that "A conjunction p ^ q is true if both p and q are true
and false otherwise."
(ii) Disjunction: A compound statement joining two statements by "Or” is
called a disjunction. If 'p' and 'q' are two statements, then it is denoted by
p v q.
e.g. On solving a quadratic equation to write its solution we will use
disjunction (y − 2) (y-3)= 0 then solution is y = 2 or 3 expressed as y = 2 v 3.
Hence it can be concluded that “A disjunction is false if both the compound
statements are false and true otherwise"
(iii) Implication: A compound statement in the form of “If ..... then ..... ” is
called implication. If 'p' and 'q' are two statements, then implication is
denoted by p⇒ q.
e.q. p: Two parallel lines are cut by a transversal
q: Alternate interior angles are equal
p⇒ q: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal then alternate interior
angles are equal.

The above table leads us to conclude that "A true statement can not imply a
false statement" (iv) Equivalence: If 'p' and 'q' are two statements then the
statements "p⇒ q^ q⇒ p” is called a double implication or equivalence
statement. It is denoted as p↔ q (read as p is equivalent to q)
e.g. p⇒ q: If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then alternate interior
angles are congruent.
q ← p: If two lines are cut by a transversal and alternate interior angles are
congruent, then the lines are parallel.
p↔q: Two lines are parallel if and only if they may be congruent interior
angles after cutting by a transversal.

(b) Nature of propositions

(i) Propositions are expressed by sentences uttered in contexts: We express
propositions by uttering sentences and we recover the proposition expressed
by an utterance by computing on the meanings of the words used, the syntax
of the sentence and facts about the context of utterance. Propositions do not
have to feature in formal semantics at all.
(ii) Propositions are the primary bearers of the properties truth and falsity: It
may be that propositions are true or false relative to possible worlds, in
which case they are also be the bearers of the properties of necessary truth
and contingent truth. Other things can also be called 'true' and 'false', but
their truth and falsity will be explained in terms of the truth and falsity of
propositions: an utterance of a sentence is true if the proposition expressed is
true; a state of belief is true if the content of the belief (a proposition) is true;
and so on.
(iii) Propositions are the objects of logic: Propositions and/or sets thereof are
the bearers of logical properties such as logical truth and satisfiability, and
the relata of logical relations such as logical consequence and equivalence.
(iv) Proposition as self-evident truth: Some mathematicians believe that for a
self-evidently true proposition, it is not possible to demonstrate its trueness
to deniers. However, such a belief is not correct. What is correct is that for a
proposition that is self-evidently true, mathematical reasoning — either
deductive or inductive, cannot be employed since such a proposition is
neither derived from an existing premise or from generalizations. Such a
proposition stands on its own.
2. Quantifiers
There are propositions whose truth depends on the value of one or more
variables. These propositions are called predicate. For example, 'n is a
perfect square' is a predicate whose truth depends on the value of n. The
predicate is true for n = 4 since 4 is a perfect square, but false for n = 5 since
5 is not a perfect square.
There are a several affirmations usually made about a predicate that it is
sometimes true and that it is always true. For example, the predicate ‘y 2 ≥ 0'
is always true when y is a real number. Then again, the predicate, ‘3x2 - 5 =
0' is only sometimes true; specifically, when x = ±5/3. There are a few
different ways to express the notions of 'always true' and 'sometimes true' as:
(i) Always true
■ For all n, P(n) is true.
P(n) is true for every n.
■ For all y € R, y2 ≥ 0.
y2 ≥ 0 for every y € R
(ii) Sometimes true
■There exists an n such that P(n) is true.
P(n) is true for some n.
P(n) is true for at least one n.
■ There exists an x € R such that 3x2 - 5 = 0
3x2-5= 0 for some x € R
3x2-50 for at least one x € R
Every one of these sentences quantifies how often the predicate is true.
Particularly, an assertion that a predicate is always true is called a
universally quantified statement. An assertion that a predicate is sometimes
true is called an existentially quantified statement. Quantified statements are
themselves propositions and can be combined with 'AND' OR IMPLIES',
etc., simply like any other proposition. There are symbols to represent
universal and existential quantification, just as there are symbols for 'AND'
and 'IMPLIES' and so forth.
A quantifier is a logical symbol which makes an assertion about the set of
values which make one or more formulas true. This is an exceedingly
general concept; the vast majority of mathematics is done with the two
standard quantifiers, \ (for all) and (there exist). Quantifiers give information
about the 'how many' in the statements in which they occur. For example: all,
some, one and none or no.
(a) Uses of quantifiers
(i) Quantifiers are used to describe variables in statements. The phrases,
■ For all y in R
■ For every y in R
■Let y be in R
■ If y is an arbitrary element of R
can be translated symbolically into: ∀ y = R.
The phrases,
■ There exists an y in R such that
■ For some y in R
■There is an y in R such that
can be translated symbolically into: Ǝ ⇒ y = R.
(ii) Quantifiers are used to represent statements in symbolic form

Theorem
When a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. We can also
say statements which are proved using the undefined terms, definitions,
postulates and accepted rules of logics are known as theorems.
First half of the statement of theorem is termed as premise on which second
half of the statement in the form of a conclusion is based. Symbolically, if
we name the first half of the statement as 'p' and the second half as ‘q' then
the statement of a theorem can be represented as p→ q (p implies q). For
example Linear pair Theorem states: 'If two angles form a linear pair, then
they are supplementary'. In this example, first half is predicate (p) and
second half is conclusion (q).
1. Variants of Mathematical Theorem
A mathematical theorem (p → q) has its variants in the three forms:
(i) Converse of Theorem (q → p)
(ii) Inverse of Theorem (-p) → (− q)
(iii) Contrapositive of the Theorem (−q) → (−p)
(i) Converse of theorem: Converse of the theorem is obtained by getting its
premise (p) and conclusion (q) changed. Converse of the linear pair theorem
is stated as below: 'If two angles are supplementary, then they form linear
pair'.
(ii) Inverse of theorem: Inverse of the theorem is obtained in terms of
negation of the premise as well as conclusion. Inverse of the linear pair
theorem is stated as below: 'If two angles do not form a linear pair, then they
are not supplementary'.
(iii) Contrapositive of the theorem: Contrapositive of the theorem is obtained
by replacing in a theorem, its premise by the negation of its conclusion and
the conclusion by the negation of its premise. Contrapositive of the linear
pair theorem is stated as below: 'If two angles are not supplementary, then
they do not form a linear pair'.

2. Proof of a Theorem
An argument that establishes the truth of a theorem is called its proof. In
proving theorems, we generally come across two types of proofs:
(i) Direct Proof
(ii) Indirect Proof
(i) Direct proof: Direct proof is deductive nature of the proof. A deductive
argument consists of hypothesis (given statements) together with conclusion
(the result that follows). Thus, in direct proof we arrange a chain of
reasoning (steps) from a given proposition (called hypothesis) to the desired
conclusion. The reasoning is 'If p implies q and q implies r, then p implies r'.

Example: Prove that the product of two odd integers is an odd integer.
Proof: Let x and y be any two odd integers.
Then, there exist two integers m and n such that
x = (2m + 1) and y = (2n + 1)
Therefore, xy= (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 4mn + 2m + 2n + 1.
xy= 2(2mn+m+ n) + 1, which is clearly odd.
Hence, the product of two odd integers is an odd integer.

(ii) Indirect proof (proof by contradiction): This kind of reasoning is often

used in everyday life. Here, we assume that the theorem is false. So that this
assumption leads to an obviously false consequence called a contradiction.
Example: Prove that if n2 is an odd positive integer then n is odd.
Proof: If possible let n2 be an odd positive integer and n is not odd. Then, n is
even. Let n = 2k for some positive integer k
This implies n2 = 4 k2 = 2(2k2), which is even
But, this contradicts the fact that n2 is odd.
Since the contradiction arises by assuming that n is even, so n is not even
and hence it must be odd.

Proof and verification

Sometimes a statement is true for some of the values and for these values, it
can be verified. But, based on them, we cannot generalize it. Thus,
verification is not a proof.
Example: Verify the statement 'Every odd number greater than 1 is a prime
number' by taking three odd numbers
Is it true for all odd numbers? Give a counter example.
Proof: Clearly, 3, 5, 7 are odd numbers greater than 1 and each one is prime.
However, the given statement is not true for all odd numbers greater than 1
Counter-example: 9 is an odd number greater than 1, which is not prime.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram)
are used to teach elementary set theory, as well as illustrate simple set
relationships in probability, logic, statistics, linguistics and computer
science. They were brought about by Venn in 1880.
Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets and operations on sets. The
universe is schematically represented by a rectangle and sets are represented
by means of circles (shaded or unshaded) within the rectangle. Disjoint set is
represented by disjoint circles and intersecting sets are represented by
intersecting circles.
Venn diagrams do not generally contain information on the relative or
absolute sizes (cardinality) of sets; i.e. they are schematic diagrams showing
all possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets.
Figure 2.2 represents a set A and its complement in the universe U and
Figure 2.3 represents set B which is a subset of A. The operations of

intersection and union are represented in Figures 2.4 and 2.5 and two disjoint
sets are shown in Figure 2.6.

Uses of Venn diagrams

■ Venn diagrams are used to represent relationship between sets.
■ With the help of Venn diagrams, abstract ideas can be arranged easily.
■ They are used broadly to compare groups of things.
 ■ Generally mathematical problems which demand logical thinking and
deductive reasoning are solved using Venn diagrams.
■ These diagrams are widely used in other disciplines also for organization,
evaluation and visual representation of complex relationships.
■ With the help of Venn diagrams it becomes possible to identify similarities
and differences between two or three sets of items.

Number and Digit

Digit: A digit is a single symbol used to represent numbers. The most
common digits are from the decimal system, which uses the digits 0 through
9. For example, in the number 345, the digits are 3, 4, and 5.
Number: A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, or
label. Numbers can consist of one or more digits. For instance, the number
345 is made up of three digits (3, 4, and 5), while the number 7 consists of
just one digit.
In summary, digits are the individual components that make up numbers.

Differences between Number and Digit

Number Digit

Numbers are digit or group of digit A single value

Defination used to represent quantities in used to represent a
number system. value.

Numbers start from 0 and end at Digits start from 0

.Range
infinity. and end at 9.

Every number is not a digit however

Every digit is a
consist of digits but we can’t always
Composition number.
call it as a whole as a digit.
 Digits are the
Represents a complete value or
building blocks of
Representation quantity in number system.
numbers

The number 57 is made up of digit ‘2’ The digit ‘9’ in

Example
and ‘7’. ’49’

Types of Numbers
The numbers can be classified into sets known as the number system. The
different types of numbers in maths are:

Natural Numbers: Natural numbers are known as counting numbers that contain
the positive integers from 1 to infinity. The set of natural numbers is denoted as
“N” and it includes N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….}
Whole Numbers: Whole numbers are known as non-negative integers and it
does not include any fractional or decimal part. It is denoted as “W” and the set
of whole numbers includes W = {0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….}
Integers: Integers are the set of all whole numbers but it includes a negative set
of natural numbers also. “Z” represents integers and the set of integers are Z = {
-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
Real Numbers: All the positive and negative integers, fractional and decimal
numbers without imaginary numbers are called real numbers. It is represented
by the symbol “R”.
Rational Numbers: Any number that can be written as a ratio of one number
over another number is written as rational numbers. This means that any
number that can be written in the form of p/q. The symbol “Q” represents the
rational number.
Irrational Numbers: The number that cannot be expressed as the ratio of one
over another is known as irrational numbers and it is represented by the symbol
”P”.
Complex Numbers: The number that can be written in the form of a+bi where
“a and b” are the real number and “i” is an imaginary number is known as
complex numbers “C”.
Imaginary Numbers: The imaginary numbers are the complex numbers that can
be written in the form of the product of a real number and the imaginary unit “i”
Even Numbers: The numbers which are exactly divisible by 2, are called even
numbers. These can be positive or negative integers such as -42, -36, -12, 2, 4, 8
and so on.
Odd Numbers: The numbers which are not exactly divisible by 2, are called odd
numbers. These can be both positive and negative integers such as -3, -15, 7, 9,
17, 25 and so on.
Prime Numbers: Prime numbers are the numbers that have two factors only.
(i.e.,) 1 and the number itself. In other words, the number which is divided by 1
and the number itself is called prime numbers. For example, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, etc.
Composite Numbers: A composite number is a number that has more than two
factors. For example, 4 is a composite number, as the number 4 is divisible by
1, 2, and 4. Other examples of composite numbers are 6, 8, 9, 10, and so on.
 Special Numbers
Cardinal Numbers: Cardinal number defines how many of something are
there in a list, such as one, five, ten, etc.
Ordinal Numbers: Ordinal numbers explain the position of something in a
list, such as first, second, third, fourth, and so on.
Nominal Numbers: Nominal number is used only as a name. It does not
denote an actual value or the position of something.
Pi (π): Pi is a special number, which is approximately equal to 3.14159.
Pi (π) is defined as the ratio of the circumference of the circle divided by the
diameter of the circle.
(i.e.,) Circumference/ Diameter = π = 3.14159.
Euler’s Number (e): Euler’s number is one of the important numbers in
Maths, and it is approximately equal to 2.7182818. It is an irrational number
and it is the base of the natural logarithm.
Golden Ratio (φ): A golden ratio is a special number and it is approximately
equal to 1.618. It is an irrational number and the digits do not follow any
pattern.

Characteristics of Numbers
The properties of numbers are basically stated for real numbers. The common
properties are:
Commutative Property: If a and b are two real numbers, then according to
commutative property;
a+b = b+a
a.b = b.a
Example: 2+3 = 3+2
and 2 × 3 = 3 × 2
Associative Property: If a, b and c are three real numbers, then according to
associative property;
(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
(a.b).c = a.(b.c)
Example: (1+2)+3 = 1+(2+3)
(1.2).3 = 1.(2.3)

Distributive Property: If a, b and c are three real numbers, then according to

distributive property;
a × (b + c) = a×b + a×c
Example: 2 × (3 + 4) = 2×3 + 2×4
2×7=6+8
14 = 14
Closure Property: If a number is added to another number, then the result will
be a number only, such as;
a+b = c; where a, b and c are three real numbers.
Example: 1+2 = 3
Identity Property: If we add zero to a number or multiply by 1, the number will
remain unchanged.
a+0=a
a.1 =a
Example: 5+0 = 5 and 5 x 1 = 5
Additive Inverse: If a number is added to its own negative number, then the
result is zero.
a+(-a) = 0
Example: 3+(-3) = 3-3 = 0
Multiplicative Inverse: If a number apart from 0, is multiplied to its own
reciprocal then the result is 1.
a x (1/a) = 1
Example: 23 x (1/23) = 1
Zero Product Property: If a.b = 0, then;
either a = 0 or b = 0.
Example: 7 x 0 = 0 or 0 x 6 = 6
Reflexive Property: This property reflects the number itself.
a=a
Example: 9 = 9
The properties which are explained above can vary based on the different types
of numbers. To learn the properties of different types of numbers, please check
the link given below: