Ferralso
Ferralso
Ferralso
The Reference Soil Group of the Ferralsols represents the ‘classical’, deeply weathered, red or yellow
soils of the humid tropics. These soils have diffuse horizon boundaries, a clay assemblage dominated
by low activity clays (mainly kaolinite) and a high content of sesquioxides. Local names usually refer
to the colour of the soil. Internationally, Ferralsols are known as Oxisols (Soil Taxonomy, USA),
Latosols (Brazil), Sols ferralitiques (France), Lateritic soils, Ferralitic soils (Russia) and Ferralsols
(FAO).
Definition of Ferralsols
Soils
1 having a ferralic horizon at some depth between 25 and 200 cm from the soil surface, and
2 lacking a nitic horizon within 100 cm from the soil surface, and
3 lacking an argic horizon that has 10 percent or more water-dispersible clay within 30 cm from its
upper boundary unless the soil material has geric properties or contains more than 1.4 percent or-
ganic carbon.
Connotation: red and yellow tropical soils with a high content of sesquioxides; from L. ferrum, iron and
aluminium, alum.
Parent material: strongly weathered material on old, stable geomorphic surfaces; more in weathering
material from basic rock than in siliceous material.
Environment: typically in level to undulating land of Pleistocene age or older; less common on younger,
easily weathering rocks. Perhumid or humid tropics; minor occurrences elsewhere are considered to be
relics from past eras with a wetter climate than today.
Profile development: ABC-profiles. Deep and intensive weathering has resulted in a residual concen-
tration of resistant primary minerals alongside sesquioxides and well-crystallized kaolinite. This min-
eralogy and the low pH explain the stable microstructure (pseudo-sand) and yellowish (goethite) or
reddish (hematite) soil colours.
Use: Ferralsols have good physical properties but are chemically poor. Their low natural fertility and
tendency to ‘fix’ phosphates are serious limitations. In natural systems, the limited stock of plant nutri-
ents is in a constant process of ‘cycling’ with most nutrients contained in the biomass. Many Ferralsols
are (still) used for shifting cultivation. Liming and full fertilization are required for sustainable seden-
tary agriculture.
Regional distribution of Ferralsols
The worldwide extent of Ferralsols is estimated at some 750 million hectares, almost exclusively in the
humid tropics on the continental shields of South America (Brazil) and Africa (Zaire, southern Central
African Republic, Angola, Guinea and eastern Madagascar). Outside the continental shields, Ferralsols
are restricted to regions with easily weathering basic rock and a hot and humid climate, e.g. in southeast
Asia. See Figure 1.
Ferralsols tend to occupy the upper portions of stable land surfaces in the humid tropics where they oc-
cur alongside Acrisols (in lower positions or on more acidic parent rock such as gneiss) or Nitisols that
evolved on top of more basic rock such as dolerite. Clear zonality of Ferralsols and Acrisols exists on
a continental scale. Ferralsols are dominant in (humid) Central Africa with Acrisols occurring in the
sub-humid periphery of the Ferralsol area, extending into West and East Africa. In South America, Fer-
ralsols are prevalent in the more humid eastern Amazon Basin and Acrisols in the western Amazon.
Genesis of Ferralsols
Water affects primary minerals through the processes of 'hydration' and 'hydrolysis'.
• hydration is water absorption by solid particles.
• hydrolysis is the process of H +-ions penetrating minerals such as feldspars, which then release
bases (K, Na, Ca, Mg). Hydrolysis weakens the structure of the minerals because the hydrogen ion
is much smaller than the cations it replaces. Dissolution of Si and Al are accelerated in the process.
'Ferralitization' is hydrolysis in an advanced stage. If the soil temperature is high and percolation in-
tense (humid climate!), all weatherable primary minerals will ultimately dissolve and be removed from
the soil mass. Less soluble compounds such as iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides and coarse
quartz grains remain behind. Ferralitization (or 'desilication' as it is also called) is furthered by the fol-
lowing conditions:
1 Low soil-pH and low concentrations of dissolved weathering products in the soil solution pro-
mote desilication and build-up of high levels of (residual) Fe and Al. CO2 in the soil (from res-
piration by roots and soil organisms feeding on organic matter) and percolating rainwater depress
the pH of the soil and lower the concentrations of weathering products.
2 Geomorphic stability over prolonged periods of time is essential. Ferralitization is a very slow
process, even in the tropics where high temperatures increase reaction rates and solubility limits.
Note that old erosion surfaces are more common in the tropics than in temperate regions where
recent glacial processes shaped the landscape.
3 Basic parent material contains relatively much iron and aluminium in easily weatherable miner-
als, and little silica. Ferralitization proceeds much slower in acidic material that contains more
quartz. Even though most silica is leached from the soil (hence 'desilication'), the silica content
of the soil solution remains higher than in soils in basic material. This silica combines with alu-
minium to the 1:1 clay mineral kaolinite ('kaolinitization'), in particular where internal drainage
is impeded and dissolved silica is less quickly removed (see Table 1).
Table 1. Schematic occurrence of gibbsite (Al(OH)3 ) and kaolinite in strongly weathered soils
with various drainage conditions.
Ferrihydrite (Fe(OH) 3; see also the chapter on Andosols) is a common weathering product of iron-rich
parent material. Hematite (Fe2 O3 , the mineral that gives many tropical soils their bright red colour)
forms out of ferrihydrite if:
1 the iron concentration is high, and
2 the organic matter content is low (Fe-humus complexes inactivate Fe !), and
3 the temperature is high (accelerates dehydration of ferrihydrite and decomposition of organic
matter), and
4 the soil-pH is above 4.0 (else Fe(OH)2 +-monomers are formed).
Goethite (FeOOH, more orange in colour than bright red hematite) is formed when one or more of the
above conditions are not (fully) met.
Characteristics of Ferralsols
Morphological characteristics
Ferralsols are deep, intensely weathered soils. By and large, Ferralsols have the following characteristic
features:
1 a deep solum (usually several meters thick) with diffuse or gradual horizon boundaries.
2 a ‘ferralic’ subsurface horizon, reddish (hematite) or yellowish (goethite) in colour, with weak
macro-structure and strong microstructure (‘pseudo-silt’ and ‘pseudo-sand’) and friable consist-
ence. Soils with 60 percent or more clay 'feel loamy' and have similar pore volume and mechan-
ical properties as medium or even light-textured soils.
3 deep internal drainage and absence of conspicuous mottles.
Mineralogical characteristics
Ferralsols are characterized by relative accumulation of stable primary and secondary minerals; easily
weathering primary minerals such as glasses and ferro-magnesian minerals and even the more resistant
feldspars and micas have disappeared completely. Quartz is the main primary mineral (if originally
present in the parent rock). The clay assemblage is dominated by kaolinite, goethite, hematite and gibb-
site in varying amounts, in line with the kind of parent material and the drainage conditions (see also
Table 1).
Hydrological characteristics
Most Ferralsols are clayey (a consequence of advanced weathering) and have strong water retention at
permanent wilting point while the presence of micro-aggregates reduces moisture storage at field ca-
pacity. This explains their rather limited capacity to hold 'available' water (i.e. available to most crops);
some 10 mm of ‘available' water per 10 cm soil depth is a rule of thumb. Ferralsols are poorly equipped
to supply crops with moisture during periods of drought, particularly those in elevated positions.
Physical characteristics
Stable micro-aggregates explain the excellent porosity, good permeability and favourable infiltration
rates measured on Ferralsols. Soils with high contents of (positively charged) iron oxides and (nega-
tively charged) kaolinite have stable soil structure due to bonding of opposite elements. Ferralsols with
low contents of iron and/or organic matter as occur in Surinam and Brazil ( Xanthic Ferralsols) have less
stable structure elements, especially the sandy ones. Surface sealing and compaction become serious
limitations if such soils are taken into cultivation.
The strong cohesion of (micro-)aggregates and rapid (re)flocculation of suspended particles complicate
measurements of the particle size distribution in Ferralsol material. The clay content found after the re-
moval of iron and addition of a peptising agent is known as the 'total clay' content. The clay content
found after shaking an aliquot of soil with distilled water (without removal of iron or addition of dis-
persion agents) is the 'natural clay' content. The high degree of aggregation in ferralic subsurface hori-
zons explains the low content of natural clay (< 10 percent).
Chemical characteristics
Ferralsols are chemically poor soils. The types and quantities of clay minerals, oxides and organic mat-
ter condition the exchange properties of soils. The total exchange capacity is composed of a permanent
and a variable component:
• The ‘permanent charge’ component is the result of isomorphic substitution, e.g. of Si4+ by Al 3+
or Al 3+ by Mg2+, in the crystal lattices of clay minerals. The negative permanent charge is inde-
pendent of soil-pH or ion concentrations of the soil solution. Kaolinite, the main clay mineral in
Ferralsols, has only a very small permanent charge.
The CEC of a ferralic horizon may, by definition, not exceed 16 cmol(+)/kg clay. Note that CEC is de-
termined in a 1M NH4 OAc solution buffered to pH 7; the field-pH of Ferralsols is normally much less
than 7.
The net negative charge of the exchange complex is neutralized by exchangeable bases (Na+ , K +, Ca 2+,
Mg 2+ ) plus 'exchangeable acidity' (Al3+ + H+ ). The 'Effective CEC' (ECEC), i.e. the sum of bases and
exchangeable acidity, is thought to represent the cation exchange capacity at field conditions.
Note that the ECEC of Ferralsols is much less than the CEC; actual cation adsorption is often a mere 3
or 4 cmol(+) per kg soil.
Protonation of hydroxylic groups at low pH-values may boost the soil’s ‘Anion Exchange Capacity’
(AEC) to the extent that the AEC equals or exceeds the CEC. This can be detected by comparing pH-
values of two samples of the same soil, one in suspension in H 2O and the other in 1M KCl. pH (KCl) is
less than pH (H2O) in soils with net negative charge (the 'normal' situation); the reverse is true in soils
with net positive charge.
The following terminology is used in publications on the exchange properties of strongly weathered
tropical soils:
• The pH value at which AEC fully compensates CEC (permanent plus variable charges) is called
the 'point of zero net charge' (PZNC).
• The difference between pH (KCl) and pH(H2O) is known as 'delta pH'.
Figure 2 presents the exchange characteristics of strongly weathered tropical soils at different pH levels
in a schematic way.
Figure 2. Schematic relation between exchangeable aluminium level, AEC,
CEC, net surface charge and soil-pH (H2O).
Biological characteristics
Intense termite activity is, according to some, at least partly accountable for the typical diffuse horizon
boundaries of Ferralsols. Termites destroy (remnants of) stratification/rock structure; they increase the
depth of the solum and their nests, tunnels and ventilation shafts increase the permeability of the soil.
As termites preferentially move fine and medium sized particles and leave coarse sand, gravel and
stones behind, they are thought to contribute to 'stoneline' formation. The depth of the stoneline is
thought to indicate the depth of termite activity.
Note that stonelines may also occur where termites are absent, e.g. formed by soil creep in sloping ter-
rain.
Management and use of Ferralsols
Most Ferralsols have good physical properties. Great soil depth, good permeability and stable micro-
structure make Ferralsols less susceptible to erosion than most other intensely weathered red tropical
soils. Moist Ferralsols are friable and easy to work. They are well drained but may in times be droughty
because of their low 'available' water storage capacity.
The chemical fertility of Ferralsols is poor; weatherable minerals are absent and cation retention by the
mineral soil fraction is weak. Under natural vegetation, nutrient elements that are taken up by the roots
are eventually returned to the surface soil with falling leaves and other plant debris. The bulk of all cy-
cling plant nutrients is contained in the biomass; 'available' plant nutrients in the soil (and all living plant
roots) are concentrated in the upper 10 to 50 cm soil layer. If the process of 'nutrient cycling' is inter-
rupted, e.g. upon introduction of low input sedentary subsistence farming, the root zone will rapidly be-
come depleted of plant nutrients. Maintaining soil fertility by manuring, mulching and/or adequate (i.e.
long enough) fallow periods and prevention of surface soil erosion are important management require-
ments.
Strong retention (‘fixing’) of phosphorus is a problem of Ferralsols (and several other soils, e.g. An-
dosols). Ferralsols are normally also low in nitrogen, potassium, secondary nutrients (calcium, magne-
sium, sulphur) and a score of micro-nutrients. Even silica deficiency is possible if silica-demanding
crops (e.g. grasses) are grown. Manganese and zinc, which are very soluble at low pH, may at some
time reach toxic levels in the soil or become deficient after intense leaching of the soil.
Liming is a means to raise the pH-value of the rooted surface soil. Liming combats aluminium toxicity
and raises the CEC. On the other hand, it lowers the AEC, which might lead to collapse of structure
elements and slaking at the soil surface. Frequent small doses of lime or basic slag are therefore pref-
erable over one massive application; 0.5 – 2 ton/ha of lime, or dolomite, are normally enough to supply
calcium as a nutrient and to buffer the low soil-pH of Ferralsols.
Fertilizer selection and the mode/timing of fertilizer application determine to a great extent the success
of agriculture on Ferralsols. Slow-release (rock) phosphate applied at a rate of several tons per hectare
eliminates phosphorus deficiency for a number of years. For a quick fix, much more soluble (Double
or Triple) Super Phosphate is used, needed in much smaller quantities, especially if placed in the direct
vicinity of the roots.
Sedentary subsistence farmers and shifting cultivators on Ferralsols grow a variety of annual and per-
ennial crops. Extensive grazing is also common and considerable areas of Ferralsols are not used for
agriculture at all. The good physical properties of Ferralsols and the often level topography would en-
courage more intensive forms of land use if problems caused by the poor chemical soil properties could
be overcome.