Physics Laboratory Manual

For

Course Code: PHY-1202

Course Title: Physics-II Sessional

Dept. of Electronic & Telecommunication Engineering

IIUC
 Contents

Instructions for Students

References

Experiment-1: To determine the spring constant and effective mass of a given spiral spring
and hence to calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of the spring.
Experiment-2: To determine the moment of inertia of a fly-wheel about its axis of rotation.
Experiment-3: To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by means of a
compound pendulum.
Experiment-4: To determine the Young’s modulus for the material of a wire by Searle’s
apparatus.
Experiment-5: To determine the surface tension of water by capillary tube method.
Experiment-6: Determination of the value of an unknown resistance by means of a post
office box.
Experiment-7: Experimental verification of the laws of series and parallel connections of
resistance by means of a post office box.
Experiment-8: Determination of the end-corrections for a meter bridge.
Experiment-9: Calibration of a meter bridge wire.
Experiment-10: Determination of unknown resistance of the material of a wire by a meter
bridge.
Experiment-11: Determination of specific resistance of the material of a wire by a meter
bridge.
Experiment-12: Determination of the current sensitivity (figure of merit) of a galvanometer.
Experiment-13: Determination of the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection
method.

2
 Instructions for Students

Introduction
Physics is an experimental science. Advancements in physics throughout its history have
come about mainly driven by experiments. For you, the physics lab will be an opportunity to
have some fun with some hands-on experience with physics theories. Moreover, it will be an
opportunity for you to develop and enhance your skills in experimental observation, data
analysis, and proper scientific documentation which are always important in a career in
science and engineering. So please look forward to using your laboratory time for a gainful
purpose.

This manual will provide the basic theoretical backgrounds and detailed procedures of
various experiments that you will perform in the lab. Before that, here are some specific
instructions for you to follow while carrying out the experiments. It also outlines the
approach that will be undertaken in conducting the lab. Please read carefully the followings.

Specific Instructions

1. You are expected to complete one experiment in each class. For that to happen, you
will have to come to the laboratory with certain initial preparation. The initial
preparation will involve a prior study of the basic theory of the experiment you are
going to take up as well as the procedure to perform it so as to have a rough idea of
what to do. In addition, it will also involve a partial preparation of the lab report in
advance as mentioned later in this section.
2. You must bring with you the following materials to the lab: This instruction manual,
A4 size papers for writing the lab report, graph sheets if necessary, a pen, pencil,
measuring scale, calculator, and any other stationary items required. On the very first
day of your lab class, bring also a file cover/folder with your name, roll no., branch
name, etc. written on it clearly and submit it to the instructor. The folder will be used
to store your laboratory reports regularly at the end of the classes. The folder with

3
 your reports will be kept in the laboratory and will be returned to you only after the
course instructions are over.
3. The format of a lab report shall be as follows:
a. The first sheet will contain your name, branch name, roll number, date, and
title of the experiment. The subsequent sheets will contain the following in
that order.
b. The objective of the experiment, apparatus needed, and a brief theory with
working formulas and figures or diagrams whenever necessary.
c. Experimental observations. Data from experimental observations should be
recorded in proper tabular format with well-documented headings for the
columns. The data tables should be preceded by the least counts of the
instruments used to take the data and numerical value of any constant, if any,
used in the table.
d. Graphs whenever applicable.
e. Relevant calculations, and error analyses.
f. Final results along with error estimates.
g. Remarks if any.
h. Please DO NOT write the procedure of the experiment anywhere.
4. As part of the initial preparation mentioned earlier, you are required to come to the lab
ready with the items 3.a. and 3.b. above already written in your report sheets. This
will save valuable lab time and help you to complete the rest of the experiment within
the allotted time.
5. After the completion of your data recording, switch off any power supply, etc. used,
and put back the components of the apparatus in their proper places. Complete the rest
of the relevant calculations and hand over the final report sheets to the instructor
before leaving the lab.
6. Last but not least - please handle the instruments with care and maintain utmost
discipline and decorum in the lab.

4
 • References

This manual was prepared with help from several books, the documentation provided by the
equipment’s vendors, and several documents shared by others on the website. Though it is
not possible to mention all the individual sources, cited below is a list of books that students
may also find helpful for further reading.

➢ “Fundamentals of Physics”, D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, John Wiley and

Sons, Inc., New York, 2001.

➢ “Practical Physics” , G . Ahmed and M. Shahabuddin, Hafiz Book Centre,

Bangladesh, 1969.

➢ “Practical Physics”, G. L. Squires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985.

➢ “Laboratory Experiments in College Physics”, C. H. Bernard and C. D. Epp, John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1995.

➢ “Practical Physics”, R. K. Shukla and A. Srivastava, New Age International (P)

Limited Publishers, New Delhi, 2006.

5
Experiment- 1

To determine the spring constant and effective mass of a given spiral

spring and hence to calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of
the spring.
Theory: If a spring is clamped vertically at the end P, and loaded with a mass mo at the other
end A, then the period of vibration of the spring along a vertical line is given by

mo +m M
T = 2π√ =2π√ k --- --- ---- (1)
k
where m is a constant called the effective mass of the spring and k, the spring constant
i.e., the ratio between the added force and the corresponding extension of the spring.

How the mass of the spring contributes to the effective mass of the vibrating system
can be shown as follows. Consider the kinetic energy of spring and its load undergoing
simple harmonic motion. At the instant under consideration let the load mo be moving with
velocity vo as shown in fig. 1.1.

Fig.1.1

At this same instant, an element dm of the mass m of the spring will also be moving up but
with a velocity v which is smaller than vo. It is evident that the ratio between v and vo is just
v v v
the ratio between y and yo. Hence, y = yo i.e., v = yo y.
o o

O1 2 m
The kinetic energy of the spring alone will be∫o v dm . But dm may be written asy dy ,
2 o
where m is the mass of the spring.
1 m
Thus the integral equals to2 ( 3 ) vo 2 . The total kinetic energy of the system will then be
1 m m
(mo + )vo 2and the effective mass of the system is, therefore,mo + .
2 3 3

1
Hence m′ = 3 m --- --- --- (2)

6
 where m' = effective mass of the spring and m = true mass of the spring. The applied force
mog is proportional to the extension 𝑙 within the elastic limit. Therefore mg=k𝑙.
g
Hence𝑙 = k m ---- --- --- (3)

If ƞ is the rigidity modulus of the material of the spring, then it can also be proved that

4NR3 k
ƞ = r4 ---- --- --- (4)
where N = number of turns in the spring, R = radius of the spring, r = radius of the wire of the
spring, and k=spring constant.

Apparatus: A spiral spring, convenient masses with the hanging arrangement, clamp, or a
hook attached to a rigid framework of heavy metal rods, weighing balance, stop clock, and
scale. The spiral spring may be a steel spring capable of supporting sufficient loads. A
cathetometer may also be used to determine vertical displacements more accurately.

Procedure:(i) Clamp the spring at one end at the edge of the working table or suspend the
spring by a hook attached to a rigid framework of heavy metal rods.

(ii) Measure the length L of the spring with a meter scale. Put a scale behind the spring or
make any other arrangement to measure the extensions of the spring.

(iii) Add suitable weight to the free end of the spring so that it extends to position O (Fig.1.1).
On the reference frame put behind the spring, read the extension𝑙 and note the position O.

(iv) Pull the load from position O to a moderately low position B and then let it go. The
spring will now execute simple harmonic motion and vibrate up and down about the position
O. With a stop clock, take the time of 50vibrations. Count the vibrations by observing the
transits in one direction of the upper edge of the load at o across the reference line. Compute
the period T in sec per vibration.

(v) Repeat operation (iii) &(iv) for at least 5 sets ofloads.

(vi) Draw graphs with added loads mo in grams (abscissa)against the extensions of the spring
in cm (ordinate) and with T2 as a function of mo. Draw lines of best fit through the points.

Fig.1.2

7
(vii) From the first graph determine the slope of the line by choosing two points on it, one
near the origin with coordinates x1 cm and y1 gm-wt and the other near the upper end of the
y −y
line with co-ordinates x2 cm and y2 gm-wt. The slope will be x2−x1 gm-wt/cm and the spring
2 1
constant k will be this slope multiplied by g.
The second graph T2 vs mo does not pass through the origin owing to the mass of the
spring which has not been considered in drawing it. The intercept of the resulting line on the
mass-axis gives m' the effective mass of the spring.

(viii) Measure the mass m of the spring with a balance and show that the effective mass m'
1 m
obtained from the graph is 3 of it, i.e., m′ = 3 .

(ix) Count the number of turns in the spring. Determine the radius of the spring. With the
help of slide calipers, find out the inside and outside diameters of the spring. Make several
observations. Take the mean values. If D is the outside diameter and d is the inside diameter
D+d
then the mean radius of the spring is given by 4 .
Also, measure the radius of the wire of the spring very carefully with a screw-gauge.
A number of values are to be obtained at different points and the mean value is taken.
Then with the help of eqn. (4), calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of the
spring.

Experimental data:
(A) Length of the spring L = …….cm.

(B) Determinations of extensions and time periods.

No Loads Extensions No. of Total time Time period T2
of mo in vibrations in T
obs in gms cm secs in secs
1
2
3

(C) Draw the graph as described in the procedure (vi).

(D) Calculation of k, the spring constant, and m' the effective mass of the spring as described
in the procedure (vii).
y −y
From Fig 1.2.ax2 −x1= ………..gm-wt/cm= M (say).
2 1
Spring constant k = Mg =.............dynes/cm

(E) Measurement of the mass of the spring, m =.........gms.

(F) Data for calculation of n, the rigidity modulus of the material of the spring.
(a) No. of turns N in the spring =……….
(b) Radius of the spring R:
External diameter of the spring (mean) D =..........cm.
Internal diameter of the spring (mean) d = ............cm.
D+d
Radius of the spring, R= 4 =……….cm.

8
(c) Radius of the wire of the spring (mean) r =.......cm.

Calculation:
4NR3 k
ƞ= = ………. dynes/sq.cm.
r4
y −y
From graph 1, x2 −x1=.................. gm-wt/cm. =M (say).
2 1
Spring constant k= Mg =.............. dynes/cm.
From Fig. 1.2b, the effective mass of spring, m'= .......gms.

Results:

Discussions:

Oral Questions and their Answers

l. What is spring constant?

When a force is applied to the free end of a spiral spring suspended from fixed support, the
spring stretches in a normal manner and obeys Hooke's law. The ratio of the applied force
and the elongation is a constant and is known as the spring constant.

2. What is the effective moss of the spring?

On the period of vibrations of spring with a load, the effect of the mass of the spring
distributed over its whole length is the same as though one-third the mass of the spring is
added to the load. This one-third of the mass of the spring is known as the effective mass of
the spring.

9
Experiment – 2:

To determine the moment of inertia of a fly-wheel about its axis of

rotation.
Theory: Fig.2.1, shows a mass M, attached by means of a string to the axle of a fly-wheel
radius r, the moment of inertia of which, about its axis of rotation, is I. The length of the
string is such that it becomes detached from the axle when the mass strikes the floor. In
falling a distance h, the potential energy of the mass has been converted into kinetic rotational
and translation energy. If 𝜔 is the maximum angular velocity of the wheel, F is the amount of
work done against friction per revolution, and n1 is the number of revolutions made while the
mass falls the distance h,
the loss in potential energy of M = gain in kinetic energy of M + gain in K.E of flywheel
+ work done against friction.
1 1
∴Mgh = 2 Mr 2 ω2 + 2 Iω2 + n1 F …….. ……….. ……….. (1)

Fig 2.1

After the mass strikes, the ground the wheel executes a further n2 revolutions and the
1
angular velocity gradually decreases to zero. The rotational kinetic energy 2 Iω2 has been used
up in overcoming frictional forces, hence
1
F n2 = 2 Iω2 ……. ………. ………… (2)

If n2 revolutions take a time t, then the average angular velocity 𝜔𝑎 is given by

2𝜋𝑛2
𝜔𝑎 =
𝑡
Since the angular velocity decreases uniformly from a maximum 𝜔 to a minimum
𝜔+0 𝜔
zero, the average angular velocity 𝜔𝑎 is also given by 𝜔𝑎 = 2 = 2 .
𝜔 2𝜋𝑛2
Also, the motion is uniform, hence =
2 𝑡
4𝜋𝑛
i.e., 𝜔 = 𝑡 2 …….. ……….. ……….. (3)
From equations (1), (2), and (3) it follows that

10
 2𝑀𝑔ℎ−𝑀𝜔 2 𝑟 2
𝐼= 𝑛 ……. ………… ………. (4)
𝜔 2 (1+ 1 )
𝑛2

Apparatus: Fly-wheel, weights, cord, stop-watch, set square, meter scale, and slide calipers.

Description of the apparatus: The fly wheel is a big-sized wheel with its mass
concentrated mostly on its rim. A thick rod which is called the axle passes through the center
of gravity of the wheel which rotates about the rod as the axis. The rod and the wheel are
rigidly connected. The wheel is on a supported horizontal axis (fig.2.2). A cord whose one
end is fixed to a small peg on the axle, is wrapped round the axle and carries a mass M at the
other end. The length of the cord is such that it becomes detached from the axle when the
mass strikes the ground.

Procedure: (i) Put the loop at one end of the cord round the peg P (fig 2.2) on the axle and a
weight Mg at the other end. Wrap the cord round the axle by rotating the wheel until the
weight is at A just below the rim.

(ii) Put a set-square under the weight and make a mark A′ on a stand nearby or the wall.

Fig 2.2

(iii) Allow the weight to go down till it rests on the upper surface B of the wooden block W
on the ground. Adjust the length of the cord in such a way that at this position of the weight
the cord just slips off the peg P. Make a mark B′ on the stand at the level of B, the upper
surface of the wooden block. Thus the weight will fall from A to B through a height h = A′B′
just before the cord gets detached from the peg P.

(iv) Rotate the wheel again till the weight is raised to position A. Put a chalk mark H on the
rim of the wheel. Allow the weight to fall and count the rotation n1 made by the wheel by
observing the mark H on its rim while the weight falls from position A to B.

(v) Wind up the thread again till the weight is at position A and remove the wooden block W.
Allow the weight to descend. Start a stopwatch just when the cord slips off the peg and count
the number of rotations n2 made by the wheel before it comes to rest and records the time t
taken for the purpose.

11
(vi) Use two different masses (say 1000 gm and 1500 gm) and take three observations in each
case.

(vii) Measure the diameter of the axle in two mutually perpendicular directions and determine
the radius r.

(viii) Use eqn.(3) for calculating 𝜔 and eqn. (4) for calculating I.

Experimental data:
(A) Table for determination of n1, n2, and t.
No. Mass Height No. of Mean No. of Mean Time Mean I in
of M in h in revolutions n1 revolutions n2 t in t in gm-
obs. gm cm n1 n2 sec sec cm2
1. 1000
2. gm
3.
1. 1500
2. gm
3.

(B) Data for the radius of the axle.

Vernier constant of the calipers = ………..cm
Side No. M. S. V.S. Excess Total Radius, r Mean Mean
of reading reading by reading = D/2 radius r, radius of
obs. in cm Vernier for the cm in cm (A) &
in cm diameter, (B)
D=… cm in cm
1.
A 2.
3.
1.
B 2.
3.

Calculation:
4𝜋𝑛2
𝜔= = …………rad sec-1 and
𝑡
2𝑀𝑔ℎ−𝑀𝜔 2 𝑟 2
𝐼= 𝑛 = …………..gm-cm2.
𝜔 2 (1+ 1 )
𝑛2

Result:
Moment of inertia of the fly-wheel for M= 1000gm is I1 = ………….gm-cm2
Moment of inertia of the fly-wheel for M= 1500gm is I2 = ………….gm-cm2.

Discussions:(i)While determining the height h, the positions of the bottom of the weight
should b marked on the stand or wall in two cases, that is when the weight is at A and B.

12
(ii) Length of the string should be so adjusted that the cord slips off the peg just when the
weight rests on the wooden block.

(iii) Care should be taken to begin counting time and rotations at the moment the cord goes
off the peg.

(iv) The wheel should make a good number of rotations, say 70, before stopping. If not, oil
the axle to remove friction.

(v) The diameter of the cord should be negligible as compared to the diameter of the axle.

Oral questions and their answers

1. What is a fly-wheel?
See ‘Description of the apparatus’.

2. Why is its mass mostly concentrated in its rim?

So that it may have a large radius of gyration and hence a large moment of inertia. It
1
will thus store a large amount of kinetic energy = 2 Iω2 for a given angular velocity.

3. What is moment of inertia of a body? Is it a constant for a body?

The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is the sum of the products of the
mass and the square of the radius of gyration for each particle of the body 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 2 .
It is not constant for a body. It depends upon the position of the axis about which the
body turns.

4. What is radius of gyration?

It is the distance from the axis of rotation of a point at which the whole mass of the
body may be supposed to be concentrated, the moment of inertia of the body
remaining the same as for actual distribution of mass in the body.
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑘 2 , K is the radius of gyration.

5. What is the physical significance of the moment of inertia?

Moment of inertia plays the same part in rotating bodies as mass plays when bodies
move in a straight line.

6. What is the unit of moment of inertia?

In the C.G.S system, it is gm-cm2.

13
Experiment – 3:

To determine the value of g, acceleration due to gravity, by means of

a compound pendulum.
Theory: Compound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape free to turn about a horizontal
axis. In Fig. 3.1, G is the center of gravity of the pendulum of mass M, which performs
oscillations about a horizontal axis through O. When the pendulum is at an angle 𝜃 to the
vertical, the equation of motion of the pendulum is I𝜔 = Mg𝑙sin𝜃 where 𝜔 is the angular
acceleration produced, 𝑙 is the distance OG and I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum
about the axis of oscillations. For small amplitude of vibrations, sin𝜃 = 𝜃, so that I𝜔 = Mg𝑙𝜃.
Hence the motion is simple harmonic, with a period of vibrations

Fig.3.1
If K is the radius of gyration of the pendulum about an axis through G parallel to the axis of
oscillation through O, from the Parallel Axes Theorem,
I = M (K2+𝑙 2 ), and so
𝑘2 +𝑙2
(𝑘 2 +𝑙2 )
T = 2π√ = T = 2π√ 𝑙
…. ….. ….. (1)
gl g

L
Since the periodic Lime of a simple pendulum is given byT = 2π√g , the period of the rigid
body (compound pendulum) is the same as that of a simple pendulum of length
𝑘 2 +𝑙2
𝐿 = 𝑙 …. ….. ….. ….. (2)
This length L is known as the length of the simple equivalent pendulum. The expression for L
can be written as a quadratic in (𝑙). Thus from (2)
𝑙 2 − 𝑙𝐿 + 𝑘 2 = 0 …. …… …… ….. (3)
This gives two values of 𝑙 (𝑙1 and 𝑙2 ) for which the body has equal times of vibration. From
the theory of quadratic equations,

14
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = 𝐿 and 𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝑘 2
As the sum and products of the two roots are positive, the two roots are both positive. This
means that there are two positions of the center of suspension on the same side of C.G. about
which the periods (T) would be the same. Similarly, there will be two more points of
suspension on the other side of the C. G., about which the time periods (T) will again be the
same. Thus, there are altogether four points, two on either side of the C.G., about which the
time periods of the pendulum are the same (T). The distance between two such points,
asymmetrically situated on either side of the C. G., will be the length (L) of the simple
𝑘2
equivalent pendulum. If the length OG in Fig.3.1 is 𝑙1and we measure the length GS= 𝑙1
𝑘2
along OG produced, then obviously = 𝑙2or, OS = OG + GS = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = 𝐿. The period of
𝑙1
oscillation about either O or S is the same.
The point S is called the center of oscillation. The points O and S are interchangeable i.e.
when the body oscillates about O or S, the time period is the same. If this period of oscillation
L
is T, then from the expressionT = 2π√g , we get
𝐿
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2
𝑇2
By finding L graphically, and determining the value of the period T, the acceleration due to
gravity (g) at the place of the experiment can be determined.

Apparatus: A bar pendulum, a small metal wedge, a stop-watch, and a

wooden prism.

Description of the apparatus: The apparatus ordinarily used in the

laboratory is a rectangular bar AB of brass about 1 meter long. A series of
holes are drilled along the bar at intervals of 5 cm (Fig.3.2). By inserting
the metal wedge S in one of the holes and placing the wedge on the support
S1S2, the bar may be made to oscillate.

Procedure:(i) Find out the center of gravity G of the bar by balancing it

on the wooden prism.

(ii) Put a chalk mark on the line AB of the bar. Insert the metal wedge in
the first hole in the bar towards A and place the wedge on the support S1S2
so that the bar can turn round S.

(iii) Set the bar to oscillate taking care to see that the amplitude of
oscillations is not more than 5o. Note the time for 50 oscillations by
counting the oscillations when the line AB passes the chalk marks in the
same direction. Fig 3.2

(iv) Measure the length from the end A of the bar to the top of the first hole i.e., up to the
point of suspension of the pendulum.

(v) In the same way, suspend the bar at holes 2, 3,…...and each time note times for 50
oscillations. Also, measure distances from the end A for each hole.

15
(vi) When the middle point of the bar is passed, it will turn round so that the end B is now on
the top. But continue measuring distances from the point of suspension to the end A.

(vii) Now calculate the time-period T from the time recorded for 50 oscillations.

(viii) On a nice and large graph paper, plot a curve with length as abscissa and period T as
ordinate with the origin at the middle of the paper along the abscissa- (Fig.3.3).

(ix) Through the point on the graph paper corresponding to the center of gravity of the bar,
draw a vertical line. Draw a second line ABCD along the abscissa- AC or BD is the length of
𝑘2
the equivalent simple pendulum i.e., 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + . AG=𝑙1 and GC=𝑙2 . C is the center of
𝑙1
𝑘2
oscillation. Similarly GD =𝑙1 and GB= 𝑙 =𝑙2 . B is the center of oscillation. From this,
1
𝐿
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑇 2can be calculated.

(x) By drawing another line A'B'C'D' calculate another value of g.

Alternate method of measuring the length of the pendulum.

Instead of measuring the length from the end A to the point of suspension, Length can also be
measured from the point of suspension to the center of gravity G of the bar (see Fig 3.2). In
that case, also there will be two sets of readings one with the end A at the top and again with
the end B at the top. Calculate the period T with 50 oscillations at each suspension. Now
draw a graph with the center of gravity of the bar at the origin which is put in the middle of
the paper along the abscissa. Put the length measured towards the end A to the left and that
measured towards the end B to the right of the origin (see Fig.3.3). A-line ABCD drawn
parallel to the abscissa intersects the two curves at A B C and D. Here also the length AC or
BD is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum.

Fig 3.3

16
Experimental Data:

(A) Observation for the time period T and the distance of the point of suspension from the end A.
At the Hole Distance Distance No of Time for Mean Time
top No. from top from G oscillations oscillations time period
in cm in cm in sec in sec T in sec
End A 1 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
2 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
3 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
4 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
End B 1 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
2 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
3 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec
4 (i)…….sec
(ii)……sec
(iii)…...sec

(B) Alternate method of measuring Length.

Use the above table only changing the third column "Distance from G", the center of gravity.

(From graph)
Length AC=.....cm. Length BD =.....cm.
𝐴𝐶+𝐵𝐷
Mean length,L = =.....cm
2

Corresponding time-period from the graph.

𝐿
T= …..sec,𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑇 2 = …….cm/sec2.

Result:

Error calculation:

Discussions:
(i) Distances are to be measured from the end A or the point G, preferably from A.

17
(ii) In measuring time an accurate stop-watch should be used.
(iii) Oscillations should be counted whenever the line of the bar crosses the intersecting point
of the cross-wires, in the same direction.
(iv) Graph paper used should have sharp lines and accurate squares and should be sufficiently
large to draw smooth and large curves.
(v) Amplitude of oscillations must not be more than 5o.
(vi) Error due to the yielding of support, air resistance, and irregular knife-edge should be
avoided.
(vii) Determination of the position of G only helps us to understand that AG=𝑙1 and GC=
𝑘2
= 𝑙2 and is not necessary for determining the value of 'g'.
𝑙1
(viii) For the lengths corresponding to the points A, B, C, and, D the period is the same.
(ix) At the lowest points of the curves P1 and P2, the center of suspension and the center of
oscillation coincide.
It is really difficult to locate the points P1 and P2in the graph and so K is calculated from the
relation
K=√𝐺𝐴. 𝐺𝐵 = √𝐺𝐵. 𝐺𝐶.

Oral questions and their Answers

l. What is a compound pendulum?

See theory

2. Which is superior- a compound pendulum or a simple pendulum?

The ideal conditions of a simple pendulum cannot be attained in practice. In a compound
pendulum, the length of an equivalent simple pendulum can be determined, and hence the
value of "g" can be accurately found. The compound pendulum oscillates as a whole and due
to its heavy mass, goes on oscillating for a long time. Hence compound pendulum is superior
to the simple pendulum.

3. What do you mean by the center of suspension and center of oscillation?

It is possible to find out two points on the opposite side of the center of gravity of the
pendulum such that the periods of oscillation of the pendulum about these points are equal.
Onepoint is called the center of suspension and the other point is called the center of
oscillation.

4. What is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum?

The distance between the center of suspension and the center of oscillation is called the
length of the equivalent simple pendulum.

5. What are the defects of the compound pendulum?

(i) The compound pendulum tends to drag some air with it and this increases the effective
mass and hence the moment of inertia of the moving system. (ii) The amplitude of oscillation
is finite which needs some correction.

18
Experiment - 4:

To determine the Young’s modulus for the material of a wire by

Searle’s apparatus.

Theory: provided the distortion of a body is not too great, it has been found that the amount
of distortion is directly proportional to the magnitude of the forces producing the distortion.
This fact is known as “Hooke’s law”. If a wire of natural length 𝑙 is stretched or compressed a
distance x by a force f, the experiment reveals that
F = kx …….. ………… …….. (1)
Where k is a constant whose value will depend on the material, the dimension of the wire,
and the units used for measurement. In practice, it is very desirable that the value of the
constant should depend only on the material of the specimen and not on its dimension.
Experiment shows that such a constant exists- it is called Young’s modulus of elasticity for
the material- symbol Y. If a force F is applied normally to a cross-sectional area A of the
material in the form of a wire, then
F Mg
= πr² is called the normal or tensile stress where m is the mass of the load, g is the
A
acceleration due to gravity and r is the radius of the wire. Let x be the increase in length
𝑥
produced in an original length 𝑙 as a result of this force. Then is called longitudinal or
𝑙
tensile strain.
𝐹 𝑀𝑔
Normal Stress 𝑀𝑔 𝑙
Y = Longitudinal Strain = 𝐴
𝑥 = 𝜋𝑟²
𝑥 = × 𝑥 dynes cm-2.
𝜋𝑟²
𝑙 𝑙
As stress is a force per unit area, it must be expressed in dynes per sq. cm or other units of
similar dimensions. A strain is a ratio and has no dimension. Young’s modulus is, therefore,
expressed in the same units as those used for stress.

Apparatus: The Searle’s apparatus, meter scale, suitable weights, screw gauge, etc.

Description of the apparatus: Searle’s apparatus, is shown in fig. 4.1.

19
 Fig. 4.1
The actual apparatus is shown in fig 4.2
with different parts. It consists of two metal
suspension scales, one is called the
reference frame and the other is called the
Vernier scale for measuring the elongation Fig 4.2
of the elastic wire. These two scales are
suspended from the same suspension by two wires w and w′. The Vernier suspension scale
can smoothly slide vertically over the reference scale when the load is applied with a hook at
its bottom. A dead load is applied at the bottom of the reference scale to keep the control wire
to be taut (fig 4.1).

Procedure: (i) Take two elastic wires of the same material and cross-section, one is 95 cm
long (control wire) to be attached to the suspension and the reference scale with screws and
another is 100 cm long (test wire) to be attached to the suspension and the Vernier scale with
screws.

(ii) Attach the control wire with the reference scale. Hang the dead load to the bottom of the
reference scale with a hook, so that the control wire is straight so that it can be treated as a
reference for the test wire.

(iii) By means of a screw gauge, measure the diameter of the experimental/test wire w′ at
several regions (say 3 regions) with two perpendicular readings at each region. Calculate the
mean diameter and the cross-section of the wire in sq. cm.

(iv) Multiply the area of cross-section of the wire in sq. cm by the breaking stress of the
particular material given in the reference table- 1. This is the breaking load for the wire. The
wire must not be loaded with more than half this breaking load.

(v) Now attach the experimental wire to the Vernier scale and the suspension in such a way
that the zero mark on the Vernier scale reading is not more than 4 cm on the reference scale.
Take the reading carefully. This is the reading for zero load on the test wire.

20
(vi) Now apply a load (say half kg) on the vernier scale bottom with a hook. Owing to
elongation the vernier scale will go down the reference scale. Take the reading. The
difference in the two readings will give the elongation due to the load added.

(vii) Go on increasing the load by, say, half kg, each time taking a reading for the elongation
of the test wire until half the breaking load is reached.

(viii) Repeat the procedure by decreasing load by, say half kg to reach zero load and enter the
results in a tabular form for increasing and decreasing loads. Take the mean values.

(ix) Draw the load versus mean elongation graph

with load along abscissa and elongation along the
ordinate (fig 4.3). Draw a line of best fit so that it
passes through the (0, 0) point. Choose an arbitrary
point on the graph and find out the load and
elongation corresponding to the point.

(x) Measure the length of the test wire from the point
of suspension to the point where it is clamped to the
apparatus. Now calculate the value of Y from the
formula given in the theory.
Fig 4.3

Experimental data:

(A) Reading for the diameter of the test wire by screw gauge
Pitch of the screw gauge = ……..cm

Least count = Pitch/ (No. of divisions in the circular scale) = ……….cm

No Linear Circular Least Value of Total Mean Instru- Corrected Radius
of scale scale count circular readings diameter mental diameter r in
readi scale in cm D in cm error in cm cm
ngs
reading divisions in cm
in cm divisions in cm
in cm
1(a)
1(b)
2(a)
2(b)
3(a)
3(b)

Cross-sectional area of the wire, 𝜋𝑟² = ………..sq.cm

(B) Breaking load:

Breaking stress for the material of the wire (from reference table- 1) =…….kg-wt/cm2.
Breaking load = breaking stress × 𝜋𝑟² = ……….kg2-wt.

21
 (C) Reading for elongation versus load
No. Loads in kg Readings for the vertical scale readings in cm Mean Mean
of Load increasing Load decreasing in elongation
obs. cm x in cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(D) Length of the wire

(i)……..cm (ii)……….cm (iii)…………cm
∴ Mean 𝑙 = ……….cm

Calculation:
From graph, elongation x = ………cm
and load M = …….....gm
Length of the wire, 𝑙 =…………….cm
Mean radius of the wire, r = ………cm
𝑀𝑔 𝑙
Young’s modulus, Y = 𝜋𝑟² × 𝑥= …………dynes cm-2.

Result:
The young’s modulus of the given wire is……….. dynes cm-2.

Discussions: (i) Since the instrument has a vernier scale, elongation can be measured almost
accurately. So this is a more accurate method for determining Young’s modulus.

(ii) The two pieces of wire should be of the same material suspended from the same support.
This eliminates the correction for (a) the yielding of the support when loads are added to w′,
and (b) changes in temperature.
(iii) Back-lash error should be avoided by turning the screw always in the same direction
before taking a reading.

Oral questions and their answers

1. What is meant by elasticity?

It is the property of a body that enables it to recover from a deformation caused by the
application of a force after the force is removed. When given stress produces a
definite strain in a body which, after the removal of the stress, regains its original
state, the body is said to be perfectly elastic.

2. Define (a) stress (b) strain (c) elastic limit and (d) Poisson’s ratio?
(a) and
(b) See theory.
(c) It is the range of deformation over which the body returns to its original state
when the deforming forces are withdrawn.

22
 (d) The ratio of lateral contracting strain to the elongation strain is called Poisson’s
ratio. Its value lies between 0.5 and -0.5.

3. Which is more elastic, rubber or steel?

To produce a certain strain, greater stress is necessary for steel than for rubber and
hence steel is more elastic than rubber.

4. What is Hooke’s law?

See Theory.

5. What is breaking stress?

It is the load required to break a wire of one sq. cm in cross-section. Breaking weight
is the load required to break the wire.

6. Why is it necessary to determine breaking load?

When the applied load is less than half the breaking load, Hooke’s law is obeyed.

7. Why two identical wires are suspended from the same support?
See discussion.

8. Will a longer and thicker wire change the value of young’s modulus?
No

9. Why it is necessary to wait a while before reading is taken after putting a load on the
hook?
Whenever a wire is stretched, work is done against internal stress. This work is
converted into heat raising the temperature of the wire and affecting the modulus of
elasticity. So the wire must be allowed to come to room temperature.

10. How young’s modulus is utilized in the practical field?

It is used in determining how much load a particular beam will safely carry. Hence in
engineering, it is an essential constant.

11. Why do the readings for load increasing and load decreasing differ?
After the wire is stretched it requires some time to return to its original length due to
the elastic after-effect. This reading is usually greater for load decreasing.

Reference Table - 1 (Breaking stresses of common laboratory materials)

(in kg-wt. per sq. cm)
Brass 3160 to 3980 Iron (annealed) 4700
Copper (hard drawn) 4080 to 4700 Steel (ordinary) 11230
Copper (annealed) 2860 to 3160 Steel (tempered) 15810
Iron (hard drawn) 5510 to 6330 Steel (piano forte) 18980 to 23780

Reference Table – 2 (Young’s modulus for different substances)

(in dynes per sq. cm)
Substance × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 dynes per sq. cm Substance × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 dynes per sq. cm

Aluminium 7.05 Iron (wrought) 19 – 20

Brass 9.7 – 10.2 Steel 19.5 – 20.6
Copper 12.4 – 12.9 Quartz 5.18
Iron (cast) 10 - 13 Rubber (vulcanized) 0.10 - 0.70

23
Experiment – 5:

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary tube method.

Theory: The surface tension of a liquid is the force acting perpendicular to each centimeter
of the imaginary line in the plane of the surface. If one end of a clean capillary tube of a fine
bore is dipped into a liquid, the liquid rises the tube through a height of h (Fig.5.1) The
surface tension T acts upwards along the tangent to the meniscus. The component of Tacting
vertically upwards is Tcosθ and the total force acting upwards is Tcosθ.2πr, r being the
internal radius of the capillary tube. This is the upward force due to the surface tension of the
liquid.

Fig 5.1

The weight of the liquid column acting downwards is equal to v × 𝜌 × g where 𝜌 is the
density of the liquid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The volume V = πr2h + volume of the meniscus for a tube of uniform bore. If the radius r is
small, the meniscus = volume of a cylinder of radius r and height h - volume of the
hemisphere of radius r. This can be written as
2 1
Volume of meniscus = πr3 - 3 πr3 = 3 πr3
1 𝑟
Therefore V = πr2h + 3 πr3 = πr2 (h+3)
𝑟
Hence weight of the liquid column = πr2 (h+3). 𝜌.g.
Since the column is in equilibrium the upward force due to surface tension must support the
weight of the liquid column.

Hence, for equilibrium,

𝑟
Tcosθ.2πr = πr2 (h+3). 𝜌.g.
For water, θ is zero and hence cosθ is unity. So the above relation gives
𝜌.g.𝑟 𝑟
T= (h+3) dynes/cm.
2

Apparatus: Capillary tube with varying bores, traveling microscope, needle, beaker, clamp,
stand, etc.

24
Procedure: (i) Take a few capillary tubes of different bores. Clean the bore of the tubes
with hydrochloric acid and then with caustic soda and finally wash by passing water through
it.

(ii) Make the base and the axis of a traveling microscope horizontal by using a spirit level.
Also, focus the cross-wires of the microscope sharply.

(iii) Take some water in a clean beaker. Hold a glass plate G in a clamp and attach two
capillary tubes A and B to it with wax or rubber bands (fig. 5.2 a). Put the glass plate G in
such a position that the capillary tubes are vertical and their ends dip well in the water. Water
will rise in the tubes.

(iv) Place a needle N, horizontally on the base of the microscope and take readings at the two
ends of the needle. The difference between these readings will give the length 𝑙 of the needle.
Place the needle by the side of the tubes and adjust its position such that its lower point is just
above the water surface in the beaker. If it dips in the water, water will rise along its side.

(v) Focus the microscope on the needle and adjust it such that the horizontal cross-wire
coincides with the top of the needle. Read the vertical scale of the microscope.

(vi) Adjust the height of the microscope such that its horizontal cross-wire just touches the
lower meniscus in tube A (see fig 5.2 b). It will look inverted; read the microscope scale.
Take the difference between this reading and the reading in (v) above. If the top of the needle
stands above the water meniscus in the tube, subtract this difference from the length of the
needle to get the height h. If the top stands below the meniscus, add this difference to the
length of the needle to get h.

(vii) Now break the tube at the level of the meniscus with a file and hold it horizontally. By
moving the microscope horizontally, make the vertical cross-wire tangential to the left side of
the bore. Read the horizontal scale of the microscope. Shift the microscope horizontally until
the vertical cross-wire is tangential to the right side of the bore. Read the microscope again.
The difference between these two readings gives the diameter of the bore. Similarly, by the
vertical movement of the microscope, determine the diameter in the perpendicular position.
Take the mean of these two diameters and then find out the radius.

(viii) Repeat the experiment with two other capillary tubes of different bores.

Fig 5.2

25
(ix) With a thermometer take the temperature of water at the beginning and end of the
experiment.

Experimental data:

(A) Data for the length of the needle.

Vernier constant of the microscope (horizontal scale) = ………….cm

Table -1
No. of Reading in cm at Difference of (a) and Mean Length
obs. Left end Right end (b) = length 𝑙in cm 𝑙 in cm
(a) (b)
1.
2.
3.

(B) Readings for the needle head.

Vernier constant of the microscope (vertical scale) = ………….cm

Table - 2
No. M.S. reading V.S.R V.C Value of Total Mean R1
of in cm in cm V.R reading in cm
obs. in cm in cm
1.
2.
3.

(C) Readings for the water meniscus in the tubes.

Table – 3
Tube No. of M.S.R V.S.R V.C Value of Total Mean R2
obs. in cm in cm V.R in in cm in cm
cm
1.
A 2.
3.
1.
B 2.
3.

Difference of readings at needle head and water meniscus in tube A = X = (R1~R2) cm

Height h of the water meniscus in tube A = (𝑙 ± X) cm.

For the height h of the water meniscus in tube B, use the same method.

26
 (D) Measurement of radius r of the tubes.

Table – 4
Direction Difference
Tube Readings for the bore in cm Mean Mean
of obs. = diameter
Left or lower end Right or upper end (x1~x2) radius,
M.S V.S V. of Value
T Mean
M.S V. V. Value T Mean D in r
of in cm
.R .R C V. ot x1 .R S. C V. ot x2 cm in
in in
R al cm R R al cm
cm
(a)
Horizont
al
A (b)
Vertical

(a)
Horizont
B al
(b)
Vertical

(E) Temperature of the liquid.

Initial temperature of water, 𝜃1 ℃ = ……℃
Temperature at the end of the experiment, 𝜃2 ℃ = ……℃
𝜃 +𝜃
Mean temp. of water during the experiment = 1 2 2 = 𝜃℃ = ……℃

Density of water at 𝜃℃ = 𝜌𝑡 =………..gm/c.c (see reference table – 3)

Calculations:
𝜌.g.𝑟 𝑟
T= (h+3) = ……………dynes/cm. (for confirmation, see reference table – 4)
2

Result: Surface tension of water at room temperature is T= ………dynes/cm.

Discussions:(i) tap water should be used and not distilled water.

(ii) The surface of the water should be free from grease. For this purpose, the beaker should
be washed with acid before it is used for the experiment.

(iii) The tubes should be vertical.

(iv) Readings should be taken at the lower meniscus.

(v) The needle should not touch the water but be just above the surface.

(vi) The tube should be broken at the level of the meniscus.

27
 Oral questions and their answers

1. What is surface tension? What is its unit?

See theory. In the C.G.S system, its unit is dynes/cm.

2. Define (a) angle of contact, and (b) cohesive and adhesive forces.
See the lecture sheet or textbook.

3. What is the effect of temperature on surface tension?

Surface tension decreases with the increase in temperature. Surface tension vanishes
at a temperature called critical temperature.

4. Why should water be free from grease?

When grease is present, we get surface tension of the film of grease and not of water.

5. On what factors does the surface tension of a liquid depend?

(a) On the nature of the liquid, (b) On the nature of the surface in contact e.g., the
surface tension of water in contact with air is 74 dynes/cm while that of water in
contact with its vapor is 71.4 dynes/cm. nearly, (c) On the temperature of the
liquid, the higher the temp, the less the surface tension.

6. Will the liquid overflow if the tube is of insufficient height?

The angle of contact 𝜃 will change to 𝜃1 such that
ℎ ℎ1
= .
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 1

7. Why should distilled water not be used?

During the distillation process, the vapor of water comes in contact with various tube
joints having wax sealing and is thereby contaminated.

Reference Table -3
Density of water at different temperatures (gm per cc)
Temp in ℃ 0 2 4 6 8
0 0.99987 0.99997 1.00000 0.99997 0.99988
10 0.99973 0.99952 0.99927 0.99897 0.99862
20 0.99823 0.99780 0.99732 0.99681 0.99626
30 0.99567 0.99055 0.99440 0.99371 0.99299
40 0.99224 0.99147 0.99066 0.98982 0.98896
50 0.98807 0.98715 0.98621 0.98523 0.98424
60 0.98324 0.98218 0.98112 0.98003 0.97892
70 0.97781 0.97664 0.97547 0.97428 0.97305
80 0.97183 0.97056 0.96929 0.96799 0.96664
90 0.96534 0.96397 0.96260 0.96121 0.95980

Reference Table – 4
Surface tension of liquids in contact with air (in dynes per cm)
Substance Temp. in ℃ Surface tension Substance Temp. in ℃ Surface tension
Water 0 76.5 Glycerin 20 63.14
″ 20 73.5 Olive oil 20 32
″ 30 72 Paraffin oil 25 26.4
Ethyl alcohol 20 21.7 Turpentine 15 27.3

28
Experiment-6:

Name of the Experiment:

Determination of the value of an unknown resistance by means of a post

office box.

Theory:

If P and Q are the known resistances in the ratio arms and R in the third arm the unknown
resistance S in the fourth arm is obtained, when there is no deflection of the galvanometer,
from the relation.

P R
=
Q S

R×Q
⇒S=
P
Apparatus:
1. P.O. Box
2. Unknown resistance
3. Power source (E)
4. Galvanometer (G),
5. Connecting wires, etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure: Wheatstone Bridge Network

29
Procedure:

(i) Connecting the galvanometer between D and K2 of the P.O. box. K2 being
internally connected to point B. Connecting the poles of cell E through a rheostat. Rh
to the point K1 and C. K1 being internally connected to A. Connecting the unknown
resistance S the points C and D.
(ii) Take out resistances 10 and 10 from the ratio arms BA and BC. Saw that all
other plugs in the box are tight. This means zero resistance in the third arm. Putting
the maximum resistance in the rheostat. Press the battery key K1 and then press the
galvanometer. Next, take out the infinity plug from the third arm and press the keys as
done before. If opposite deflection is obtained then the connection is correct. If not
check the connections again.
(iii)Then gradually reduce the resistance in the third arm until a resistance, say R1, is
found for which there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the circuit is closed.
Then the unknown resistance S is given by
10
S= R1 = R1 ( say 5 ohms)
10
(iv) If instead of the null point, there is a deflection in one direction with R1 and opposite
deflection with (R1+1) in the third arm, the unknown resistance is partly integral and
partly fractional i.e.; it lies between 5 and 6 ohms.
(v) Then took the resistance of 100 ohms in the arms P (BA) keeping 10 ohms in the arm
Q 10 1
Q (BC) so that the ratio = = . Hence the null point should occur when the
P 100 10
resistance in the third arm is of some value between 10 R1 and 10 (R1+1) i.e., between
50 and 60 {if R1 =5). Observing the opposite deflection and as before narrow down
53
the range to obtain the null point at R2 = 53 (say). Then S = = 5.3 ohms. In that
10
case, the resistance is found correct to one decimal place.

(vi) If the null point cannot be obtained at this state also i.e., if opposite deflections are
observed for R2 and R2 +1 (for 53 and 54) in the third arm, it lies between 5.3 and 5.4
ohms. Repeat the observations with 1000 ohms in the P arm and 10 ohms in the Q
arm. The resistance in the third arm should be between 530 and 540 for which

30
 opposite deflections will be obtained. Narrow down the range to obtain a null point at
R
R3 = 535 (say). Then S = = 5.35 ohms (say). The resistance is now correct to two
100
decimal places.
(vii) If even at this stage there are opposite deflections for a change of
resistance of 1 ohm in the third arm, the unknown resistance can be determined to the
third decimal place by proportional parts. But it is futile to expect that much accuracy
from the P.O. box. However, if it is desired to go further, proceed as follows: Count
the number of divisions for which the galvanometer is deflected when R3 is put in the
third arm. Suppose it is d1 divisions to the left. If now for (R3 +1) in the third arm. The
deflection is d2 to the right, then for a change of 1 ohm in the third arm, the pointer
moves through d1 + d2 divisions. Hence to bring the pointer to zero the scale
d1
resistance R3 + is to be inserted in the third arm. Hence the value of the
d1 + d 2

1  d1 
unknown resistance S is given by S =  R1 + .
100  d1 + d 2 

(viii) While taking the final reading with the ratio 1000:10 reverse the
current and take the mean value of S.
(ix) Then replace S with two unknown resistors and connect them individually as series
and parallel.
(x) Attach the resistances r1 and r2 in series as like in fig. b and determine the equivalent
resistance of the series combination by means of the P.O. Box. We have to show that
relation (1) holds good.
(xi) After measuring the resistances in series, then connect the two resistances in parallel
as shown in fig. b and determination the equivalent resistance of the parallel
combination as before. We have to show that relation (2) holds good.

Experimental Data:
Table (a): Resistance of S: For ratio 1:1
Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

10 10

31
Table (b): Resistance of S: For the ratio of 10:1
Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

100 10

32
Calculations:
For ratio 1:1
P R
=
Q S

For ratio 10:1

P R
=
Q S

Percentage of Error:

Result:
Discussion:

Experiment-7:

Name of the Experiment:

Experimental verification of the laws of series and parallel connections of

resistance by means of a post office box.

Theory:
Resistance is said to DC connected in series when they are connected with the end of one joined to the
beginning of the next and so on shown in the figure: 2.

The equivalent resistance to a number of resistances connected in a series is equal to the sum of the
individual resistance, i.e.

R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + … … … … … … … … … … . (1)

33
When resistances are arranged with their respective ends connected to common terminals, they are
said to be connected in parallel as shown in the figure: 3.

The reciprocal of equivalent resistance to a number of resistances connected in parallel is equal to the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances, i.e.

1 1 1 1
= + + + … … … … … … … … … … … . (2)
R R1 R 2 R 2

Measuring R1, R2, R3, etc. separately and the equivalent of the relation (1) and (2) may be verified.

Apparatus:
1. P.O. Box
2. Unknown resistance ( 2 or more)
3. Power source (E)
4. Galvanometer (G),
5. Connecting wires, etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Figure 1: Wheatstone Bridge Network

34
Figure 2: Wheatstone bridge Network Figure 3: Wheatstone bridge Network
(Series Circuit) (Parallel Circuit)
Procedure:
(i) Connecting the galvanometer between D and K2 of the P.O. box. K2 being
internally connected to point B. Connecting the poles of cell E through a rheostat. Rh
to the point K1 and C. K1 being internally connected to A. Connecting the unknown
resistance S the points C and D.
(ii) Take out resistances 10 and 10 from the ratio arms BA and BC. Saw that all
other plugs in the box are tight. This means zero resistance in the third arm. Putting
the maximum resistance in the rheostat. Press the battery key K1 and then press the
galvanometer. Next, take out the infinity plug from the third arm and press the keys as
done before. If opposite deflection is obtained then the connection is correct. If not
check the connections again.
(xii) Then gradually reduce the resistance in the third arm until a resistance,
say R1, is found for which there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the circuit
is closed. Then the unknown resistance S is given by
10
S= R1 = R1 ( say 5 ohms)
10
(xiii) If instead of the null point, there is a deflection in one direction with R1
and opposite deflection with (R1+1) in the third arm, the unknown resistance is partly
integral and partly fractional i.e.; it lies between 5 and 6 ohms.
(xiv) Then took the resistance of 100 ohms in the arms P (BA) keeping 10
Q 10 1
ohms in the arm Q (BC) so that the ratio = = . Hence the null point should
P 100 10
occur when the resistance in the third arm is of some value between 10 R 1 and 10
(R1+1) i.e., between 50 and 60 {if R1 =5). Observing the opposite deflection and as
before narrow down the range to obtain the null point at R2 = 53 (say). Then
53
S= = 5.3 ohms. In that case, the resistance is found correct to one decimal place.
10
(xv) If the null point cannot be obtained at this state also i.e., if opposite
deflections are observed for R2 and R2 +1 (for 53 and 54) in the third arm, it lies
between 5.3 and 5.4 ohms. Repeat the observations with 1000 ohms in the P arm and
10 ohms in the Q arm. The resistance in the third arm should be between 530 and 540
for which opposite deflections will be obtained. Narrow down the range to obtain a

35
 R
null point at R3 = 535 (say). Then S = = 5.35 ohms (say). The resistance is now
100
correct to two decimal places.
(xvi) If even at this stage there are opposite deflections for a change of
resistance of 1 ohm in the third arm, the unknown resistance can be determined to the
third decimal place by proportional parts. But it is futile to expect that much accuracy
from the P.O. box. However, if it is desired to go further, proceed as follows: Count
the number of divisions for which the galvanometer is deflected when R3 is put in the
third arm. Suppose it is d1 divisions to the left. If now for (R3 +1) in the third arm. The
deflection is d2 to the right, then for a change of 1 ohm in the third arm, the pointer
moves through d1 + d2 divisions. Hence to bring the pointer to zero the scale
d1
resistance R3 + is to be inserted in the third arm. Hence the value of the
d1 + d 2

1  d1 
unknown resistance S is given by S =  R1 + .
100  d1 + d 2 

(xvii) While taking the final reading with the ratio 1000:10 reverse the
current and take the mean value of S.
(xviii) Then replace S with two unknown resistors and connect them
individually as series and parallel.
(xix) Attach the resistances r1 and r2 in series as like in fig. b and determine
the equivalent resistance of the series combination by means of the P.O. Box. We
have to show that relation (1) holds good.
(xx) After measuring the resistances in series, then connect the two
resistances in parallel as shown in fig. b and determination the equivalent resistance of
the parallel combination as before. We have to show that relation (2) holds good.

Experimental Data:
Table (A): Resistance in Series Connection: For the ratio of 1:1
Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

10 10

36
Table (B): Resistance in Series Connection: For the ratio of 10:1
Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

100 10

37
Table (C): Resistance in Parallel Connection: For the ratio of 1:1
Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

10 10

Table (D): Resistance in Parallel Connection: For the ratio of 10:1

Resistance in ohms Direction of
Remarks S
Arm P Arm Q Third arm R deflection

100 10

38
Calculations:
The Resistance in Series:-
Experimental Data:
For ratio 10:1
P R
=
Q S
Theoretical Data:
St = S1 + S2

Percentage of Error:

The Resistance in Parallel:-

Experimental Data:
For ratio 10:1
P R
=
Q S
Theoretical Data:

39
1 1 1
= +
S t S1 S2

Percentage of Error:

Result:
The Observed and calculated values of the equivalent resistances in the Series and Parallel
connection are closed to the absolute value of the resistances. By observation we found the
resistance in series …. ohm and parallel ……ohm; where the calculated value of these
resistors in series …. ohm and parallel…. ohm. They are equal within the limits of
experimental error. Again there may be leakage on the P.O. Box or the plugs are loosely
connected.

Discussion

Oral Questions and their Answers.

1. What is a P.O. Box and why is it so called?

It is a compact form of Wheatstone's bridge in which three arms are given. It was
originally intended for measuring the resistance of telegraphic wires in the British Post
Office; hence the name.

2. What is the principle on which it works?

Principle of Wheatstone's bridge.

3. Is the resistance coils of the box be calibrated at 20; will they give the same value at
other temperatures?
No, the resistance of metals increases with temperature.

40
Experiment-8:
Name of the Experiment:

Determination of the end corrections for a meter bridge.

Theory:

When a balance is obtained at the point N (say) of the wire applying the principle of
Whetstone’s networks, we get

P l l l
= = = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(i )
Q m m 100 − l

Where P and Q are the resistance in the two gaps. l and m are the lengths of the bridge wire
on the left and hand sides of the balance point and ρ is the resistance per unit length of the
wire.

Usually, there is some resistance at the two ends of the bridge wire due to soldering by which
the wire is joined to the copper plates. The bridge wire is also seldom exactly one meter in
length; the end of the wire from which length is measured may not exactly coincide with zero
on the meter scale. These errors are known as end errors. Due to these errors, equation (i) has
to be modified. The corrections are calculated in terms of two definite lengths x and y are
called end-corrections. Equations (i) then becomes

P
=
(l + x ) = l + x − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(ii)
Q (m + y ) (100 − l ) + y

If the two resistances P and Q are interchanges, a new balance is obtained at N, if L is the
length of the wire at N from the left-hand side (i.e., from zero), then

Q L+x
= − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(iii)
P (100 − L ) + y

P
Calling the ratio Q = r and by solving the equation (ii) and (iii) we get,

rL − l  L − rl 
x= and y =  − 100  − − − − − − − − − − − − − (iv)
1− r  1− r 

Apparatus:

41
 1. A meter bridge
2. Power source (E)
3. Commutator (K)
4. Two resistance boxes
5. Galvanometer (G),
6. Connecting wires, etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: The Meter Bridge Network

Procedure:
(i) We connected the network as shown in Fig. For checking the corrections of the
connections, we put the jockey in the contact with end A and end B of the bridge
wire. And we found opposite directions. So the directions of the connections were
correct.
(ii) Then we put resistance in the left gap P and another resistance Q in the right gap.
(iii) After that, we tried to find out the balance point again.
(iv) Then we put a 1(say) ohm resistance in the left gap and 5(say) ohm resistance in
the right gap (P=1, Q=5) and we observed the balance point. After that, we reverse
the connection and again observed the balance point. So that, we find the length
‘l’.

42
 (v) Then we interchanged the resistances as in the left gap P=5(say) ohm and the right
gap Q=1(say) ohm. Also observed is the balance point in the direct and reverse
connection. So that, we find the length ‘L’
(vi) Then we used almost two terms P: Q ratio 1:10 and 1:15 and repeated the whole
operation.

(vii) Finally, we calculated x and y from equation (iv) and then their mean values of x
and y.
Experimental Data:
No of
Resistance is ohms Ratio Balance Points
Obs mean mean
x y
P
r= x y
Left Right Q Direct Reverse Mean cm cm
gap cm cm
gap 1 P cm cm cm
=
r Q

1
r=
P=1 Q=5 5
1
Q=5 P=1 1
=5
r

1
r=
P=1 Q=10 10
2
Q=10 P=1 1
= 10
r

1
r=
P=1 Q=15 15
3
Q=15 P=1 1
= 15
r

Calculations:
Deflection for total length=
1) For observation no.-01: x1=……………….. y1= ………………..
2) For observation no.-02: x2 =……………….. y2= ………………..
3) For observation no.-03: x3 =……………….. y3=………………..

43
Mean, x =…………… and Mean, y =…………….

Result:

Discussion:

Experiment-9:
Name of the Experiment:

Calibration of a meter bridge wire.

Theory:

It is often assumed that the meter bridge wire is uniform in cross-section and hence that the
resistance per unit length of its constant throughout its length. In practical measurement, it is
better not to make such assumptions. The purpose of the calibration of a meter bridge wire is
to reduce the reading of the bridge to what it would have been if the wire would be uniform
throughout its length.

Apparatus:
1) A meter bridge,
2) Cell (E),

44
3) Commutator,
4) Two Jockeys,
5) Zero-center Galvanometer (G),
6) Connecting wires, etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Circuits-Connections:
The positive of a battery E is connected to one end of the bridge wire through the key K1 and
the negative of the battery is connected with the other end of the wire. The galvanometer
terminals are connected to the opposite terminals of a commentator K, the two other
terminals of which are connected to two jockeys J1 and J2 (fig).

Procedure:
i) After completing the connection of the apparatuses with the meter bridge, then at
first, we tried to find out the deflection of the galvanometer to the opposite sides.
ii) Then we put Jockey J1 in contact with a metal strip to which the left end of the
wire and the right jockey J2 on the 10 cm mark and obtained the deflections for the
direct and reverse currents.

45
 iii) Then we put the jockey J2 fixed at the 10cm mark place and the left jockey J1 at
the 20 cm mark and again obtained the deflections for the direct and reverse
currents.
iv) Again we put the jockey J1 at the 20 cm mark and the right jockey J2 at the 30 cm
mark and obtained the deflections.
v) Then we proceeded this way with the jockeys 10 divisions apart until J2 put at 90
cm mark and J1 on the metal strip to which the right end of the wire is connected
and took the final reading.
vi) We also determined the effective lengths of the wire from the left end to the right
contact point in each case. If Dn is the galvanometer deflections when the jockeys
were placed at the two ends of the wire i.e., for a length of 100 cm of the wire and
D were the deflections for an apparent length of the wire, then the effective length
is given to be.
vii) We have drawn a graph with the apparent length as abscissa and effective length
as ordinate. It is a straight line.

Experimental Data:

Point of Total
No Deflections Deflection
contact length
of for total Effective length
from
Obs length
zero
J1 J2 Direct Reverse Mean

1 Strip 10 d1= 10 d1=D1=

2 20 10 d2= 20 D1+d2=D2=

3 20 30 d3= 30 D2+d3=D3=

4 40 30 d4= 40 D3+d4=D4=

5 40 50 d5= 50 D4+d5=D5=

6 60 50 d6= 60 D5+d6=D6=

7 60 70 d7= 70 D6+d7=D7=

8 80 70 d8= 80 D7+d8=D8=

46
9 80 90 d9= 90 D8+d9=D9=

10 Strip 90 d10= 100 D9+d10=D10=

Calculations:

Deflection for total length=

100
1) Effective length for 10 cm =  D1=
D10
100
2) Effective length for 20 cm =  D2=
D10
100
3) Effective length for 30 cm =  D3=
D10
100
4) Effective length for 40 cm =  D4=
D10
100
5) Effective length for 50 cm =  D5=
D10
100
6) Effective length for 60 cm =  D6=
D10
100
7) Effective length for 70 cm =  D7=
D10
100
8) Effective length for 80 cm =  D8=
D10
100
9) Effective length for 90 cm =  D9=
D10
100
10) Effective length for 100 cm =  D10=
D10

Result:
We have drawn a graph with the apparent length as abscissa and effective length as ordinate.
It represents a straight line.

Discussion:

47
Experiment-10:
Name of the Experiment:

Determination of unknown resistance of the material of a wire by a meter

bridge.

Theory:

According to the diagram P and Q is the known and unknown resistance respectively and l is
the distance of the null point measured from the left end A of the meter bridge, then the
principle of the Wheatstone’s network we get,

P l
=
Q (100 − l)
P(100 − l)
Q= − − − − − −(i)
l
Apparatus:
1) A meter bridge
2) Power source (E)
3) Commutator (K)
4) Resistance box (P)
5) The Specimen wire (X)
6) Galvanometer (G)
7) Connecting wires, etc.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig: The Meter Bridge Network for Unknown Resistance

48
 Procedure:

(i) After making connections as shown in Fig. Before putting the specimen wire, folded a
half inch of it at each end and put the folded portion within the binding screws of the right
gap. In the left gap we put resistance box (Shunt) R. Then insert 0.2-ohm resistance in the left
gap and move the sliding contact. If the deflections are in the opposite directions, the
connections have been correctly made.

(ii) We moved the jockey along the bridge wire until the galvanometer deflection is almost
zero. The null point is being approached.

(iii) Then we started to take the readings of the experiment, along the bridge wire we moved
the jockey from the left end to the right end and tried to find out the null point by the
galvanometer. When we found no deflection from the galvanometer, then we took the length
of the null point i.e., l.

(iv) For the true experiment, we took two readings for the known resistance as like as direct
and reverse connection. Firstly we took the direct reading and then we took the reverse ones.

(v) Then we took more known resistances, repeating the operations, every time reversing and
directing the current. Then calculate the mean value of Q.

(vi) Then we carefully took the length L of the wire between the two bends with a meter
scale.

(vii) Finally we measured the diameter (d) of the wire with the screw gauges at several
places with mutually perpendicular readings at each place

Experimental Data:
Known resistance Balance point (for l) cm
P(100−l)
Q= Mean Q
P (100-l) cm l
ohm ohm
Direct Reverse Mean
ohm

49
 6

10

Calculations:

Deflection for total length=

P(100−l)
1) For 1st observation: Q1 = =
l
P(100−l)
2) For 2nd observation: Q2 = =
l
P(100−l)
3) For 3rd observation: Q3 = =
l
P(100−l)
4) For 4th observation: Q4 = =
l
P(100−l)
5) For 5th observation: Q5 = =
l

Mean, Q = ……………………..

Result:
The unknown resistance of the wire is ………………….. Ohm.

Discussion:

50
Experiment-11:
Name of the Experiment:

Determination of specific resistance of the material of a wire by a meter

bridge.

Theory:

According to the diagram P and Q is the known and unknown resistance respectively and l is
the distance of the null point measured from the left end A of the meter bridge, then the
principle of the Wheatstone’s network we get,

P l
=
Q (100 − l)
P(100 − l)
Q= − − − − − −(i)
l

If now L is the length of the experimental wire in centimeters then,

ρL
Q=
Пr 2
QПr2
Or, ρ = − − − − − −(ii)
L

Where ρ is the specific resistance of the material of the wire and r is the radius of the cross-
section of the wire.

Apparatus:
1) A meter bridge
2) Power source (E)
3) Commutator (K)
4) Resistance box (P)
5) The Specimen wire (X)
6) Galvanometer (G)
7) Connecting wires, etc.

51
Circuit Diagram:

Fig: The Meter Bridge Network for Specific Resistance

Procedure:

(i) After making connections as shown in Fig. Before putting the specimen wire, folded half
an inch of it at each end and put the folded portion within the binding screws of the right gap.
In the left gap we put resistance box (Shunt) R. Then insert 0.2-ohm resistance in the left gap
and move the sliding contact. If the deflections are in the opposite directions, the connections
have been correctly made.

(ii) We moved the jockey along the bridge wire until the galvanometer deflection is almost
zero. The null point is being approached.

(iii) Then we started to take the readings of the experiment, along the bridge wire we moved
the jockey from the left end to the right end and tried to find out the null point by the
galvanometer. When we found no deflection from the galvanometer, then we took the length
of the null point i.e., l.

52
 (iv) For the true experiment, we took two readings for the known resistance as like as direct
and reverse connection. Firstly we took the direct reading and then we took the reverse ones.

(v) Then we took more known resistances, repeating the operations, every time reversing and
directing the current. Then calculate the mean value of Q.

(vi) Then we carefully took the length L of the wire between the two bends with a meter
scale.

(vii) Finally we measured the diameter (d) of the wire with the screw gauges at several places
with mutually perpendicular readings at each place.

Experimental Data:
(A) Reading for the balance point (Q):
Known resistance Balance point (for l) cm
P(100−l)
Q= Mean Q
P (100-l) cm l
ohm ohm
Direct Reverse Mean
ohm

11

(B) Readings for diameter of the wire (d):

Linear scale Total Mean Radius
No of reading Circular scale Least count Fractional
d d r
obs reading cm part cm
cm cm cm cm

53
Calculations:
Radius of the wire:

Length of the wire:

P(100−l)
1) For 1st observation: Q1 = =
l
P(100−l)
2) For 2nd observation: Q2 = =
l
P(100−l)
3) For 3rd observation: Q3 = =
l
P(100−l)
4) For 4th observation: Q4 = =
l
P(100−l)
5) For 5th observation: Q5 = =
l

Mean, Q = ……………………..ohm

QПr2
The Specific resistance of the wire, ρ = =
L

Result: The specific resistance of the wire is …………………………Ohm. cm

Discussion: (i) See that the null point is not far away from the middle.
(ii) It is essential to see that none of the plugs in the resistance box R is loose.
(iii) Take care to determine the diameter (d) of the wire very accurately.
(iv)On reversing the current if the null point changes appreciably, the thermo-electric effect is
too large. In such a case close the galvanometer circuit keeping the battery circuit open. The
deflection of the galvanometer should be taken as zero when looking for a null point.
(v) E.m.f. of the cell should be checked before starting the experiment.

Oral Questions and their Answers.

1. What is meant by specific resistance and what is its unit?

Resistance of unit cube of the material,i.e., a material having unit length and unit cross-
section. Its unit is ohm-cm.
2. On what factors does the specific resistance depend?
It depends on the material and its temperature. It is higher at a higher temperature. It does not
change with the length or diameter of the wire.

54
3. Why is it necessary (i) to interchange the resistances and (ii) to reverse the current?
(i) The pointer which indicates the null point may not be situated exactly above the fine edge
of the jockey which makes contact with the bridge wire. This is known as a tapping error.
This is eliminated by interchanging the resistances. (ii) Reversing the current eliminates the
effect of thermo-current in the circuit.

4. While using a plug key as a shunt of the galvanometer, will you use it alone or with
resistance?
The plug key should be used as a shunt with a resistance otherwise the galvanometer may not
show any deflection when the plug is put in the key because in that case all the current passes
through the shunt and no current passes through the galvanometer. When resistance is used
with the key, the galvanometer shows a deflection with the shunt and without the shunt.

Experiment – 12:

To determine the figure of merit of a galvanometer.

Theory: The figure of merit or current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the current
in amperes (or in micro-amperes) required to produce a deflection on the arc scale. In the
arrangement as shown in fig 7.1, the current C drawn from the battery is given by

𝐸
𝐶= 𝑆𝐺
𝑅 + 𝑆+𝐺

where R, S, and, G are the series, shunt, and galvanometer resistances respectively and E is
the e.m.f of the cell.
But the current Cg flowing through the galvanometer is given by
𝑆 𝐸𝑆
𝐶𝑔 = 𝐶. 𝑆+𝐺 =𝑅(𝑆+𝐺)+𝑆𝐺 ….. ……. …… (1)

55
If this current (Cg) produces a deflection of N divisions on the scale then, the figure of merit
F of the galvanometer, by definition, is given by
𝐸𝑆
𝐶𝑔 𝑅(𝑆+𝐺)+𝑆𝐺
𝐹= = ….. …… …. ….. (2)
𝑁 𝑁

As SG is very small compared to R (S + G), it may be neglected.

Fig 7.1
Apparatus: Suspended coil galvanometer (G)accumulator (E), high resistance box (R) with
10,000 ohms or more, a low resistance box (S) for shunt, plug commutator(K).

Procedure:(i) Make connections as in fig. 7.1 with the commutator K in the power supply
circuit.
(ii) Insert a high resistance 9say 10,000 ohms) from the box R. Put all the plugs in the shunt
box so that S = 0. Put the commutator plugged in. As all the current flows through the shunt,
there should be no deflection of the galvanometer. In case of a deflection, tighten all the plugs
of the shunt box till the deflection is zero.
(iii) Next beginning with the lowest shunt resistance, go on increasing it until a deflection of
about 10 divisions is produced on the scale. Record the deflection. Then reverse the current
and record the deflection again. Take the mean of at least three readings, both for direct and
reverse currents. Note the value of the shunt.
(iv) Change the shunt resistance till the deflection is about 15 divisions. Take the mean
deflection for both direct and reverse currents.
(v) Repeat the experiment with at least three different values of the series resistance R and for
each series resistance record deflection for at least two different shunt resistances. Each time
take deflection for both direct and reverse currents.
(vi) Note the e.m.f of the accumulator. The galvanometer resistance G is usually supplied.
Calculate the figure of merit of the galvanometer from equation (2).

56
Experimental data:
Data or galvanometer deflection.

Galvanometer resistance G = ……………ohms.

E.M.F of the power supply E = ………….volts.

No. Series Shunt Deflection on the arc scale N Figure of

of resistance R resistance Direct Reverse Mean divisions merit F
obs. in ohms S in ohms (amp/div)
1.
2.
3.

Result: Mean figure of merit of the galvanometer is ………….amp/div.

Discussions:(i) Before closing the circuit, a high value of the series resistance R and a low
value of the shunt resistance should be applied to protect the galvanometer from damage due
to the passage of heavy current.
(ii) For a very sensitive galvanometer the shunt required will be quite low, of the order of an
ohm or lower. If such a low resistance box is not available, the series resistance R should be
increased.
(iii) Before starting the actual experiment, the deflection produced by the lowest available
shunt resistance is noted. If the deflection is too great, a lower shunt resistance should be used
or a higher series resistance should be employed.

Oral questions and answers.

1. What do you mean by the figure of merit of a galvanometer?

See theory.

2. What is the function of the shunt used in the experiment?

The shunt protects the galvanometer from damage by allowing a large proportion of
the main current to flow through it, thereby reducing the current through the
galvanometer.

3. What will be the change in the galvanometer deflection in this experiment and why?

57
 The galvanometer deflection will increase with the increase of shunt resistance and
will decrease with the decrease of shunt resistance.

4. What should be the galvanometer deflection in this experiment and why?

The current is proportional to the deflection when the latter is small. This happens
when the deflection is around about 10 divisions on the arc scale.

5. What will be the resistance of a shunted galvanometer?

Even less than the resistance of the shunt applied.

Experiment – 13:
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection
method.

Theory: In the arrangement shown in Fig. 8.1 if the shunt resistance S is very small
compared to the galvanometer resistance G, then the potential difference (V)between the ends
of the shunt resistance S remains nearly constant for all values of R1.

𝑉
Thus when R1= 0, then the galvanometer current Cg is given by 𝐺 = kd.........(l)

where d is the deflection on the arc scale and k is the galvanometer constant. If now a
𝑑
resistance R1 is introduced in the galvanometer circuit such that the deflection reduces to 2 ,
𝑉 𝑑
then C'g = 𝐺+𝑅 = k 2 ……… ……. ……. (2)
1

where C'g is the new galvanometer current in the changed circumstances.

Dividing (1) by (2), we get
𝐺+𝑅1
= 2, or 𝐺 + 𝑅1 = 2𝐺
𝐺

Or G = R1 …. …. …. …. … (3)
Hence by simply measuring R1, G can be found.

Apparatus: Suspended coil galvanometer, shunt box S, resistance R, and R1, commutator
K, cell E, connecting wires.

58
 Fig 8.1

Procedure:(i) Make a connection as shown in Fig 8.1.

(ii) Insert a resistance (R) of the order of 1000 ohms in the battery circuit. Make R1 = 0 by
putting all the plugs in the box. Beginning with the smallest value (S = 0.1 ohms) of the shunt
resistance S, go on increasing S until you obtain a deflection of about l0divisions on the scale.
Note this deflection.
(iii) Keeping the resistance R constant, adjust the value of the resistance R1 until the
deflection is reduced to half of the former. Record this value of R1 which is the value of the
galvanometer resistance G.
(iv) Stop the current in the circuit and examine if the pointer is still at zero on the scale. If
not, adjust the scale to bring it to zero. Make the value of R1zero and keep R the same. Now
reverse the current with the commutator K. Repeat the whole operation to get another value
of G
(v) Keeping the value of the resistance R the same, change the value of the shunt resistance S
to obtain a different deflection of round about l0 division and similarly determine the value of
G.
(vi) Repeat the operation three times with different values of R in the battery circuit and two
values of S for each R.

Experimental Data: In the following table R is the resistance in the battery circuit and R1
is the resistance in the galvanometer circuit and G is the galvanometer resistance to be
determined.

59
No. Currents Resistance Shunt Resistance Deflections G = R1 Mean G
of in R in ohms resistance R1 in in ohm
obs. S in ohms ohms
1. Direct
Reverse
2. Direct
Reverse
3. Direct
Reverse

Result: Resistance of the galvanometer is……..ohm.

Discussions:(i) The series resistance R should never be made equal to zero when the circuit
is closed otherwise the galvanometer will be damaged.
(ii) For a steady deflection a storage battery should be used.
(iii) The position of the scale should be normal to the beam of light when no current flows
through the galvanometer.

Oral Questions and their Answers.

1. What is meant by the term galvanometer resistance?

The resistance of a galvanometer is the resistance of the coil of wire wound over a
rectangular frame kept suspended between the pole pieces.
2. Is the method applicable for galvanometer of any resistance?
The method is applicable for galvanometer of high resistance only. In the case of a low
resistance galvanometer,' the shunt resistance becomes comparable and the method fails.
3. How do you find the resistance of a galvanometer, when the resistance is very low?
In the case of a galvanometer of low resistance, it is best to clamp the coil and to find its
resistance by a meter bridge or P.O. Box.
4. Will you prefer a low or high resistance of a shunt?
Theory shows that the method gives a correct value of the galvanometer resistance when the
shunt is very low. So a very low resistance of the shunt is preferred.

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