Grade 12 Physics Unit - 2 Short Note PDF

ENTRANCE TRICKS PRIVATE SCHOOL
Unit 2
Two-Dimensional Motion
Projectile Motion: Beyond One Dimension
Projectile motion is a fundamental type of two-dimensional motion that you encounter
frequently in everyday life. It describes the motion of any object projected into the air, subject
only to the force of gravity. Think about the examples we've already discussed: a football
soaring through the air, a basketball arcing towards the hoop, or even the water droplets from
a fountain following their curved paths. They all can be analyzed using the principles of
projectile motion.
Key Characteristics of Projectile Motion:

 Trajectory: The curved path a projectile follows is its trajectory. Importantly, this trajectory
can be broken down into its horizontal and vertical components.
 Independence of Motion: A key principle in projectile motion is that the horizontal and
vertical components of a projectile's motion are independent of each other. This means you can
analyze them separately.
 Horizontal Motion: Neglecting air resistance, the horizontal velocity of a projectile remains
constant throughout its flight. This is because no horizontal force acts on it.
 Vertical Motion: The vertical motion of a projectile is affected by the constant downward pull
of gravity. This means it experiences a constant downward acceleration (g = 9.80 m/s2).
Essential Equations for Projectile Motion
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The sources provide you with important equations to describe the horizontal and vertical
positions, velocities, and time of flight for projectiles. Make sure you understand thederivations
and applications of these equations, as they will be essential for problem-solving.
Horizontal and Inclined Projectiles
It is important to note that Unit 2 discusses both horizontal and inclined projectile motion.
 Horizontal projectiles are launched horizontally, meaning their initial vertical velocity is zero.
 Inclined projectiles are launched at an angle to the horizontal, meaning they have both horizontal and
vertical components to their initial velocity.You will find distinct sets of equations for each scenario
in the sources.
Rotational Motion: Spinning into Action

Think about the wheels of a bicycle, the blades of a helicopter, or even the Earth spinning on its
axis. These are all examples of rotational motion, where objects move in circular paths around a
fixed axis. Unit 2 introduces the fundamental concepts of rotational motion, providing you with
the tools to describe and analyse these spinning phenomena.
Key Quantities in Rotational Motion:
 Angular Displacement (Δθ): This quantity measures the angle through which an object has
rotated. Unlike linear displacement, which is measured in meters, angular displacement is
measured in radians. One full revolution is equal to 2π radians.
 Angular Velocity (ω): This measures how fast an object is rotating, specifically the rate of
change of angular displacement. It's analogous to linear velocity (speed) in linear motion and is
typically measured in radians per second (rad/s).
 Angular Acceleration (α): Just as linear acceleration describes changes in linear velocity,
angular acceleration describes changes in angular velocity. It's the rate of change of angular
velocity, measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2).
The Right-Hand Rule
In rotational motion, the direction of angular velocity and angular acceleration vectors is
determined using a convention called the right-hand rule. This rule helps visualize the direction
in three-dimensional space. Refer to Figure 2.10 in the sources for a clear illustration of the
right-hand rule.
Connecting Linear and Angular Quantities
While rotational motion introduces new quantities, it's important to remember their close
relationships with their linear counterparts. For example, if you know the radius of the circular
path an object is travelling on, you can relate its linear speed (v) to its angular speed (ω) using
the equation:
 v = rω
Similar relationships exist for displacement and acceleration.
Equations of Rotational Motion
Rotational Dynamics: Torque and Moment of Inertia
In the previous section, we described the kinematics of rotational motion – the relationships
between angular displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time. This section delves into the
dynamics of rotational motion, exploring the causes behind these rotations.

Torque: The Turning Force

Think about using a wrench to tighten a bolt. You apply a force to the wrench handle, causing it
to rotate and turn the bolt. The measure of the effectiveness of a force in causing rotation is
called torque. Torque depends not only on the magnitude of the force but also on the distance
from the axis of rotation to the point where the force is applied (the lever arm) and the angle at
which the force is applied.
Moment of Inertia: Resistance to Rotation
Just as mass is a measure of an object's inertia (resistance to changes in its linear motion), the
moment of inertia (I) is a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotational motion.
The moment of inertia depends on both the mass of the object and how that mass is
distributed relative to the axis of rotation.
The Relationship: Linking Torque, Inertia, and Acceleration
The fundamental relationship in rotational dynamics links torque (τ), moment of inertia (I), and
angular acceleration (α). It is analogous to Newton's second law (F = ma) for linear motion and
is expressed as:
 τ = Iα
This equation tells us that the angular acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
net torque acting on it and inversely proportional to its moment of inertia.
Planetary Motion and Kepler's Laws
For centuries, astronomers have been fascinated by the motions of planets and other celestial
objects across the night sky. Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, made groundbreaking
discoveries in the early 17th century, formulating three laws that govern planetary motion.
Kepler's First Law: Elliptical Orbits
Contrary to the prevailing belief in circular orbits, Kepler's First Law states that planets move in
elliptical orbits around the Sun, with the Sun located at one of the two foci of the ellipse. This
means a planet's distance from the Sun is not constant but varies throughout its orbit.
Kepler's Second Law: Equal Areas in Equal Times
Kepler's Second Law, often called the law of equal areas, describes the speed at which a planet
travels along its elliptical orbit. It states that a line drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out
equal areas in equal intervals of time. This has an important consequence: planets speed up as
they get closer to the Sun and slow down as they move further away.
Kepler's Third Law: Harmonies of Periods and Distances
Kepler's Third Law, sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies, establishes a relationship
between a planet's orbital period (the time it takes to complete one orbit around the Sun) and
its average distance from the Sun. It states that the square of a planet's orbital period (T2) is
proportional to the cube of its average distance from the Sun (a3). Mathematically:
 T2 ∝ a3
This law implies that planets farther from the Sun have longer orbital periods, a concept that
makes intuitive sense considering they have larger orbits to traverse.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Kepler's Laws provided a descriptive framework for planetary motion, but it was Sir Isaac
Newton who unveiled the underlying force responsible for these celestial ballets: gravity. In
1687, Newton published his Law of Universal Gravitation, a cornerstone of physics that explains
the force of attraction between any two objects with mass in the universe.
A Force of Attraction
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force that is:
 Proportional to the product of their masses: The more massive the objects, the stronger the
gravitational force between them.
 Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers: As objects get farther
apart, the gravitational force between them weakens rapidly. This "inverse square law" relationship is a
recurring theme in physics.
 The Equation: Quantifying Gravity
The mathematical expression of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation is:
 F = Gm1m2/r2
Where: F is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two objects.
 G is the universal gravitational constant (approximately 6.674 × 10-11 N⋅ m2/kg2).
 m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects.
 r is the distance between their centers.
 Applications Beyond the Planets
While Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation elegantly explains the motions of planets, its
applications extend far beyond the solar system. It helps us understand the behaviour of
galaxies, the formation of stars, and even the motion of everyday objects here on Earth.
 Connecting Newton and Kepler
Importantly, Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation provides the theoretical foundation for
Kepler's empirically derived laws of planetary motion. Using his law of gravitation, Newton was
able to mathematically derive Kepler's laws, demonstrating that they were a consequence of
the fundamental force of gravity.

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ENTRANCE TRICKS PRIVATE SCHOOL

Key Characteristics of Projectile Motion:

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Rotational Motion: Spinning into Action

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Torque: The Turning Force

Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

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