UNIT – I ELASTICITY OF MATTER

PART – A QUESTIONS
1. What is elasticity?
If the body regains its original shape or size when the applied force
is removed, it is called elastic body. This property is called elasticity.
2. What is plasticity?
If the body does not regain its original shape or size when the
applied force is removed, it is called plastic body. This property is called
plasticity.
3. Define stress and strain and write down their units.
Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area. Unit for
stress: N/m2.
Applied force F
Stress = = N / m2
Area of cross sec tion A

4. Define stress and strain and write down their units.

Strain the ratio of the change in dimension to the original

dimension. No Unit.
Change in dim ension
Strain =
Original dim ension
5. What is elastic limit?
If an elastic material is stretched or compressed beyond a certain
limit, it will not regain its original state and will remain deformed state.
The limit which permanent deformation occurs is called elastic limit.
6. Define tensile strength.
It is defined as the maximum value of tensile stress withstand by
the material before fracture under a steady load.
7. Define Young’s modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain
within the elastic limit.

Longitudinal stress F / A FL
Y= = = N / m2
Longitudinal strain l / L Al
8. Define Rigidity modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of shear (tangential) stress to shear strain
within the elastic limit.

Shearing stress F / A F
n= = = N / m2
Shearing strain  A
9. Define Bulk modulus.
It is defined as the ratio of bulk stress to bulk strain within the
elastic limit.

Volume stress F / A FV
K= = = N / m2
Volume strain v / V Av
10. State Hook’s law.
Stress is directly proportional to the strain produced within the
elastic limit.
Stress  Strain
Stress = E  Strain
Stress
= E
Strain
where E – Modulus of elasticity.
11. Define Poisson’s ratio.
It is the ratio between lateral strain per unit volume to longitudinal
strain per unit volume within the elastic limit.
Lateral Strain 
= = = a (Cons tan t )
Longitudinal Strain 
12. What is torsional stress?
The shear stress set up in the shaft when equal and opposite
torques (twisting moments) are applied to the ends of a shaft about its
axis is called torsional stress.
13. Explain neutral axis (or) How are the various filaments of a
beam affected when the beam is loaded?
The middle layer (or) filament which remains unaltered even
applying the load in the beam is called neutral axis. Filaments which are
lying above it are elongated and those are lying below it are compressed.

14. What are the effects of hammering and annealing on elasticity

of a material?
While being hammered, crystal grains break into smaller units. So,
the elastic property increases.
While being annealed, crystal grains form larger units. So, the
elastic property decreases.
15. Mention the factors affecting the elasticity of a material.
1. Temperature 4. Annealing
2. Impurity 5. Stress
3. Hammering & Rolling 6. Nature of crystals
16. How do temperature and impurity affect the elasticity of the
materials?
The rise in temperature decreases the elasticity and vice versa.
The elastic property of the materials is either increased or
decreased due to the addition of impurities. It depends upon the types of
impurities added to it.
17. What is uniform bending?
If the beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the elevation is
produced in the beam. It forms an arc of a circle. This type of bending is
known as uniform bending.
18. What is non-uniform bending?
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression is produced in
the beam. It does not form an arc of a circle. This type of bending is
known as non-uniform bending.
19. What is I-Shaped girder?
The girder is the one in which the upper and lower sections are
broadened and the middle section is tapered. Since the girder looks like
the letter ‘I’, it is called I shaped girder.
20. Give the applications and advantages of I-Shaped girder.
Applications
1. They are used in the construction of bridges over the rivers.
2. They are used as I-section in railway tracks.
3. They are used as supporting beams for the ceilings in the
buildings.
4. They are also used to withstand heavy loads over it.
Advantages
1. More stability
2. More strong
3. High durability
 PART – B QUESTIONS

1. Explain the factors affecting the elasticity.

1. Temperature
2. Impurity
3. Hammering & Rolling
4. Annealing
5. Stress
6. Nature of crystals

1. Temperature: If the temperature is increased to a material, it

decreases the elastic property and vice versa.
2. Impurity: The elastic property of the materials is either increased or
decreased due to the addition of impurities. It depends upon the types
of impurities added to it.
3. Hammering & Rolling: While being hammered or rolled, crystal
grains break into smaller units. So, the elastic property increases.
4. Annealing: While being annealed (i.e., heating and then cooling
gradually), crystal grains form larger units. So elastic property
decreases.
5. Stress: When a constant stress or large number of stresses is applied
to a material, it loses the elastic property.
6. Nature of crystals: The elasticity depends upon the types of the
crystals. If it is a single crystal, the elasticity is more and if it is a poly
crystal, the elasticity is less.
2. What do you infer from stress – strain diagram? (or) Write a short
note on stress – strain diagram.

• Let us consider a body which is suspended from a rigid support.

• A weight hanger is provided at the free end.
• At this free end, weights are added under different load conditions.
• It uniformly increases the stress at this end.
• Due to stress, strain will be developed in the body.
• If a plot is drawn between stress and strain, a curve is obtained.
• This curve is called stress – strain diagram.
 From the diagram,
• Region OA – Elastic range. In this range, the body obeys Hooke’s
law.
• Point B – Maximum elastic limit is crossed. The strain increases
rapidly than the stress.
• Region BC – Body remains partly elastic and partly plastic.
• CD – Plastic range. In this range, the body will take a new path,
even if a small force is applied.
• D – Ultimate strength.
• EF – Breaking stress. Beyond D, the body loses its shape and
becomes thinner and thinner in diameter and ultimately breaks.
Therefore, E is the breaking point. The stress corresponding to E is
called breaking stress.
Inference from the diagram,

• The Stress is directly proportional to the strain, within elastic limit.

• It distinguishes the elastic and plastic limit of a material.
• It determines the ultimate strength of the material.
• The Stress-Strain diagram also helps us to distinguish the material
based on the properties such as ductility and brittleness.
3. Derive an expression for the internal bending moment of a beam on
terms of radius of curvature.
Beam – Definition
It is a rectangular bar having uniform cross section and length is
very much greater than its thickness.
Derivation
Consider a bent beam.
AB – Neutral axis
PQ – Two points on the neutral axis
PꞌQꞌ – Two points at a distance ‘x’ from the neutral axis
C – Centre of curvature
R – Radius of curvature
• Layers above AB are elongated.
• Layers below AB are compressed.
• Middle layers are neither elongated nor compressed. This is called
neutral axis.
Original length PQ = R
Extended length P' Q' = (R + x)  R + x
Increase in length = PꞌQꞌ - PQ
= Rθ + xθ – Rθ
Increase in length = xθ
Increase in length
Longitudinal strain =
Original length
x
Longitudinal strain =
R
x
Longitudinal strain =
R
Longitudinal stress
Young' s mod ulus Y =
Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal stress
Y=
x/ R
Yx
Longitudinal stress =
R
Force
Longitudinal stress =
area

If δA – Area
Force = Longitudinal stress x area
Yx
Force = A
R
Bending moment = Force x perpendicular distance
Yx
= A x
R
Y
Bending moment for small portion = A x 2
R
Y
Bending moment for total beam = A x 2
R
 A x 2 = I g is called moment of inertia
Y
Total bending moment = Ig
R
Case:1 For rectangular beam
bd 3
Ig =
12
Where b – breadth
d – thickness
3
Bending moment = Ybd
12 R
Case:2 For circular beam
r 4
Ig =
4
Where r – radius

Bending moment =
Y r 4
4R
4. Obtain an expression for the depression at the loaded end of a
cantilever and also find the Young’s modulus of the material.
Explain its experimental arrangement also.
Cantilever – Definition
Cantilever is a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end.
Derivation (Theory of Cantilever Depression)

OA – Cantilever
O – Fixed end
A – Loaded end
l – Length of the cantilever
W – Applied load
OAꞌ – New position of the cantilever
y – Depression due to load
dy – Small depression
C – Centre of curvature
R – Radius of curvature
PQ – Small arc
PT – Tangent drawn at P
QS – Tangent drawn at Q
 PCQ = d − small angle

External bending moment = Force  perpedicular dis tan ce

= w (l − x) − − − − − (1)
Y
Internal bending moment = I g − − − − − (2)
R
At equilibrium,
External bending moment = Internal bending moment
Y
w (l − x) = I g
R
Y
R= Ig − − − − − (3)
w (l − x)
Arc of length PQ = R dθ = dx
dx
d = ---------- (4)
R
Sub. (3) in (4)
dx
d =
YI g
w(l − x )
w(l − x )
d = dx − − − − − (5)
YI g
dy
∆ QAꞌS, Sin d =
(l − x )
If dθ is very small, Sin dθ ≈ dθ
dy
d =
(l − x )
dy = (l − x) d − − − − − (6)
Sub. (5) in (6)

w (l − x )
2
dy = dx − − − − − (7 )
YI g
To find total depression,

w (l − x )
l 2
 dy =  dx
0 YI g
w l
 (l − x ) dx
2
y=
YI g 0
 y=
w l 2
(
 l − 2lx + x dx
YI g 0
2
)
l
w  2 x 2 x3 
y= l x − 2l + 
YI g  2 3 0
w 3 l3 
y= l − l + 
3
YI g  3
wl 3
Total depression of a cantilever y= − − − − − (8)
3YI g
wl 3
Young’s modulus Y= − − − − − (9)
3 yI g
3
If w = Mg & I = bd
g
12

(9) becomes Mg l 3 12 Mg l 3
Y = 
bd 3 3 ybd 3
3y
12
4 Mgl 3
Young’s modulus Y= 3
N / m2
bd y
Experimental Arrangement

✓ Consider a rectangular beam clamped by the use of a G-Clamp.

✓ The beam is fixed at one end.
✓ A weight hanger (H) is suspended at the other end.
✓ A pin is fixed at the free end.
✓ A travelling microscope (M) is placed in front of the whole set up.
✓ The tip of the pin is adjusted with the horizontal cross wire by the
microscope.
✓ A weight of mass M is added on the hanger and the readings are noted
during loading.
✓ The same procedure is repeated for unloading and the readings are
tabulated.
 Microscope readings Depression
Load
Loading Unloading Mean ‘y’
W
W+50
W+100
W+150
W+200
W+250
Mean ‘y’
✓ The mean depression ‘y’ is found.
✓ The length (l), breadth (b) and thickness (d) are measured.
✓ The Young’s modulus can be determined by the following formula
4 Mgl 3
Y= 3
N / m2
bd y
5. Explain with necessary theory, the method to determine the
Young’s modulus of the material of a rectangular bar by uniform
bending.
Uniform bending – Definition
If the beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the elevation is
produced in the beam. It forms an arc of a circle. This type of bending is
known as uniform bending.

Derivation (Theory)

• Consider a beam CD.

• It is supported on two knife edges A & B.
• l – Distance between two knife edges.
• W – Equal weights added at the ends C & D.
• Opposite reaction takes place in A & D.
• CA = BD = a.
• F – Original position of the beam.
• E – Final position of the beam.
• FE = x is called as elevation.
External bending moment = Wa -------------- (1)
Y
Internal bending moment = I g -------------- (2)
R
At equilibrium condition,
External bending moment = Internal bending moment
Y
Wa = I g − − − − − (3)
R
R – radius of the circle
The elevation forms an arc of the circle.

According to Chord theorem of a circle,

EF  FG = AF  FB
l l
x  2R − x = 
2 2
l2
2 Rx − x 2 =
4
Since ‘x’ is small, ‘x2’ is neglected.
l2
2 Rx = -------------- (4)
4
l2 -------------- (5)
x=
8R
l2
R= -------------- (6)
8x
Sub. (6) in (3)

YI g
Wa =
l 2 / 8x

8 xYI g
Wa =
l2
Wal 2
Elevation x = -------------- (7)
8YI g
(7) is the expression for elevation of the beam.
 bd 3
If I g = & W =Mg
12
2
(7) becomes x = Mgal − − − − − (8)
3
bd
8Y
12
12 Mgal2
x=
8Ybd 3
3Mgal2
x=
2Ybd 3
3Mgal 2
Young’s modulus Y= − − − − − (9)
2 xbd 3
(9) is the expression for Young’s modulus of the beam.

6. How will you determine the Young’s modulus of a material of a bar

by using non-uniform bending method? Explain in brief the theory
behind the determination of Young’s modulus.
Non - uniform bending – Definition
If the beam is loaded at its mid-point, the depression is produced
in the beam. It does not form an arc of a circle. This type of bending is
known as non-uniform bending.

THEORY OF UNIFORM BENDING

➢ Consider a beam.
➢ It is supported on two knife edges A & B.
➢ l – Distance between two knife edges.
➢ W – Weight suspended at the centre C.
➢ When the load is applied, the beam bends.
➢ This beam is considered as two cantilevers.
➢ Their free ends carry a load W/2 each of length l/2.
 3
Depression of a cantilever y = W l
3Y I g

Sub. l =
l& W
W=
2 2
3
W  l 
  
y =   
2 2
3Y I g

 W   l 
3
  
 2  8 
y=
3Y I g

W l3
y=
48Y I g
bd 3
Sub. I g = & W =Mg
12
Mg l 3
y=
bd 3
48 Y
12

12 Mg l 3
y=
48 Y bd 3

Mg l 3
y=
4 Y bd 3

Mg l 3
Young’s modulus Y =
4 bd 3 y

7. Derive an expression for couple per unit twist on a thin cylinder.

Couple
A pair of equal and opposite forces acting on a body whose line of action
is not in the same straight line is called couple.

Derivation

➢ Consider a cylindrical wire.

➢ L – Length of the cylindrical wire
➢ r – Radius of the cylindrical wire
➢ The upper end of the wire is fixed.
➢ The lower end is twisted by applying a torque.
➢ θ – Angle of twist
➢ The wire is assumed to consist of large number of hollow cylindrical
tubes.
➢ The radii of the tubes vary from 0 to r.
➢ Consider one such cylinder.
➢ x – Radius of assumed cylinder
➢ dx – Thickness of assumed cylinder
➢ OOꞌ – Axis of the wire
➢ ϕ – Angle displaced due to twist
➢ n – Rigidity modulus
➢ AB is a line parallel to OOꞌ.
➢ As the cylinder is twisted, the line AB is displaced to ABꞌ through an
angle ϕ.
From ABBꞌ From OꞌBBꞌ
BBꞌ = Lϕ BBꞌ = xθ
From the above equations
Lϕ = xθ

Angle of shear (Shearing strain)  = x --------- (1)

L
According to definition of Rigidity modulus

Shearing stress Shearing stress

Rigidity mod ulus n = =
Angle of shear 
Shearing stress = n ---------- (2)

Sub. (1) in (2)

n x
Shearing stress =
L
We know that
Shearing force
Shearing stress =
Area
Shearing force = Shearing stress  Area [Area of the ring = Circumference x
thickness
 n x
Shearing force = 2 x. dx = 2πx dx]
L
Moment of force = Shearing force x perpendicular distance

n x
= 2 x. dx  x
L
2 n  3
= x dx
L
r 2 n  3
Twisting couple on a wire C = x dx
0 L
2 n  r 3
C =  x dx
L 0
r
2 n   x 4 
C =
L  4  0
2 n   r 4 
C =
L  4 
 n  r4
C =
2L
If twist angle θ = 1 radian,

 n r4
Twisting couple on a wire (or) Torque per unit twist C =
2L
If the material is in the form of hollow cylinder,
n
Twisting couple on a wire (or) Torque per unit twist C = r 2
4
− r14 
2L

8. Derive an expression for the time period and rigidity modulus of a

torsional pendulum. Explain its experimental arrangement also.
Torsional Pendulum
A circular disc suspended using a thin wire that produce torsional
oscillation is called torsional pendulum.

Principle

When a disc is rotated through a horizontal plane, the disc

produces simple harmonic oscillation due to the restoring couple
produced in the wire.
 Description
➢ A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire.
➢ The metal wire is suspended vertically.
➢ The upper end is fixed.
➢ The lower end is connected to the circular disc.
➢ L – Length of the wire.
➢ r – Radius of the wire
➢ C – Couple per unit twist
Working
➢ The circular disc is rotated by a twist.
➢ So, the wire is twisted through an angle θ.
➢ Then, a restoring couple is produced in the wire.
➢ Now the disc is released.
➢ So, the couple produces angular acceleration d  .
2

d t2
Restoring couple = C  ---------- (1)

Applied couple = I d 
2
---------- (2)
d t2
In equilibrium, applied couple = restoring couple

d 2
I = C
d t2
Angular acceleration d 2 C  ---------- (3)
=
d t2 I
Period of oscillation
We know, time period of oscillation Displacement ( )
T = 2
Angular acceleration

T = 2
C
I
I ---------- (4)
T = 2
C
I – Moment of Inertia & C – Couple per unit twist
 From (4), Period of oscillation
Without mass
I
T0 = 2 
C

I ------- (5)
T0 2 = 4  2
C
With mass at closest distance d1
2 I1
T1 = 4  2 ------- (6)
C
With mass at furthest distance d2
2 I2
T2 = 4  2 ------- (7)
C
Moment of inertia of the disc
(5) / (7) – (6)
4  2I
T0 2 C
=
T22 − T12 4  2
C
( I 2 − I1 )
T0 2 I
=
T2 2 − T12 ( I 2 − I1 )

T0 2
I= 2 ( I 2 − I1 ) ------- (8)
T2 − T12
From Parallel axis theorem,
The moment of inertia I1
I1 = I + 2Im + 2md12 ------- (9)

Similarly, I2 = I + 2Im + 2md22 ------- (10)

(10) – (9) I2 – I1 = 2m (d22– d12) ------- (11)
 Sub. (11) in (8)

I=
(
2m d 22 − d12 T0 2 ) ------- (12)
T22 − T12

Rigidity modulus of the wire

 n r4
We know, Couple per unit twist C = ------- (13)
2L
Sub. (13) in (4)

I
T = 2
 n r4
2L

2I L
T = 2
 n r4
Squarring on both sides,

2I L
T2 = 42
 n r4

8 I L
T2 =
n r4

Rigidity modulus n = 8 I L ------- (14)

T 2 r4