Food Reviews International

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Gac Fruit: Nutrient and Phytochemical

Composition, and Options for Processing

Tuyen C. Kha , Minh H. Nguyen , Paul D. Roach , Sophie E. Parks &

Constantinos Stathopoulos

To cite this article: Tuyen C. Kha , Minh H. Nguyen , Paul D. Roach , Sophie E. Parks &
Constantinos Stathopoulos (2013) Gac Fruit: Nutrient and Phytochemical Composition, and Options
for Processing, Food Reviews International, 29:1, 92-106, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2012.692141

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Food Reviews International, 29:92–106, 2013
Copyright © 2012 Crown copyright
ISSN: 8755-9129 print / 1525-6103 online
DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2012.692141

Gac Fruit: Nutrient and Phytochemical

Composition, and Options for Processing

TUYEN C. KHA1, MINH H. NGUYEN1,2, PAUL D. ROACH1,

SOPHIE E. PARKS3, AND CONSTANTINOS STATHOPOULOS1
1
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah,
New South Wales, Australia
2
School of Health and Science, University of Western Sydney, Ourimbah,
Australia
3
New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Sydney, Australia

Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng or Gac fruits are rich in nutrients, including

carotenoids, fatty acids, vitamin E, polyphenol compounds, and flavonoids. Medicinal
compounds are also found in the seeds, but the benefits of traditional preparations
from these need to be clarified. The plant has the potential to be a high-value crop,
particularly as parts of the fruit can be processed into nutrient supplements and/or
natural orange and yellow colorants. However, the plant remains underutilized. There
is limited information on its requirements in production, and the processing of health
products from the fruits is a relatively new area of endeavor. The versatility of the fruit
is highlighted through processing options outlined for fruit aril, seeds, pulp, and skin
into powders and/or encapsulated oil products. These Gac fruit products will have the
potential to be utilized in a range of foods such as pasteurized juice and milk beverages,
glutinous rice, yogurt, pasta, and sauces.

Keywords Antioxidant, Carotenoids, Encapsulation, Fatty acid, Gac fruit, Oil

extraction

Introduction
The cucurbit Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng, called Gac in Vietnam, is a variable
species and is widespread across South East Asia, Malesia, and India.(1) English names
for the fruit include baby jackfruit, sweet gourd, and cochinchin gourd. Nutritionally, this
fruit is special because the flesh around the seeds (aril) is rich in carotenoids, especially
β-carotene and lycopene. Gac fruits also contain relatively high levels of α-tocopherol (vita-
min E), polyunsaturated fatty acids,(2–4) and polyphenol compounds and flavonoids.(5) A
number of studies highlight the important role these products play in human health. Beyond
its natural distribution, Gac aril products are gaining popularity as health-promoting foods.
Gac fruit products also have market potential as alternatives to the artificial colorants
Tartrazine, Sunset Yellow, and Quinoline Yellow, which are associated with behavioral
problems in children.(6)
In addition to the Gac aril having a very high nutritional content, the total carotenoid
content (TCC) in the yellow pulp of the Gac fruit (mesocarp) is relatively high as compared

Address correspondence to Minh H. Nguyen, School of Environmental and Life Sciences,

University of Newcastle, PO box 127, Ourimbah, NSW 2258, Australia. E-mail: Minh.Nguyen@
newcastle.edu.au

92
 Gac Fruit Composition and Processing 93

with many plant foods.(2,7) Furthermore, the yellow pulp represents approximately half of
the weight of an entire fresh fruit and is the highest anatomical component.(7) However,
whereas the aril is traditionally used for food preparation due to its attractive color and
high nutrients, the pulp is often discarded. Similarly, Gac skin, which represents about 17%
of the total weigh of the fruit, is not used. Importantly, the seeds containing high levels
of fatty acids and other products are not usually used. Therefore, identifying means of
utilizing of these components is necessary to reduce the environmental problem of waste
and to enhance the economic value of the fruit
This review will focus on the traditional uses and production of Gac fruit, fruit nutrient
and phytochemical composition, and the use of Gac products as nutrient supplements and
natural food colorants. A potential processing scheme for Gac fruit is proposed to help
facilitate greater use of this fruit.

Traditional Uses
Gac fruit is a traditional Southeast Asian fruit. In Vietnam, ripe Gac fruit is most commonly
prepared as “Xoi Gac” (the Gac aril cooked in glutinous rice) for Tet (Vietnamese New
Year) and wedding celebrations. In India (Assam and Andamans), the fruits are harvested
small and green with immature seeds to be consumed as a vegetable.(8) The spiny skin is
removed and the fruits are sliced and cooked sometimes with potato or bottle gourd and in
some areas the tender leaves and shoots of the plant are also cooked.(9)
Gac fruit seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicine, known as Mubiezhi, to treat
fluxes, liver and spleen disorders, wounds, hemorrhoids, bruises, boils, sores, scrofula,
tinea, swelling, and pus.(10,11) Practically, many people in rural areas in Vietnam use ground
Gac seeds mixed with alcohol or vinegar to cure furuncle, swelling, hemorrhoids, and
mumps. However, future research needs to clarify the benefits of these preparations.

Propagation and Cultivation

Limited information is available on the requirements in production of the Gac plant for
optimum yield and quality of the fruits. The Gac plant is not usually intensively cultivated
but can be seen (in Vietnam) growing wild or in domestic settings with the vines growing
on lattice in rural homes or in gardens. The plant can be cultivated from seeds or root tubers,
and grows as dioecious vines (separate male and female plants). Rooted vine cuttings can
also be used for propagation and are more reliable than production from seeds, which
can be affected by dormancy and a long lead time into production.(9) Furthermore, several
seedlings need to be planted in the one pit so that the male plants can be removed once they
are identified as male at flowering, as only a few are needed for pollination.(9) Alternatively,
it is possible to graft female scion material onto the main shoot of the unwanted male plant,
making it productive.(12)
Hybridization studies using several Mormordica species including Gac(13) and studies
on the effects of plant growth regulators on Gac(8,14,15) indicate that new varieties with
bisexual flowers will be possible, overcoming some of the difficulties currently associated
with Gac production.
Approximately 2–3 months after planting, flowering occurs. Pollination is chiefly car-
ried out by insects rather than wind and hand pollination results in a higher fruit set than
open pollination.(16) It takes approximately 5 months after flowering before the ripe fruits
can be harvested. One plant can produce 30–60 fruits in one season,(17) although this may
depend on factors such as climate and plant age, yet to be described.
94 Kha et al.

Figure 1. Fresh Gac fruit components (from Kha(19) ) (color figure available online).

Fruit Morphology
The fleshy Gac fruit can be botanically described as a pepo. Gac fruits grown in Vietnam
are typically round or ovoid in shape but one cultivar grown in India is recorded as oblong-
shaped.(18) The exterior skin of Gac is covered in short spines, which can sparsely or densely
cover the skin. Its green color becomes red or dark orange when ripe. Gac fruit (Fig. 1)(19)
comprises orange/yellow skin containing spines, yellow pulp, and aril (red flesh surround-
ing the seeds). The highest anatomical component of a Gac fruit is yellow pulp (49%, by
weight), whereas the aril, which contains the highest level of carotenoids, accounts for only
18%.(19) The aril weight has also been reported as 10% and 24.6%.(3,7) Storage time and
growth stage during which loss of water may contribute to this variation.(3)

Bioactive Compounds of Gac Fruit

Gac fruit is an exceptional fruit whose aril contains excellent sources of carotenoids,
α-tocopherol (vitamin E), polyphenol compounds, flavonoids, and essential fatty
acids.(2,3,5,7,10,11,20) Depending on the component, these phytochemicals are present in all
parts of the fruit so there is the potential to utilize all parts in processed products. Future
research will need to focus on the effect of growing, storage, and processing conditions
on the phytochemical qualities of fruits such that techniques and varieties are developed to
protect and/or enhance the desired bioactive qualities.

Carotenoids
Carotenoids from plant-based foods play a crucial role in human health.(21,22) For example,
numerous studies have reported that lycopene-rich diets are linked with reduced risk of
cardiovascular disease and cancers such as lung, breast, stomach, and prostate.(23–25) β-
Carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body.(26)
Evidence suggests that Gac has promise as a bioavailable source of carotenoids and
it has been examined as a food supplement in a study with Vietnamese children. In the
study, 185 Vietnamese preschoolers participated in a 30-day supplementation trial and were
randomly divided into three groups, one group given Xoi Gac (sticky rice mixed with Gac
fruit containing 3.5 mg β-carotene), one group given rice mixed with 5 mg synthetic β-
carotene powder, and a control group given rice without fortification. Results indicated that
plasma levels of retinol and carotenoids (β-carotene, α-carotene, zeaxanthin, and lycopene)
 Gac Fruit Composition and Processing 95

after supplementation were significantly increased. Moreover, the increase in plasma β-

carotene level after supplementation in the fruit group (1.86 μmol/L) was significantly
higher than that in the powder group (1.48 μmol/L).(27) Therefore, using Gac fruit as a
food-based intervention may be effective for reducing vitamin A deficiency.
The Gac aril, in particular, contains extraordinarily high levels of carotenoids, espe-
cially carotenes and lycopene (Table 1), in comparison with other fruits and vegetables.
It is claimed that the lycopene concentration in Gac fruit is at least 5 times higher than
in other well-known fruits analyzed (grapefruit, tomato, papaya, guava, and watermelon)
(Fig. 2).(2,21) It is also shown that Gac aril has the highest known concentration of β-carotene
of all fruits and vegetables.(4) For example, it is 8 times higher than the level in carrots,
which are recognized as being high in β-carotene (Fig. 3).(27–29)
In addition to the aril, the yellow pulp and skin are good sources of carotenoids
and should not be overlooked as carotenoid sources (Table 1). For example, lutein has a

Table 1
Carotenoid content of fresh Gac fruit (mg/100 g)

Carotenoids Skin Pulp Aril

β-Carotene 38.4–141.6(5)a 24.0–43.2(5) 160.0(5)
2.2(2) 63.6–83.6(7)
10.1(2)
8.3(20)
Lycopene 38.4–81.6(5) 14.4–49.6(5) 154.6–305.4(7)
0.1(2) 140.0(5)
38.0(2)
40.8(20)
Lutein 189.6–1248(5) 16.0–144.8(5) na
Zeaxanthin na 0.2(2) 0.9(2)
β-Cryptoxanthin na 0.4(2) 0.2(2)
Note. na = not available. a Data(5) converted from dry weight to fresh weight using
the moisture content of skin, pulp, and aril of 76%, 92%, and 80%, respectively.

Figure 2. Lycopene content of fruit and vegetables (adapted from Aoki et al.(2) and Rao and Rao(21) )
(color figure available online).
96 Kha et al.

Figure 3. β-Carotene content of fruit and vegetables (adapted from Kandlakunta et al.,(28) Singh
et al.,(29) and Vuong et al.(27) ) (color figure available online).

higher concentration in the skin than in the aril or the pulp.(5) Many studies have reported
that lutein plays an important role in the prevention of age-related macular degradation
(AMD).(22,30–32) These components of Gac fruit are usually discarded when the aril is
scooped out and used for processing purposes.
Although high, the concentrations of carotenoids content in Gac fruit are variable
(Table 1). The factors responsible for this remain to be investigated but may include vari-
ety, genotype, season, geographic location, stage of maturity, growing conditions, and
storage conditions. For example, one single study investigated concentration changes in
carotenoids (lycopene and β-carotene) in Gac fruit as affected by ambient storage condi-
tions and stage of maturity. Fruit maturity was the most important factor, with the content of
carotenoids highest in the ripe fruits.(3) Ultimately, the factors that affect the concentration
of carotenoids in Gac will need to be actively investigated to allow for production of fruits
with a consistently high source of carotenoids.

α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Vitamin E or α-tocopherol is an important fat-soluble antioxidative component in foods and
the human body and potentially plays a key role in preventing cardiovascular disease,(33,34)
preventing coronary heart disease,(35–37) and delaying Alzheimer’s disease.(38,39) The
concentration of vitamin E in Gac fruit, at 76 μg/ g of fresh weight, is high compared
with other fruits.(20) Vitamin E, as a natural antioxidant, helps protect Gac aril oil from
oxidation.(40) In foods, vitamin E could potentially preserve valuable phytonutrients rich
in Gac fruit from oxidation.

Polyphenolics and flavonoids

Phenolic acids and flavonoids are found in Gac fruit and potentially have beneficial effects
on human health.(41–43) These compounds are in all fruit parts at concentrations between
1.5 to 4.3 mg/g of dry weight. The aril contains the highest concentrations of phenolic
acids and flavonoids, 4.3 and 2.1 mg/g, respectively.(5)

Fatty Acids
Primarily, the benefit of Gac-derived fatty acids would be in using these as an alternative
to saturated fats in the diet. The benefits of essential fatty acids in human health are well
 Gac Fruit Composition and Processing 97

known. The presence of fat in the Gac fruit aril plays an important role in the absorption of
carotenes and other fat-soluble nutrients.(27,44) Similarly, several studies also show that fat
ingested with carotenoid compounds in plant foods significantly improves their absorption
by the body.(45–47)
Gac fruit (aril and seeds) are rich in fatty acids, particularly monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated acids. Unlike the aril, the seeds are usually discarded; therefore, utilization
of the seeds contributes to preventing waste disposal problems and maximizing available
sources.
The Gac aril contains significant amounts of fatty acids, at 102 mg/g of fresh weight
(FW).(27) Seventy percent of total fatty acids in the aril are unsaturated, and 50% of these
are polyunsaturated.(4) Unusual for fruits, Gac has a high concentration of linoleic acid
and omega-3 fatty acids.(7) The fatty acid composition and total oil content of Gac aril are
presented in Table 2.
The total fatty acid content in Gac seeds is between 15.7% and 36.6% of the total
weight of the seed.(7) The fatty acid composition includes stearic acid (54.5–71.7% by
weight), linoleic acid (11.2–25.0%), and α-linolenic acid (0.5–0.6%). Several other types
of fatty acids are found in Gac seeds in smaller amounts.(7)
Gac aril oil contains a high concentration of oleic acid, 34 % of total fatty acids (see
Table 2); hence, it can be used in addition to other sources such as sunflower, palm, and
soya. However, research on the effects of oleic acid in Gac fruit is still needed to confirm
its benefits. Gac aril and seeds also contain α-linolenic acid, which is beneficial to human
health. For example, α-linolenic acid has been seen in some studies to play important role
in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular disease.(48–50)

Other Components
Gac fruit seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicine and they are rich in benefi-
cial chemical compounds such as oleanodic acid, diterpene columbin, chondrillasterol,

Table 2
Fatty acid composition and total oil content of Gac aril(27)

Fatty acids Abbreviation Concentration (mg/g, FW) % of total fatty acids

Myristic 14:0 0.89 0.87
Palmitic 16:0 22.48 22.04
Palmitoleic 16:19 0.27 0.26
Stearic 18:0 7.20 7.06
Oleic 18:19 34.76 34.08
cis-Vaccenic 18:111 1.15 1.13
Linoleic 18:29,12 32.06 31.43
α-Linolenic 18:39,12,15 2.18 2.14
Arachidic 20:0 0.40 0.39
Gadoleic 20:19 0.15 0.15
Arachidonic 20:4 0.10 0.10
Behenic 22:0 0.19 0.19
Lignoceric 24:0 0.14 0.14
Total 101.98
98 Kha et al.

Momordica saponins momordins, and pentacyclic triterpenoid ester.(10,11) Some evidence

supports the beneficial effect of Gac seed components. Ethanol extract from Gac seed
was shown to significantly decrease blood glucose levels and increase insulin in diabetic
rats. The presence of saponins, flavonoids, and other compounds in seeds may synergisti-
cally or independently contribute to this beneficial effect.(51) Other components in seeds,
such as multiple trypsin inhibitors,(52) play an important role in the prevention of human
cancer.(53,54)

Processing of Gac Fruit

If the fruit was to be used for all the applications indicated above and more, then appropri-
ate processing would be needed. However, little information is available on how the Gac
fruit might be processed to make full use of its components and maintain its quality charac-
teristics. It is envisaged that Gac fruit can be processed in several ways (Fig. 4), including
drying, extraction of oil, encapsulation, and incorporation into foods.

Drying Methods
Generally, fruit powders are often used in the food industry, as they are convenient to store,
handle, and transport. This is particularly important for fruits such as Gac that are only
available fresh for a short season. Powders are also favored when used as natural colorants.
Gac fruit, available as a powder, will ensure its supply for use as colorings in food products,
including juices and dairy products.

Gac aril. Studies show that the choice of pretreatments and drying treatments plays an
important role in effectively maintaining the highest content of carotenoids, color, and
antioxidant activity.
In comparing different drying methods, it is clear that freeze-drying processes can sub-
stantially preserve the nutritional values of samples, in terms of TCC and total antioxidant
activity (TAA). This has been confirmed for Gac powder,(19,55) carrot slices,(56) and paprika
powder.(57) However, freeze-drying is generally seen as a very expensive preservation
method. For example, freeze-drying costs are 4–8 times higher than that of air-drying.(58)

Figure 4. A potential processing scheme of Gac fruit (color figure available online).
 Gac Fruit Composition and Processing 99

Freeze-drying may not always be the superior process, since it did not show any advan-
tage over convective air-drying at below 70 ◦ C in terms of carotenoid retention in carrots.
The β-carotene and lycopene contents remained almost constant after the convection air-
drying.(56) Similarly, in a comparison of freeze-drying and oven-drying (at 25–75 ◦ C) of
tomato pulp solids, the lycopene content was not significantly different.(59) Some research
indicates a negative impact of freeze-drying on the content of carotenoids. For example, the
amounts of lycopene in two tomato varieties after freeze-drying were reduced to 33–48%
of the levels in fresh fruits.(60) In contrast, the lycopene contents after air-drying increased
by 152–197% of levels in fresh fruits. In this case, the heating process breaks down the cell
walls and the bonding force between lycopene and the tissue matrix. As a result, lycopene
is more accessible and increases more cis-isomerization.(60)
For Gac, the TCC of samples presoaked in ascorbic solution or bisulfite prior to
vacuum-drying at low temperature of 40 ◦ C was highly comparable with the freeze-
dried samples.(19) Also, a good-quality Gac powder was obtained, in terms of color, total
carotenoids, and antioxidant activity when produced by spray-drying at inlet tempera-
ture of 120 ◦ C and adding maltodextrin concentration at 10%.(61) On the basis of these
studies, a suitable drying technique has good potential for producing powder from Gac
aril.

Gac skin and pulp. Gac skin and pulp may also be suitable for production as powders, since
they have a high nutritional value even when dried. For example, air-drying at a temperature
of 60 ◦ C was performed to produce powders from Gac skin and pulp.(19) This showed that
skin powder is higher in TCC and TAA compared with the pulp powder. Additionally, the
TCC of skin and pulp powders is high compared with other fruits and vegetables, including
cherry tomatoes, pumpkin, carrot,(62) and several tomato cultivars.(63) This confirms skin
and pulp powders as desirable sources of carotenoids and may encourage greater utilization
of these by air-drying.

Oil Extraction Methods

Oil rich in essential fatty acids can be extracted from Gac aril and seeds but optimiza-
tion of Gac oil extraction is needed. Traditional extraction using potentially harmful
organic solvents has been abandoned due to health concerns, environmental problems, and
quality degradation and it is important to find an alternative extraction method using non-
organic solvent or food-grade solvent. Many reports show that plant oil can be extracted
by other methods such as supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2 ) extraction, aqueous
enzymatic extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and ultrasound-assisted extraction.
These methods are environment-friendly and solvent-free. The advantages and draw-
backs of ultrasound-assisted pressing extraction(64–66) and microwave-assisted pressing
extraction(67–69) in food extraction have been reviewed.
Among the existing methods, SC-CO2 extraction has been considered as a most
promising alternative to traditional solvent extraction and mechanical pressing. It offers
a number of advantages, including nonsolvent residues, shorter extraction times, higher
extraction yields, and better retention of nutritional and valuable bioactive compounds.(70)
In recent years, SC-CO2 extraction technique has been employed to extract essential
oils,(71–73) fatty acids,(74,75) carotenoids,(76–78) and vitamin E(78,79) from fruits and vegeta-
bles. However, the SC-CO2 extraction of fatty acids, carotenoids, and α-tocopherol from
Gac aril has not yet been reported.
100 Kha et al.

Encapsulation Process
Encapsulation is the process by which bioactive components (core material) such as food
oils are enveloped within a wall. This process is used for protection, stabilization, and slow
release of food ingredients. Recently, increased attention has been given to the application
of encapsulation of bioactive compounds, particularly unsaturated fatty acids. The degra-
dation of these compounds can be prevented by applying encapsulation techniques. The
encapsulation of fatty acids has been successfully reported in numerous studies.(80–82) the
process requires agents to protect the oils and emulsifiers to achieve good encapsulation in
the spray-drying technique commonly used in the food industry. However, the study of Gac
oil encapsulation has not yet been reported.
There are various encapsulating agents (wall materials) effective for encapsulating
food oils in providing good protection against heat, light, and oxidation. The agents
are classified as carbohydrates, cellulose, gum, lipids, and protein, which are reviewed
elsewhere.(83–86) The wall materials have different physical and chemical characteris-
tics, and their properties, including viscosity, solubility, stabilization, reactivity, protective
capacity, and cost, have been reviewed by several authors.(84,86) Cyclodextrins are an exam-
ple of an agent widely used in spray-drying encapsulation of food oil. The monomers of
cyclodextrins are connected to each other, giving a ring structure that is relatively rigid and
has a hollow cavity with the ability to encapsulate other molecules.(84) Its suitability as an
encapsulation agent for Gac fruit is unknown.
The encapsulation process requires an emulsifier, particularly for stabilizing the emul-
sion used in spray-drying encapsulation. Generally, the choice of emulsifier is determined
by its hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) value. According to Davis,(87) a high HLB
value (8–13), indicates a more hydrophilic surfactant, and is suitable for facilitating oil
in water emulsion formation and enhancing its stability. Earlier, Griffin(88) claimed that
this range should be about 8–18 for oil-in-water emulsifier. The HLB values of some com-
mon emulsifiers can be found elsewhere.(85) Other parameters needing consideration for
emulsification include total solids concentration, viscosity, droplet size, and emulsification
method.(84)
Among various encapsulation techniques reported,(83,86) spray-drying encapsulation is
the most widely used in the food industry.(89,90) This process can potentially offer many
benefits such as economics, flexibility, and good quality of encapsulated materials(91) and
may be suitable for Gac fruits. However, to achieve good encapsulation efficiency for Gac,
the conditions for wall materials, emusifiers, and spray-drying conditions all need opti-
mizing. The key parameters for spray-drying include feed temperature, air inlet and outlet
temperatures,(84,92) atomization type and conditions, drying air flow rate and humidity, and
powder particle size.(84)

Utilization of Gac Products

Finally, utilization of Gac powder or encapsulated Gac oil can be achieved by incorporating
it into foods as a natural colorant and/or nutrient supplements. Natural carotenoid extracts
are used as food colorants in many processed products, including oily products (margarines,
oils, fats and shortenings), fruit juice, beverages, dry soups, canned soups, dairy products,
milk substitutes, coffee whiteners, dessert mixes, preserves, syrups, confectionery, salad
dressings, meat products, pasta, egg products, baked goods, and others.(93–95)
Gac aril powders produced by different drying methods such as freeze-drying, vacuum-
drying, and spray-drying are easily incorporated into the Vietnamese dish “Xoi Gac,”
 Gac Fruit Composition and Processing 101

pasteurized Gac juice, pasteurized Gac milk beverages, yogurt, fettuccine pasta, and creamy
sauce.(19,96) Also, the color, TCC, and TAA of the juice and the milk beverages are main-
tained after storage for 30 days under refrigeration.(19) Considering these studies and given
that Gac aril and Gac oil can be effective natural source of highly bioavailable lycopene and
carotenes when cooked,(97) there is great potential to produce high-quality products from
processed Gac fruits.
The extraction of natural colorants from Gac would need to follow approved meth-
ods, such as those used for extracting lycopene from tomatoes.(98) Unfortunately, gaining
approval to use natural colorants as food additives is a complicated task, because it takes
time to meet the requirements of governments and organizations.(93) Only 13 natural col-
orants are approved in the European Union (EU) and 26 natural colorants certificated
in the United States.(99) However, in the EU, the “Southampton Six” colors, Alurra Red
(also called Red 40), Ponceau 4R (E124), Tartrazine (Yellow 5) (E102), Sunset Yellow
FCF/Orange Yellow S (Yellow 6) (E110), Quinoline Yellow (E104), and Carmoisine
(E102), now must have a specific warning label on food packaging. This increases the
demand for natural colorants such as those from Gac fruit.
Drawbacks of developing new colorants are the high costs for manufacturers.(95)
Development of Gac products as a natural food colorant needs to consider the many factors
affecting its application in a particular food product. These factors include, for example,
its solubility and stability in processing, packaging, and storage. It is very important to
optimize the factors allowing the stability of natural carotenoids in the final product. For
example, the hue of carotenoids is affected by pH.(100)

Conclusions
Gac fruit contains extraordinarily high levels of carotenoids (particularly lycopene and β-
carotene), α-tocopherol, and fatty acids in its parts (aril, seeds, yellow pulp, and skin). Other
bioactive compounds such as polyphenol compounds and flavonoids are also found in Gac
fruit. The seeds are high in fatty acids and are also used as traditional Chinese medicines.
Many studies confirm that the valuable compounds in Gac fruit play a crucial role in human
health. The proposed processing scheme of all the parts of Gac fruit, including drying, oil
extraction, and oil encapsulation, highlights how the utilization of air-dried powder from the
pulp and skins prevents environmental pollution from waste disposal problem and enhances
the overall value of Gac fruit.

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