DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

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SS 3 FIRST TERM: E-LEARNING NOTES
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
THEME: INTERNAL PROCESSES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
1. Earthquakes: (a) Definition, Origin and focus: (i) Tremor (ii) epicentre (iii) Shock waves (b) Causes
of earthquakes: (i) faults from collision of tectonic plates (ii) sudden release of stress.
2. Earthquakes: (c) Regions of earthquake occurrence: Circum-pacific-ring-of-fire, Tonga region, Chile-
Argentina region, Fiji Islands, Mid-Atlantic ridge, Some Asian countries. (d) Effects of earthquakes:
(i) Displacement of earth’s crust (ii) Raising and lowering of coastal rocks (iii) Raising and lowering of
ocean floor (iv) Landslides and cracks, etc.
3. Vulcanicity: (1) Meaning of vulcanicity (b) Processes: (i) Crustal disturbance (ii) Intrusion
(iii) Extrusion (iv) Eruption (v) Emission, etc. (c) Regions of occurrence.
4. Vulcanicity: (d) Characteristic features of landforms in the regions. (i) Intrusion feature/landforms –
Sills, Dyke, Batholiths, Laccoliths, Lopoliths and Phacoliths. (ii) Extrusion feature: Composite cone,
Lava domes or shield volcanoes, Ash and cinder cones.
5. Karst Topography (Limestone Regions): (a) Karst Topography or limestone regions.
(b) Characteristics of Karst topography: Solubility, Absence of luxuriant vegetation cover, absence of
surface drainage, Joints and rugged topography, Dry surface valleys, etc.
6. Karst Topography (Limestone Regions): (c) Features of Karst regions (i) Surface features – Grikes,
Clints, Swallow hole, Sink holes, Doline, Uvalo, Poljes.
7. MID – TERM BREAK
8. Karst Topography: (ii) Underground features –Caves and caverns, limestone gorge, resurgence or
springs, stalactite and stalagmites, Pillar (d) Importance of Karst topography.
THEME: EXTERNAL PROCESSES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT
9. Denudational Processes: (a) Meaning (b) Types of denudational processes: Weathering, Mass
movement, etc. (c) Factors affecting denudation: (i) Relief (ii) Climate (iii) Human activities, etc.
10. Revision
11. Examination
WEEK: 1 DATE-------------
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: EARTHQUAKES
CONTENT:
1. DEFINITION, ORIGIN AND FOCUS
i. Tremor
ii. Epicentre
iii. Shock waves
a. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
i. Faults from collision of tectonic plates
ii. Sudden release of stress
SUB-TOPIC 1: EARTHQUAKES
DEFINITION: These are sudden movement or vibrations in the earth crust. They occur as a result of
disturbance within, and below the earth crust. The transmission of the resultant vibrations outward to the
surface, leads to a series of shocks waves that give rise to earthquakes.
The point at which the shock originates is called the Origin or focus and the point on the earth surface directly
above the origin or where the shock wave first hit the surface is called epicenter. The instrument used in
measuring the intensity of earthquakes is called seismograph.
Earthquakes could be disastrous where there are densely populated areas.
TREMOR: Earth tremors are vibrations within the earth’s crust produced by gentle waves. However, earth
tremors are not severe as earthquakes. Its only occurs every few minutes.
EPICENTRE: This is the point on the earth’s surface where the shock waves first hit the surface. It is
directly above the origin. The effect produced by the earthquake is referred to as the INTENSITY. The
magnitude of the shock of the earthquake which refers to the total amount of energy released is measured
according to the RICHTER’S SCALE.
In 1935, C. F. Richter devised a type of scale for measuring the magnitudes of earthquakes. It ranges from 0 to
9 and the largest yet recorded is 8.6 on this scale. Earthquakes measuring 0 to 4 are minor, from 4 to 7 are
moderate and over 7 is severe.
There are two types of shock waves.
a. Body waves
b. Surface waves
BODY WAVES: These waves travel through the crust and are of two ways
i. Primary waves: These cause the crustal rocks to move backward and forward in the direction of the
wave movement.
ii. Secondary waves: These causes the crustal rocks to move from side to side, that is at right angles to
the direction of wave movement.
SURFACE WAVES: These travels through the surface rocks; they are of two types.
1. LOVE WAVES: These causes the surface rocks to move side by side at right angles to the direction of
wave’s movement.
2. RAYLEIGH WAVES: These causes the surface rocks to have a vertical circular movement.
EVALUATION
1. Define the word Earthquake
2. Write short note on
 i. Earth tremor
ii. Epicentre.
iii. Seismograph.
iv. Richter’s scale
SUB-TOPIC 2: CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are caused by the development of faults or cracks in the crust which result from collision between
plates and the movements of molten rock below or within the crust, or the sudden release of stress which has
slowly built up along the fault plane.
Earthquakes are often concentrated in the belts marking the boundaries of plate which include the mid-ocean
ridge, the ocean deeps and volcanic Islands and regions of crystal compression. The point at which an
earthquake originates is called the FOCUS while the point on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus
is called EPICENTRE.

THE PASSAGE OF EARTHQUAKE THROUGH THE CRUST

1. FAULTS FROM COLLISION OF TECTONIC PLATES: These are cracks developed as a result of
internal uplift between the earth’s crusts plates and are normally of considerable sizes which result in
waves to travel through the crust. These faults may be vertical or horizontal.
2. SUDDEN RELEASE OF STRESS: These are event that leads to earthquake in an area. This occurs in
region where molten rocks move below or within the crust or sudden release of stress which have
slowly built up along the plane.
EVALUATION
1. Explain the origin of earthquakes.
2. List and explain types of shock waves.
3. What are causes of earthquake?
GENERAL EVALUTION
1. Explain the term earthquakes
2. Write short note on the following:
a. focus
b. Epicentre
c. Seismograph
d. Earth tremor
e. Tsunamis
3. a. Discuss the two major types of shocks
b. Briefly discuss the following
i. Earth tremor
 ii. Intensity in earthquake
iii. Epicentre
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. With the aid of annotated diagram, describe the processes of earthquake waves through the
earth’s crust.
2. Highlight the regions of earthquake occurrence in the world.
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Certificate Physical and Human Geography (New Impression), By O. Areola et al
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools, By P.O. S. Ajayi
3. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary School, by O.A. Iwena

WEEK: 2 DATE------------
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: EARTHQUAKES
CONTENT:
1. REGIONS OF EARTHQUAKE OCCURRENCE
2. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
SUB-TOPIC 2: REGIONS OF EARTHQUAKE OCCURRENCE
CIRCUM-PACIFIC-RING OF FIRE: This is an area where large number of earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occurs in the basin of the Pacific Ocean. The ring of fire is not quite a circular ring. It’s shaped more
like 40,000km (25,000 miles) horseshoe. A string of 452 volcanoes stretches from the Southern tip of South
America up to the coast of North America; across the Bering straits, down through Japan and into New
Zealand.

DIAGRAM SHOWING CIRCUM-PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

TONGA REGION: Here the earthquake occurred four days after the beginning of a major undersea volcanic
eruption near Hunga Tonga. There have been no confirmation yet of a direct link between the volcanic
eruption and earthquake
 DIAGRAM SHOWING TONGA REGION
CHILE-ARGENTINA REGION: In Chile where scientist examines signs that millennia of earthquake had
left permanent deformation of the ground. Earthquake can permanently crack the earth and investigations of
quakes that have rocked Chile over the past million years.
FIJI ISLAND: Fiji lies in a complex tectonic setting along the boundary between Australian plate and the
pacific plate southward from Fiji, the pacific is sub ducting beneath the Australian plate along the Tonga
trench forming the Tonga ridge Island arc system. The Fiji lies in a zone bordered with active extension fault
line around, which most of the shallow earthquakes were centered.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FIGI REGION OF EARTHQUAKE

MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE: The mid-Atlantic is a mid Ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary
located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in world. Although the
mid-Atlantic is mostly an underwater feature, portion of it have enough elevation to extend above the sea level
 DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE
SOME ASIAN COUNTRIES: Some Asian countries like Indonesia, Iran, China and Japan are some of the
earthquake region in Asia. For instance, the earthquake strokes a 200mile stretch of North East Iran, with the
epicentre directly below the city of Demgham, which was at that point the capital city. Most of the city was
destroyed as well as the neighbouring areas.
EVALUATION
1. Mention four regions of earthquake occurrence in the world.
2. Discuss any three of the region you have mention in one above
3. Mention three Asian countries with earthquake occurrence
SUB-TOPIC 3: EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
1. DISPLACEMENT OF EARTH’S CRUST: Earthquakes causes vertical and lateral displacement of
parts of the earth crust
2. RISING AND LOWERING OF COASTAL ROCKS: Earthquakes can also raise or lower coastal
rocks when it occurs.
 3. RISING AND LOWERING OF OCEAN FLOOR: Earthquakes can also cause the rising and lowering
parts of the Sea floor, e.g. the greatest earthquake ever known was the great Lisbon earthquake on 1st
November 1755 and Sagami bay, Japan in 1923.
4. LAND SLIDES: Landslide is a mass of rock and earth moving suddenly and quickly down a steep
slope. Cracks in surface rock as in Loess region of Kansu, in China 1920 and 1927.
5. DEATH OF PEOPLE AND ANIMALS: Earthquakes causes the death of people and animals in places
where they occur, for example in China, the 1920 earthquake claim 200,000 lives, also in 1906 the
earthquake in Agadir, Morocco sealed the fate of 10,000 inhabitants.
6. DESTRUCTION OF PROPERTIES: They can also cause the destruction of buildings, roads, bridges,
rail lines, and telecommunication. For instance a fracture that occurred in the earth crust off the coast of
Japan caused earthquake in the building of densely populated twin cities where mostly ruin, more than
half a million houses collapse.
EVALUATION
1. Mention two greatest earthquakes ever known
2. Define landslide
3. Outline two earthquakes that cause destruction of people
4. Enumerate five effects of earthquake
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Highlight various regions of earthquake occurrence
2. What do you understand by Circum Pacific region of fire
3. Briefly explain how earthquakes causes landslide
4. Highlight possible effects of earthquake
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the earthquake regions have a large number of earthquake occurrences? a. Asian countries
b. Circum Pacific Ring of Fire c. mid Atlantic ridge d. Chile Argentina region
2. The greatest earthquake ever known is the Lisbon earthquake of ------ a. 1755 b. 1855 c. 1955 d. 1655
3. Loess region is found in ---------------- a. Japan b. China c. U.S.A d Indonesia
4. The Fiji region borders the pacific and the ------ plates a. Australian b. Indian c. Chinese d. American
5. In 1920, an earthquake claimed 200,000 lives in -------a. China b. India c. Canada d. Pacific
ESSAY
1. Mention four regions of earthquake occurrence in the world.
2. Discuss any three of the region you have mention in one above
3. Mention three Asian countries with earthquake occurrence
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about volcanism in your textbook.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Outline main intrusive landforms of vulcanicity and also draw the diagram that can be used to represent the
landforms
REFERENCES
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary School, by O.A. Iwena
2. Certificate Physical and Human Geography For Senior Secondary Schools, by Olusegun Areola et al
3. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools, By P.O. S. Ajayi
WEEK 3 DATE...............
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: VULCANICITY
CONTENT:
 Meaning and Processes of Vulcanicity
 Regions of Volcanic Occurrences
SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING AND PROCESSES OF VOLCANICITY OR VOLCANISM
DEFINITION: Vulcanicity refers to the rising of Molten Rock or Magma or other gaseous materials beneath
the earth’s crust forcing its way into planes of weakness or Vent of the earth’s crust to escape quietly or
explosively to the surface.
The magma while moving through the vent to the earth’s surface may cool and solidify within the crust or
before it gets to the surface of the earth as Plutonic rocks leading to intrusive landforms.
On the other hand, when the magma reaches the surface of the earth, it cools and solidifies as volcanic rocks
and results in extrusive landforms. Rocks formed by either Plutonic or Volcanic activities are called igneous
rocks.
TYPES OF LAVAS
There are two main types of lavas namely basic and acid lavas.
1. Basic lavas: These are the hottest lavas, about 1000°C and are highly fluid. They are dark in colour like
basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. When poured out of volcano, they flow quietly and are
not very explosive. They flow readily with a speed of 16 - 48km per hour due to their high fluidity. They
affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify. The resultant
volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.
2. Acid lavas: These lavas are highly viscous (i.e. semi-fluid) with a high melting point. They are light in
colour, of a low density and have a high percentage of silica. They flow slowly and seldom (not often) travel
far before solidifying. The resultant cone is therefore steep-sided. The rapid congealing of lava in the vent
obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or
pyroclasts. Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a spine or plug at the crater.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACID AND BASIC LAVAS
1. Acid lavas are highly viscous (semi-fluid) while basic lavas are highly fluid.
2. Acid lavas are light in colour while basic lavas are dark in colour.
3. Acid lavas have a high percentage of silica while basic lavas are poor in silica.
4. Acid lavas flow slowly while basic lavas flow readily with a speed of 16-48km per hour.
5. Acid lavas resultant cone is steep-sided while basic lavas resultant volcano is gently sloping.
6. Acid lavas form a spine or plug at the crater while basic lavas form a flattened shield or dome.
7. Acid lavas are very explosive while basic lavas are not very explosive.
EVALUATION
1. What is Vulcanicity?
2. What is intrusive vulcanicity?
3. What is extrusive vulcanicity?
4. Explain basic and acid lavas.
5. Mention five differences between basic and acid lavas.
SUBTOPIC 2: REGIONS OF VOLCANIC OCCURRENCE
The greatest volcanic explosion known to mankind perhaps is that of Mount Krakatoa in August 1883.
Krakatoa, in August volcanic island in the Sunda Strait, midway between Java and Sumatra. The explosion
was heard almost 4800km away, 36000 people in the coastal districts of Indonesia were drowned through the
vibration. The volcano erupted again in 1927 forming another one called Anak Krakatoa meaning the child of
Krakatoa.
Another pronounced eruption took place in Mount Pelee in the West Indies in 1902. St Pierre, the capital of
Martinique was completely destroyed within minutes. Its entire population of 30000, except two of them was
killed almost instantly. Even the sea was boiling and the ships in the harbor were destroyed.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES IN THE WORLD
There are well over 500 active volcanoes and thousands of dormant and extinct ones. The greatest
concentration of vulcanicity is in the circum-pacific region popularly known as the pacific ring of fire. The
chain of volcanoes is about 3200km from Atlantic Island into Kamchatka, Japan, the Philippines and
Indonesia.
Another chain of volcanoes is from Andes Mountain to Central America. It is said that there are almost
hundred active volcanoes in the Philippines, forty in Andes, thirty-five in Japan and more than seventy in
Indonesia.
In Africa, volcanoes are found along the East Africa Rift Valley e.g. Mt Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, both
probably extinct.
The only active volcano of West Africa is Mount Cameroun.
EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe the distribution of volcanoes in the world.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. When magma cools beneath the earth’s surface, what we have is (a) Extrusive volcanicity (b) Intrusive
vulcanicity (c) Cameroon vulcanicity (d) Kenya vulcanicity (e) Krakatoa vulcanicity
2. The most extreme vulcanicity in history is that of------------ (a) Mt Cameroon (b) Manbilla Plateau (c) Mt
Krakatoa (d) Mt Kenya (e) Drakensberg mountains
3. Extrusive vulcanicity is said to have occurred when (a) Magma moves to the earth’s surface and cools
(b) magma cools beneath the earths’ surface (c) magma remains in the barysphere (d) magma cools in the
mantle (e) magma cools beneath the lithosphere
4. The biggest region of vulcanicity is the (a) Pacific region (b) Oyo region (c) Guinea region (d) Jos region
(e) Udi region
5. When volcanic explosion took place in Mount Pelee (a) 30,000 people died (b) 3,000 people died (c) 300
people died (d) 30 people died (e) No body died.
ESSAY TEST
1. Describe the formation of vulcanicity
2. Write descriptive account of any one major volcanic eruption that has occurred in historical times.
3. Give a brief description of regions of active vulcanicity of the world
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about Extrusive Vulcanicity
REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary School by Peter Oluwafemi
2. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary School, by O.A. Iwena

WEEK 4 DATE..................
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: VOLCANICITY
CONTENT:
1. FEATURES OF INTRUSIVE VULCANICITY
2. FEATURES OF EXTRUSIVE VULCANICITY
SUB-TOPIC 1: FEATURES OF INTRUSIVE VOLCANICITY
Intrusive vulcanicity involves the solidification of molten magma within the earth’s crust. The following are
features of intrusive vulcanicity;
1. DYKE: This is an intrusion which forms when magma solidifies within vertical faults. Dyke forms walls of
hard rocks. Examples are Dykes of Cleveland in England.
2. SILL: Sill is a sheet of solidified magma which lies horizontally as a result of intrusion along the bedding
planes of sedimentary rocks. Examples are Northumberland in English, Salisbury Craig in Zimbabwe and the
little and Great Karoo in South Africa.
3. BATHOLITH: This is a dome-shaped mass of igneous rock formed deep down in the crust. It is often
composed of granite and extends for hundreds of kilometers. The formation of usually is attributed to the
sinking in and resultant melting and incorporation of large blocks of surrounding area rocks into the molten
magma which may later solidify.
4. LOPOLITH: This occurs when intrusive magma forms into a saucer-shaped mass. Examples are found in
England and Scotland.
5. LACCOLITH: This appears like a huge blister and is produced as a result of viscous magma forcing the
covering of sedimentary rock into a dome. This is as a result of the local accumulation of molten magma
below. Many isolated conical hills like Henry Mountains in Utah USA are formed in this way.
6. PHACOLITHS: This occurs when solidified intrusive magma flows to form masses of rock occupying
both synclines and anticlines of bedding planes.

Laccoliths-Lopoliths-Phacoliths-Batholiths
EVALUATION
1. Using relevant diagrams, write short notes on the following;
(a) Dyke ridges (b) Sill (c) Lopolith
2. How is Laccolith formed?
SUB-TOPIC 2: FEATURES OF EXTRUSIVE VOLCANICITY
A Volcano is a hill or mountain having an opening through which ashes, gases, cinder etc are forced out in an
eruption. A volcano results from accumulation of ejected materials (lava, ashes etc) on the surface of the earth.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes can be classified into three groups namely;
(i) Active Volcanoes
(ii) Dormant volcanoes, and
(iii) Extinct Volcanoes
ACTIVE VOLCANOES: These are those that are still erupting e.g. Fujiyama in Japan. These are well over
five hundred active volcanoes. Most of them are located in the pacific region and are termed the Pacific ring
of fire. The chains of volcanoes extend over 3200km from the Athenian Island in Kamchatka in Japan,
Philippines and Indonesia, the southwards into the Pacific island of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tonga and
North Island, New Zealand. It also continues in the other side from Andes to Central America etc.
DORMANT VOLCANOES
These are volcanoes that do not erupt now, but stand the chance of erupting in future. There are many dormant
volcanoes in the Atlantic coastal areas e.g. in Madeira, Etna in Sicily, those in Iceland, St. Helen, Canary
Islands and Cape Verde islands.
EXTINCT VOLCANOES
These are the volcanoes which have not experienced any eruption in historical times e.g. Mt Kenya,
Kilimanjaro and those in Himalaya Mountains.
Based on structure and composition of the volcanic cones, we can classify volcanoes into the following order
i. Lava cones
ii. Ash and Cinder cones
iii. Composite volcanoes
iv. Caldera volcanoes
v. Fissure cones
vi. Geysers and hot springs
(i) LAVA CONES
This comes is made up entirely of lava which has solidified. There are two types of lava cones;
(a) Acid lava cone
(b) Basic cone
(a) Acid lava cone: Here the lava is quite viscous with high melting point, and therefore is able to solidify.
The lava is made up of large percentage of silica which is of high density and light in colour. Therefore, the
lava flows slowly and solidifies quickly. The result is a conical hill in its best shape e.g. Mt. Pelee, Devils’
dome in USA.
(b) Basic Lava Cone: This is made up of very hot lava with temperature of about 100oC and therefore is in
liquid form. They flow for relatively long distance before solidifying. Therefore there are referred to as mobile
lava. They are dark in colour and rich in iron but poor in Silica. The resultant volcanic cone is gently sloping
with wide diameter, e.g. Manna of the Pacific.

Diagram of basic cone

(ii) ASH AND CINDER VOLCANO

These are volcanic cones which are made up mainly of ash and cinder e.g. Volcano de Fu ego in Guatemala,
Ikere cone in Ekiti district (Nigeria). They are usually small and occur in groups.

Diagram of ash and cinder volcano

(iii) COMPOSITE CONE
These are large steep-sided volcanoes built up of alternating layers of lava flow, volcanic ash and cinder from
several parasitic cones or vents. Whenever a composite volcano explodes, its top is blown off and it breaks
down into pieces of rock mass, ashes and bombs. The highest and most common volcanoes are composite
volcanoes. From the magma reservoir below, a main conduit pipe leads up and feeds the volcano to grow
steadily in different phases which gave rise to the layering. Examples of composite volcanoes are Mt. Mayon
in the Philippines, Mt. Fujiyama in Japan, Mt. Vesuvius in Italy, Mt. Cameroon and Mt. Kilimanjaro in
Kenya.

Diagram of composite cone

(iv) CALDERA
These are huge craters of volcano surrounded by the shattered remains of the cone. Caldera often result from
violent eruption of the volcanic cone to the effect that the original crater is blown off giving rise to an
excessively huge crater often several kilometers across. Where water accumulates, a caldera lake is formed.
Examples are Lake Toba in Sumatra Crater Lake in Oregon, Panyan in Pankshin near Jos, Plateau state
Nigeria. Mt. Krakatoa, which lies a few tens of metres above sea levels in Indonesia; has an important caldera
which have suffered from several historic but violent destruction of the cone.

(v) FISSURE CONES

These are long linear cones with characteristic fissures through which magma escapes down the sides of the
cone. They have linear vents and usually give rise to extensive plateaux. Explosions take place relatively
quietly through the numerous linear fissures (linear fractures) and spread over a wide expanse of the country
e.g.
(a) Deccan Plateau in India
(b) Giant cause way in Antrim
(c) Columbia and Snake River plateau in western U.S.A.
HOT SPRINGS AND GEYSERS
Apart from the above materials which characterize most eruptions hot water has been associated with some
areas of past and present volcanic activity e.g.
(a) Hot spring and Geyser
(b) Hot spring and thermal springs which emit hot water quietly without any violent eruption. Water rises
up from the rock to the surface without any explosion. Some springs contain dissolved materials which may
have medicinal values. Such springs are common in Iceland and some of them have been harnessed to heat
courses, swimming pools and for other domestic purposes. They provide tourist attractions e.g. Ikogosi hot
spring in Ondo State Nigeria and those in Japan and Hawaii
Geysers are not only more violent than hot springs but emit super heated steam which may sprout up to a
height of 46m from the earth beneath.
Examples of major Geysers are found in;
(a) Iceland
(b) North Island of New Zealand
(c) Yellow stone National Park USA etc
EVALUATION
1. Define intrusive vulcanicity.
2. Enumerate the major features of intrusive vulcanicity.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The common feature between extrusive and intrusive vulcanicity is ---- (a) crater lake (b) lava flow
(c)fissure cones (d) caldera cones (e) Geysers
2. Which of the following is not a feature of intrusive vulcanicity? (a) sill (b) Dyke (c) composite
(d) Batholith (e) Lopolith
3. Which of the following is a feature of the classification of volcanoes? (a) Laccolith (b) Vent (c) Dyke
(d) sill (e) active volcano
4. Volcanoes that do not erupt now but stand the chance of erupting in future are called …. (a) active
volcanoes (b) Dormant volcanoes (c) extinct volcanoes (d) crater lakes (e) Geysers
5. Which of the following is not a feature of extrusive vulcanicity? (a) sill (b) Lave cone (c) composite
cone (c) Ash and cinder volcano (d) caldera (e) Fissure cones
ESSAY
1. Draw a well labeled diagram to show typical volcano.
2. Name the major active volcanic eruption zone in the world.
3. What are the effect of volcanic eruption to man?
4. Describe the differences in appearance and mode of formation of each of the following: i. Lopolith,
ii. Batholith iii. Sill iv. Dyke
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read about the karst topography in limestone regions
REFERENCE TEXT
1. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary School (New Edition) by Peter Oluwafemi S.A
2. Essential Geography for senior secondary school (6th edition ) O.A Iwena

WEEK: 5 and 6 DATE…………………..

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: KARTS TOPOGRAPHY
CONTENT:
1. KARST TOPOGRAPHY OR LIMESTONE REGION
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF KARST TOPOGRAPHY
3. FEATURES OF KARST REGION
SUB-TOPIC 1: KARST TOPOGRAPHY OR LIMESTONE REGION
MEANING: Limestone region refers to a large stretch of land occupied by limestone which possesses a
unique type of topography. Limestone is a sedimentary rock of organic materials made up of calcium
carbonate. They are derived from accumulation of corals and shell in the sea. When magnesium is present it is
termed DOLOMITE. Chalk is a very pure form of limestone, white and rather soft.
EVALUATION
1. Explain the word karsts topography
SUB-TOPIC 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF KARST TOPOGRAPHY
1. SOLUBILITY: Limestone is in soluble but is made soluble by the action of rain water which dissolves
carbon dioxide to form a weak acid which in turn acts upon it (limestone) to make it soluble.
2. ABSENCE OF LUXURIANT VEGETATION COVER: There is complete absence of thick vegetation
cover in limestone region.
3. ABSENCE OF SURFACE DRAINAGE: Most surface water flow for a short distance and disappears
underground due to easy permeability of the region
4. JOINTS AND RUGGED TOPOGRAPHY: Limestone regions are well jointed, and stony with broken
landscape
5. DRY SURFACE: Due to easy penetration of water in limestone regions, all valleys are usually dry.
Water on meeting hard rock underground may re-emerge below the limestone as spring or
Resurgence.
6. PRESENCE OF DEPRESSION: Limestone regions contain depression of varying sizes and depth.
EVALUATION
1. Mention five characteristics of karsts region
SUB-TOPIC 3: FEATURES OF KARST REGION
1. GRIKES: Grikes is a surface feature in a limestone region. It is formed as a result of progressive widening
of cracks or joints by solution form limestone pavement. Such enlarge pavements or joints are called grikes
CLINTS: Clints are surface features of isolated and rectangular block which exist between the joints or grikes.
2. SWALLOW HOLES OR SINK HOLES: These are also surface features; they are small depression carved
out by solution where rain water sinks into the limestone at a point of weakness
3. DOLINE: This is formed when a number of several swallow holes join together to form larger depressions.
4. UVALA: This results when several dolines join together to form deeper depression.
5. POLJES: These are formed from larger depressions partly due to faulting.
EVALUATION
1. Mention 5 surface feature of karst topography
2. Differentiate between Uvala and Grikes
3. List and explain 2 surface features of limestone region
4. Write note on the following
i. poljes
ii. sink hole
iii. clints
iv. Dolines
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Read more on Karsts region
REFERNCES
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools; by O.A. Iwana
2. Exam Focus - Geography for WASSCE and SSCE, by O. Areola, M. Mamman, F.A. Onweluzo, O.
Omotoso.
3. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Edition), by Peter Oluwafemi, S. Ajayi

WEEK 7: MID – TERM BREAK

WEEK: 8 DATE__________
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: KARST TOPOGRAPHY
CONTENT:
1. UNDERGROUND FEATURE
2. IMPORTANCE OF KARST TOPOGRAPHY
SUB-TOPIC 1: UNDERGROUND FEATURES
CAVES AND CAVERNS: These are underground features of limestone region. There are large underground
spaces formed as a result of the sinking and flowing of water into the limestone through joins and bedding
planes.
 Diagram showing limestone and underground features of karst regions
LIMESTONE GORGE: This has vertical sides formed when the roof of an underground cave collapses or
river cuts across and run down into a limestone region.
RESURGENCE OR SPRINGS: These results from water sinking into the underground. When the water meets
hard rock underground it re-emerge below the limestone to form spring or resurgence.
STALACTITES: They are found in caves and they grow up, downwards and may dis-stalagmite to form to
form pillars. There are sharp slender and downward growing pinnacles that hang from the roof of the caves.
STALAGMITES: These are also underground features of limestone region. There are formed when water
drips down stalactite to the floor; evaporation then occurs while calcium is deposited, leading to the formation
of stalagmite. They are shorter, fatter and more rounded.
PILLAR: Natural pillar is formed by the joining of the stalactite hanging from the roof to the stalagmite
growing from the floor of the cave.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STALACTITE AND STALAGMITE
1. Stalactite hangs on the cave roof while stalagmite grows from the floor of the cave.
2. Stalactite is needle-shaped feature while stalagmite is thicker than the stalactite.
3. Stalactite grows downward towards the floor of the cave while stalagmite grows upward towards the roof of
the cave.
4. Stalactite joins the upward growing stalagmite while stalagmite meets the downward growing stalactite to
form pillar.
5. Stalactites are formed by the leftover of calcium carbonate from the roofs of the cave while stalagmites are
formed by the drops from the stalactites.
EVALUATION
1. Mention 4 underground features of Karsts topography
2. Explain the mode of formation of stalagmite
SUB-TOPIC 2: IMPORTANCE OF KARSTS TOPOGRAPHY
i. Limestone region provides limestone which is an essential raw material which is often used as
building materials or quarried for the cement industry. In Nigeria, limestone deposits at Ewekoro,
Sagamu, Nkalagu, Calabar and Sokoto are used for the cement industries.
ii. Limestone is used for the smelting of iron and tin; for example, in the Ruhr valley of Western
Germany, limestone which is used as flux, is got and used in the iron and steel plant of the region.
iii. Limestone region support the growth of poor grass and short turfs for the grazing of some sheep.
 iv. It serves as tourist centre: The landforms resulting from limestone attracts tourists, such landforms
are found in the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, U.S.A.
v. Sources of underground water: Limestone region support the formation of underground water. For
example, the water which penetrates to the base of the lime stone and meet non porous rocks may
re-emerge to the surface as a spring or resurgence.
EVALUATION
1. Mention one limestone tourist centre in the world
2. List three limestone deposits in Nigeria
3. Highlight five importance of limestone
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. With the aid of annotated diagrams, write explanatory note on the following landforms
a. stalactite
b. stalagmite
2. Mention four landforms of karsts topography
3. Describe the appearance and mode of formation of any three of the landforms mention in 2 above
4. In what ways are limestone regions important to man
PRE-READING
Read Denudational Processes
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
1. Name five features of underground water and explain one of them
2. Identify five limestone deposits in Nigeria
3. Explain with relevant examples three importance of limestone
REFERENCES
1. Exam Focus - Geography for WASSCE and SSCE, by O. Areola, M. Mamman, F.A. Onweluzo, O.
Omotoso.
2. Comprehensive Geography for Senior Secondary Schools (New Edition), by Peter Oluwafemi S. Ajayi

WEEK: 9 DATE………………
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SS 3
TOPIC: DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
CONTENT:
1. MEANING OF DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
2. TYPES OF DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
3. FACTORS AFFECTING DENUDATION
SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING OF DENUDATION
Denudation is the process of lowering and leveling of the earth surface by gradual break down and wearing
away of such earth’s surfaces.
The agents or forces which promote these breaking and lowering of the earth’s surface are called agents of
denudation. Examples are wind, running water, ice and waves.
Denudation involves four sequences or stages, which includes: weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposition.
Weathering: This is the gradual disintegration of rocks by physical, chemical and biological processes.
Erosion: This is the active wearing away of the earth’s surface by the agents of denudation
Transportation: This is the active removal of eroded materials to new position or areas.
Deposition: This is the dumping of the debris in certain parts of the earth where it accumulates to form soil.
EVALUATION
1. What is denudation
2. Outline the agents of denudation
3. Account for the stages of denudation in sequential order.
SUB-TOPIC 2: TYPES OF DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
These include: weathering and mass movement
WEATHERING: Weathering is defined as the gradual breaking down or disintegration of rocks by physical,
chemical or biological processes.
FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING
a. Climate: climatic elements like temperature and rainfall are the major factors affecting weathering, for
instance, physical weathering depend on changes in the temperature. On the other hand chemical
weathering depends on the action of heat and water combined with atmospheric gases. Chemical
weathering is common in hot and wet climate while mechanical weathering is common in arid and cool
temperate climates.
b. Types of rocks: Rocks are made up of different minerals. While some are resistant to weathering,
others are not simple because of their differences in structure, texture, composition and size of the
rocks.
c. Relief: Very steep slopes like high mountains, encourages weathering, especially frost action while
gentle and even slope favours chemical weathering.
d. Living organisms: plants and animals have great influence on weathering. Roots of plants promotes
physical weathering, as the root penetrates into rocks and break them and chemical weathering occurs
due to vegetative cover which conserve water to produce weak acids in the soil. Animals bore holes
into rocks and break them in addition to allowing other agents of chemical weathering to take place.
MASS MOVEMENT: This can be defined as the movement down the slope of weathered materials under the
influence of the force of gravity. The movement of these materials may be gradual or sudden depending on the
type of materials, the gradient of the slope, the activities of rivers and man, and the climate of the area. Mass
movement is also known as mass wasting
TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT
The types of mass movement include: soil creep, soil flow, rock fall, landslide etc.
EVALUATION
1. Give a brief highlight on types of denudation processes
2. Define weathering
3. Mention three factors affecting mass movement
SUB-TOPIC 3: FACTORS AFFECTING DENUDATION
The rate of denudation depends on the following factors;
NATURE OF RELIEF: The higher the relief, the higher the rate of denudation; and the lower the relief the
lower the rate of denudation
THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH: The softer the structure of the earth, the greater the rate of
denudation; and the harder the structure of the earth, the lesser the rate of denudation.
LOCAL CLIMATE OF THE AREA: Wet climate tends to increase the rate of denudation more than dry
climate.
INFLUENCE OF MAN: The higher the level of man’s activities on the earth’s surface, the greater the rate of
denudation; and vice versa.
EVALUATION
1. Describe climate as a factor affecting denudation process
2. Outline any other three factors affecting denudation processes
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe physical weathering
2. Discuss the sequence of denudation and list four agents of denudation
3. Define the term mass wasting (b) Describe two types of mass wasting (c) State three effects of mass
wasting.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the process and types of mass wasting
REFERENCES
1. Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools; By O.A. Iwena
2. Certificate Physical and Human Geography for Senior Secondary Schools; by Olusegun Areola et al.

WEEK 10: REVISION

WEEK 11: EXAMINATION