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Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196 – 204

A review of early-age properties of cement-based materials

D.P. Bentz ⁎
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
Received 16 August 2007; accepted 10 September 2007

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of the early-age properties of cement-based materials, from a materials science perspective. The major
physical and chemical processes occurring at early ages are reviewed and strategies for mitigating early-age cracking are presented.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Curing; Drying; Early-age cracking (nominated); Hydration; Shrinking

1. Settling, bleeding, and evaporative water loss during as a function of depth assumes a fairly linear profile (with
early-age curing/drying significant local variations) varying from a higher concentration
of particles at the bottom of the specimen to a lower concen-
Immediately after placement, gravitational forces and the tration at the top. This is illustrated in Fig. 1 that provides
local drying environment begin to influence the (micro)structure measured X-ray transmission profiles for a w/c = 0.40 blended
of a cement paste, mortar, or concrete. Depending on the cement paste achieved after 2.5 h and 4.5 h of sealed curing. A
mixture's water-to-cementitious materials mass ratio (w/c) (and lower transmission of the X-ray signal (lower normalized
aggregate volume fraction), the initial freshly cast material may counts, where the counts transmitted have been normalized by
be thought of either as a concentrated suspension of rigid parti- the counts transmitted through a reference specimen) indicates a
cles in water or as a granular water-filled porous media. In the higher concentration of particles, as the cement particles have a
former case, significant settling will be expected to occur, much higher X-ray absorption coefficient than water. In this
accompanied by bleeding. For present-day Portland cement case, the lower concentrations of solids (higher water-filled
pastes without admixture additions, for example, measurable porosity) established at the top surface during the first few hours
bleeding and settling are generally observed for water-to-cement of sealed curing may persist throughout the life of the material,
ratios (w/c) N 0.4. As the solid particles settle and a correspond- resulting in a surface layer that is weaker and that may be much
ing volume of water rises to the top of the specimen, a micr- more susceptible to scaling phenomena, for example.
ostructural (porosity/density) gradient will be established The situation is further complicated when drying (water
through the thickness of the specimen. In addition to the con- evaporation) is also occurring at the top surface of the specimen. If
centration and particle size distribution (PSD) of the solids, the the rate of evaporative water loss is even slightly greater than the
details of this gradient will depend also on the evaporative water rate of bleeding, menisci will be created between the particles at
loss from the specimen's top surface, e.g., the drying conditions. the top of the specimen, creating a capillary tension in the water
X-ray absorption measurements have been previously according to the Kelvin–Laplace equation:
applied to examining these microstructural gradients for cement
2gcosa lnðRHÞRT
pastes cured under sealed and drying conditions [1]. In the rcap ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
former case, as particles settle, the volume fraction of particles r Vm
where σcap is the capillary tension (Pa), γ is the surface tension
⁎ Tel.: +1 301 975 5865; fax: +1 301 990 6891. of the pore solution (N/m), α is the contact angle between the
E-mail address: [email protected]. pore solution and the capillary pore walls, Vm is the pore
0008-8846/$ - see front matter. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.09.005
 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204 197

Fig. 1. Normalized counts for X-rays transmitted through a w/c = 0.40 blended Fig. 2. Normalized counts for X-rays transmitted through a w/c = 0.45 Portland
cement paste cured under sealed conditions at 23 °C, as a function of curing time cement paste immediately exposed to drying conditions (23 °C and 50% RH), as
(2.5 h or 4.5 h) and depth [2]. Top of specimen is located at 30 mm. a function of curing time (0.67 h, 4.67 h or 8.67 h) and depth [3]. Top of
specimen is located at about 5 mm.

solution molar volume (m3/mol), r is the meniscus radius (m), drying is observed to occur fairly uniformly throughout the
RH is the relative humidity (with values between 0 and 1), R is thickness of the specimen, and not as a front that penetrates
the universal gas constant [8.314 J/(mol K)], and T is the from the exposed surface inward. In this respect, the drying of
absolute temperature in K. In Eq. (1), often a contact angle of 0o cement pastes and mortars seems to more closely follow the
(complete wetting of the pore walls by the liquid) is assumed. theory presented previously for the convective drying of a
This capillary tension will compress the granular porous media, porous medium [7] than that developed for the drying of gels
particularly near the top surface. In this case, in addition to the [8]. Typical results are provided in Fig. 3 that shows the X-ray
densification occurring at the bottom of the specimen during transmission profiles for a w/c = 0.45 cement paste immediately
settling/bleeding, significant local densification may also occur exposed to a drying environment.
near the top surface of the specimen, as illustrated by the X-ray Similar to previous observations made on non-reactive bead
transmission results shown in Fig. 2, for a w/c = 0.45 cement packs [9], in bilayer composites, water is always first observed
paste immediately exposed to drying conditions. In comparing to be removed from a coarser pore structure during the initial
the 0.67 h and 4.67 h normalized counts profiles in Fig. 2, one stages of drying/hydration before subsequently being removed
can readily observe that a preferential densification has occurred from the finer one [6]. This is true whether the coarser pore
at the top (exposed) surface. From this perspective, the structure is due to a higher w/c ratio or to the use of a cement
American Concrete Institute (ACI) recommended practice of with a coarser PSD (at a constant w/c) [6]. The effects of a
applying a curing compound only when the top surface of the shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) on this drying process are
concrete first appears “dry and free of surface water” [4] should quite significant [5,10], but will be discussed in a separate
also be beneficial in promoting the formation of a superior section later in this paper.
quality surface layer in the field concrete. The development of
this capillary tension can also be responsible for plastic 2. Cement hydration and early-age properties
shrinkage cracking of cement-based materials. This cracking
will be dependent on the rate of evaporation, the initial water It is the hydration of cement(itious materials) that is
content of the mixture, and the surface tension of the pore responsible for the transformation of concrete from a viscous
solution [5]. suspension to a rigid load-bearing and durable solid element. In
Concurrent with settling/bleeding/evaporation, some small this paper, hydration will be considered specifically in terms of
but significant hydration of the cement will be taking place physical/microstructural, thermal, and moisture (saturation)
during the first few hours of curing. The general influence of effects. The influences of mixture parameters such as w/c and
this hydration will be to hasten the transition of the material
from a suspension of rigid particles in solution to a “granular”
porous solid, by locally (and ultimately globally) connecting
particles together into agglomerates. However, any reductions
in capillary pore sizes (that would result in increased capillary
pressures) due to this small amount of hydration are likely to be
overwhelmed by the pore size reductions due to settling and
local particle rearrangement, at these very early stages in the
curing process. These hydration reactions will also result in a
reduction in total volume of the system due to the chemical
shrinkage accompanying them; this topic will be considered in
detail in the sections that follow.
Fig. 3. Normalized counts for X-rays transmitted through a w/c = 0.45 Portland
X-ray absorption measurements have also been applied to cement paste immediately exposed to drying conditions (23 °C and 50% RH), as
observing the water distribution in cement pastes during further a function of curing time (4.67 h, 8.67 h, 12.67 h, or 24.67 h) and depth [3]. Top
drying/hydration, after the initial settlement [2,3,6]. In general, of specimen is located at about 5 mm.
198 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204

cement PSD on the magnitudes of these effects will also be

presented.

2.1. Physical/microstructural effects

2.1.1. Setting
The setting of cement is a percolation process in which isolated
or weakly bound particles are connected together (percolated)
by the formation of hydration products [11,12]. Initial and final
setting, via Vicat measurements for example, are generally
defined by when the microstructure presents some finite mechan-
ical resistance to penetration or shear. Three previous studies have
shown a quantitative relationship between measured Vicat needle
penetrations and solids percolation as estimated using a three- Fig. 5. Measured and fitted heat capacities of hydrating cement paste as a
function of degree of hydration, with w/c = 0.3 and w/c = 0.4, cured under
dimensional microstructural model [13–15]. This equivalence is
saturated or sealed conditions at 20 °C [22]. Error bars indicate a reproducibility
further illustrated in Fig. 4 that compares needle resistance of ±2% in the experimental measurements.
(determined as 40 — the measured needle penetration in mm) to
the volume fraction of percolated solids for the same cement used
to prepare pastes with four different w/c [16]. These results also erties including elastic modulus, strength, stress relaxation,
illustrate the strong influence of w/c on setting, as higher w/c and creep. The same ultrasonic measurements that can be used
pastes will require more hydration (and likely more time) to as an indicator of setting [12] have also been extended to
achieve set due to the larger initial particle spacing. On the other predict compressive strength gains at early ages [18]. In gen-
hand, at a constant w/c, the influence of cement PSD on setting is eral, these mechanical properties are much more difficult to
not as obvious. While a coarser cement may require more time to measure at early ages than later in the hydration process, as
achieve set due to its slower hydration rate, it can actually achieve they are often continuously changing during the course of the
set at a lower degree of hydration as fewer “bridges” need to be physical measurement. Measurement of stress relaxation and
built between particles when fewer (but larger) particles are creep in tension are particularly challenging, but progress is
present in the initial paste [17]. being made [19]. In compression, conventional creep loading
has typically been employed [20]. Understanding the devel-
2.1.2. Early-age mechanical property development opment of these mechanical properties at early ages is one key
Concurrent with the development of a percolated solids to a fundamental materials science-based prediction of early-
network is the genesis of measurable solid mechanical prop- age cracking, as they control the resistance half of the load/
resistance paradigm [20,21].

2.2. Thermal effects

Assuming proper curing and thus neglecting evaporation,

one of the two major causes of early-age cracking is thermal
effects, the other being autogenous shrinkage. Depending
on the environmental exposure, a concrete will typically first
heat up and expand due to heat produced during early-age
cement hydration. If the subsequent cooling is too rapid, the
concrete may crack, particularly if locally or globally re-
strained. To properly understand the contribution of these
thermal effects to early-age cracking, a quantitative charac-
terization of the concrete's thermophysical properties, its heat
of hydration, and its interaction with the environment are all
of critical importance.

2.2.1. Thermophysical property development — heat capacity,

thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion
Because the hydration of Portland cement significantly
alters the volume fractions and spatial arrangement of solids,
liquids, and gases (air voids and empty capillary pores) within
Fig. 4. Two “views” of the setting process in cement paste as a function of time the three-dimensional microstructure, it would be expected that
and w/c: needle resistance (top) and connected solids volume fraction from the the thermophysical properties of cement paste such as heat
CEMHYD3D computer model (bottom) [16]. capacity, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal
 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204 199

expansion would vary with hydration. As shown in Fig. 5, the Table 1

heat capacity of cement paste is a strong function of both w/c Enthalpies of complete hydration for major phases of Portland cement
and curing conditions [22]. This is mainly due to the high heat Phase Enthalpy (kJ/kg phase)
capacity of water (4.18 J/(g K) vs. about 0.75 J/(g K) for dry C3S 517
cement powder) and its decrease as water is (chemically and C2S 262
physically) bound into hydration products. More water (higher C3A 908, 1672, 1144 a
C4AF 418, 725 a
w/c) results in a higher heat capacity as does saturated curing
a
(with its accompanying water imbibition) relative to sealed For C3A and C4AF hydration, values are for conversion to C3AH6, ettringite,
and monosulfate (AFm) phase (only for C3A), respectively.
curing.
As shown in Fig. 6, within the experimental error of the
measurement, the thermal conductivity of hydrating cement Heat of hydration is typically measured using a standardized
pastes is basically a constant value of 1.0 W/(m K), for the two heat of solution technique [29] or semi-adiabatic methods; a
values of w/c and the two curing conditions used [22]. The new standard method based on isothermal calorimetry has been
thermal conductivities of the starting materials (water: 0.604 developed in the Nordic countries [30] and is now being
(W/m K) and cement: 1.55 W/(m K) at 20 °C) and those of the considered by the American Society for Testing and Materials
hydration products are apparently close enough to one another (ASTM) C01.26 Heat of hydration subcommittee. In addition,
that as solid and liquid pathways are percolated, depercolated, virtual test methods for heat of hydration of ordinary Portland
and repercolated during the course of hydration and aging, the cement are also under development within ASTM [31].
thermal conductivity remains essentially unchanged (e.g.,
within ± 10 %). This can be contrasted against electrical 2.2.3. Environmental factors at early ages
conductivity and ionic diffusivity, which both change dramat- A number of computer models have been developed and are
ically during the course of hydration [15,23]. either commercially or freely available for predicting the tempera-
Equally important to predicting early-age thermal cracking is ture and stress/strain response of concrete exposed to a variable
an accurate characterization of the concrete's coefficient of environment at early ages [28,32–37]. In addition to a quantitative
thermal expansion. This property is particularly difficult to understanding of the properties of concrete discussed above and
measure at early ages due to the confounding influences of the in the following section, accurate predictions by such models are
ongoing hydration, etc. [24]. Fiber optic-based techniques may requisite on having a detailed quantitative characterization of the
offer an in situ non-destructive solution to this dilemma [25]. exposure environment, including temperature, relative humidity,
Values of 10 × 10− 6 [1/K] to 12 × 10− 6 [1/K] are typically wind speed, and solar radiation, and the applied curing conditions
employed for concrete. (curing membrane, water misting, etc.) [37]. While further
research in these latter areas is clearly needed, the models have
2.2.2. Heat of hydration been used successfully in many cases over the past decade.
As cement hydrates, a significant amount of energy is
released as heat. This heat of hydration must be included in any 2.3. Moisture effects
early-age model of heat transfer in a concrete. The heat released
is dependent on the phase composition of the cement; literature 2.3.1. Chemical shrinkage
values for the various cement clinker phases are compiled in As cement hydrates, the volume of the hydration products is
Table 1 [26,27]. In blended cements, the mass-normalized heat less than that of the starting materials (including water). This
release can be either increased or decreased depending on the chemical shrinkage has major implications for the early-age
mineral admixture employed. For example, silica fume has a performance of cement-based materials, as will be discussed in
heat of hydration (when reacting pozzolanically with Ca(OH)2) detail in the sections that follow. Powers was the first to quantify
of about 780 kJ/kg fume [28], while the reactions of fly ash and the chemical shrinkage (water imbibition) of the various cement
slag typically produce less heat than those of Portland cement. clinker phases in 1935 [38]. An experimental technique for

Fig. 6. Measured thermal conductivity of hydrating cement paste as a function of

degree of hydration, with w/c = 0.3 and w/c = 0.4, cured under saturated or sealed Fig. 7. Internal relative humidity vs. degree of hydration as a function of cement
conditions at 20 °C [22]. Error bars indicate a reproducibility of ±2% in the fineness for cement pastes prepared with w/c = 0.35 and cured under sealed
experimental measurements. conditions at 30 °C [54].
200 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204

resistance of early-age concrete. It has been the topic of a

continuing series of international seminars, starting in 1997 [49].

2.3.3. Internal relative humidity

As indicated above, measurement of the internal RH of
cement-based materials can provide valuable insight into their
internal stresses. Experimental methods have been developed
both for laboratory measurements [50] and more recently for
field use [51], but only a few data from actual field exposures
Fig. 8. Autogenous deformation vs. degree of hydration as a function of cement have been published to date [52]. The reduction in internal RH
fineness for cement pastes with w/c = 0.35, cured at 30 °C [54]. Deformation will also reduce the hydration rates of the remaining cement
values have been zeroed at the setting time (degree of hydration) of each cement clinker phases [44,53]. This internal RH reduction will be
paste. significantly less in systems with higher w/c due to the initially
larger spacing between cement particles (larger pores). At a
constant w/c and the same degree of hydration, the RH reduc-
quantifying chemical shrinkage that was studied in detail by tion at later ages (degree of hydration N 0.4) will be larger the
Geiker [39] has recently been approved as ASTM Standard Test finer the cement PSD [54], as shown in Fig. 7, once again due to
Method C1608 [40]. It is based on measuring the volume of interparticle spacing considerations. Silica fume, because of its
water imbibed into a cement paste (or mortar) sample of known extremely small particle size along with the high chemical
mass during hydration under isothermal saturated conditions. A shrinkage accompanying its pozzolanic reaction, can drastically
similar technique has been standardized in Japan [41]. Due to increase the measured RH reduction during early-age hydration
the depercolation of the capillary porosity that may occur during [50,55].
hydration and limit this water transport [42,43], both the
specimen thickness and the w/c must be within a limited range 3. Autogenous shrinkage of cement systems/early-age
(nominally a few millimeters and 0.4, respectively) to obtain cracking
meaningful results at later ages.
Chemical shrinkage can also be computed by assuming a set Until about the time of set, the chemical shrinkage occurring
of cement hydration reactions and molar volumes for each during cement hydration is accompanied by an equivalent
cement component. This approach has been used by numerous overall volumetric reduction of the “fluid” material [56,57].
authors [44–46] with variable agreement between their During set, the cement paste develops a finite resistance to
published values. In general, though, the chemical shrinkages further volumetric reductions and beyond setting, the measured
of the aluminate phases (C3A and C4AF) are about 50% higher autogenous deformation is much smaller (up to two orders of
(on a per unit mass basis) than those of the calcium silicates magnitude less) than the chemical shrinkage. In the past, auto-
(which are about 0.07 mL/g CnS). The chemical shrinkage of genous shrinkage has been measured using either a volumetric
silica fume during its pozzolanic reaction with Ca(OH)2 is (latex membrane) or a linear (sealed corrugated tube) method
particularly high, being on the order of 0.22 mL/g silica fume [57–59], but recently, Lura and Jensen have completed a
[47]. The ultimate chemical shrinkage of a typical hydrating detailed investigation that suggests that the former is an inap-
Portland cement paste can be on the order of 10% by volume. propriate method due mainly to the confounding influence of
water ingress through the membrane during the measurement
2.3.2. Self-desiccation time [60]. The linear method for cement pastes and mortars [58]
When cured under sealed, partially saturated conditions, or
saturated conditions but where depercolation of the capillary
porosity has already occurred, chemical shrinkage can lead to the
creation of empty porosity and a reduction in the internal RH, a
process known as self-desiccation. In general, the largest pores
within the cement paste microstructure will empty first during
self-desiccation [44,48]. As shown in Eq. (1), the menisci
formed in these (partially) empty pores will create a capillary
tension within the pore solution and also reduce the internal RH
of the specimen. This self-desiccation process is thus large-
ly responsible for the autogenous shrinkage of cement-based
materials that has come to the forefront in recent years due to
field problems with early-age cracking, particularly of high- Fig. 9. Measured autogenous deformation vs. time for various mortars (w/c = 0.3)
performance concretes (HPC). Self-desiccation is not always with and without IC, during sealed hydration at 30 °C; FSF indicates the control
mortar prepared with a blended cement containing fine silica fume (8% mass
detrimental, however, as it can be used to advantage in accel- fraction) [74]. SAP refers to the addition of 0.4% superabsorbent polymer
erating the drying of concrete floors prior to the application of particles by mass of cement. LWA08 and LWA20 refer to the LWA replacing 8%
carpeting and other coverings and may also increase the frost and 20% of the normal weight sand by mass, respectively.
 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204 201

due to autogenous shrinkage. Since the autogenous stresses are

controlled by the size of the pores that are being emptied during
self-desiccation, these stresses should be significantly reduced
by incorporating a reservoir(s) of water into the concrete,
contained in pores larger than the capillary pores in the
hydrating cement paste. Hence was born the concept of internal
curing (IC). This idea was first suggested in the literature by
Philleo in 1991 [69]. To date, efforts have been made to utilize
saturated lightweight fine aggregates (LWA) [70] (as originally
Fig. 10. Differences in autogenous deformation [58] for cement mortars suggested by Philleo), superabsorbent polymers (SAP) [71],
(w/c = 0.35) with and without SRA, cured under sealed conditions at 30 °C and water-saturated wood products [72] as the IC reservoirs. In
[10]. 2005, the idea moved from being a laboratory concept to being a
field reality at several job sites in the U.S., including a large
is currently under consideration for standardization by the paving project in Texas where 238 000 cubic yards (181 000
ASTM C09.68 Volume Change subcommittee. cubic meters) of concrete proportioned with IC via saturated
The capillary tension (σcap) created in the pore solution LWA were batched and placed over the course of a few months
during self-desiccation results in the autogenous deformation of [73]. The author inspected this concrete in December 2005
the porous material (concrete). In this case, the deformation can (likely during its first freeze/thaw cycle); only two cracks were
be estimated as [61,62]: observed, one of which was located where an expansion joint
  was missing so that the concrete had made just one of its own.
Srcap 1 1 In addition to changing the size of the empty pores being
e¼ ⁎  ð2Þ
3 K Ks created within the concrete microstructure, the IC water will
also contribute to an increased hydration of the surrounding
where e is the linear strain or shrinkage, S is the saturation cement paste. The efficiency and effectiveness of IC has thus
(fraction with values between 0 and 1) or fraction of water-filled been assessed by measurements of compressive strength, degree
porosity, K is the bulk modulus of the porous material (Pa) with of hydration, internal relative humidity, autogenous shrinkage,
empty pores (dry), and Ks is the bulk modulus of the solid and restrained shrinkage and creep [21,71,74,75]. For example,
framework within the porous material (Pa). While Eq. (2) is an Fig. 9 shows measured autogenous deformations vs. time for a
approximation for a purely elastic material, it has been applied series of high-performance mortars prepared without and with
with some success to cement-based materials [63]. Extensions to several different IC reservoirs [74]. In each case, the addition of
include a visco-elastic component (creep) have also been made the IC water reservoirs resulted in a substantial reduction in the
recently [20]. Baroghel–Bouny has pointed out the inherent measured autogenous shrinkage at early ages. The ability of the
similarities between autogenous shrinkage due to internal drying LWA and SAP additions to significantly reduce autogenous
and drying shrinkage due to external drying [64]. shrinkage is clearly indicated. Recently, four-dimensional
Because the capillary stresses are a function of the size of the (3 spatial and time) X-ray microtomography experiments have
pores being emptied, autogenous deformation is an extremely been conducted to directly observe water movement from satu-
strong function of w/c ratio, increasing dramatically as the w/c rated fine LWA to the surrounding cement paste during the first
is lowered below 0.35 in Portland cement systems. Further two days of sealed isothermal hydration (30 °C) [76].
dramatic increases are observed in systems containing silica The amount of internal curing water needed to maintain
fume and slag additions [59,65–67]. At a constant w/c and saturation of the capillary porosity is directly related to the
degree of hydration, as shown in Fig. 8, autogenous shrinkage is chemical shrinkage of the cementitious materials in a concrete.
much greater in systems prepared with a finer cement. In fact,
for the two coarser cements in Fig. 8, an early-age autogenous
expansion is observed, most likely due to swelling induced by
hydration product (such as ettringite) formation [54].
The extension from measuring autogenous shrinkage to
predicting early-age cracking is not an easy task. Many of the
properties that must be properly accounted for are discussed in a
recent paper by Moon et al. [68]. Several of the existing models
for predicting field performance with respect to early-age
cracking, however, already do include both thermal and
autogenous effects in some form [32,34,35].

3.1. Mitigation of early-age cracking via internal curing

Fig. 11. Normalized counts for X-rays transmitted through a w/c = 0.35 Portland
cement paste with a 2% SRA addition by mass of cement, immediately exposed
A careful examination of Eqs. (1) and (2) suggests one to drying conditions (23 °C and 50% RH), as a function of curing time (3 h to
possible method for avoiding or minimizing early-age cracking 96 h) and depth [10]. Top of specimen is located at about 8 mm.
202 D.P. Bentz / Cement and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 196–204

For LWA reservoirs, this amount can be calculated according capillary forces, the surface layer will no longer be able to “pull”
to [77]: water from the higher surface tension water below; confirma-
tory measurements of these phenomena have been made
Cf ⁎CS⁎amax previously on bilayer (SRA over no SRA and no SRA over
MLWA ¼ ð3Þ SRA) composite specimens [10]. This results in a reduced
S⁎/LWA
evaporation rate in a system with an SRA relative to a system
where: MLWA = mass of (dry) LWA needed per unit volume with no SRA addition [10,85]. In regards to pore solution
of concrete (kg/m3 or lb/yd3), Cf = cement factor (content) for movement within a specimen, it is also worth mentioning that
concrete mixture (kg/m3 or lb/yd3), CS = chemical shrinkage the measured viscosity of a typical 10% SRA solution in
of cement (grams of water/gram of cement or lb/lb) at a degree distilled water is about 50% higher than that of distilled water
of hydration equal to 100%, αmax = maximum expected degree alone [86], implying a slower internal “flow rate”. As indicated
of hydration of cement, S = degree of saturation of aggregate by Lura et al. [5], the addition of the SRA thus results in “less
(0–1), and ϕLWA = absorption of lightweight aggregate (kg evaporation, reduced settlement, reduced capillary tension, and
water/kg dry LWA or lb/lb), or more appropriately desorption lower crack-inducing stresses at the topmost layer of the
from saturated surface dry conditions down to about 93% RH. mortar,” consistent with the experimental results of Esping and
Similar calculations can be employed for SAPs [71] or other Löfgren for self-consolidating concretes [85]. These effects all
sources for the IC water. In addition to supplying the needed combine to provide a reduction in the propensity to form plastic
volume of curing water, the spatial distribution of the water is shrinkage cracks when exposed to a drying environment [5,85].
also important. In this respect, using fine LWA as opposed to Recently [87], it has been shown that a similar reduction in
coarse LWA is preferable due to its more homogeneous and evaporative water loss can be achieved by the topical application
closer spaced distribution of the individual IC reservoirs of an SRA solution (10% or 20% by mass in water) as a curing
throughout the concrete volume [78,79]. solution. Timely application of the SRA solution to the top surface
of mortars being exposed to a 50% RH environment resulted in
3.2. Mitigation of early-age cracking via shrinkage-reducing significant reductions in subsequent evaporative water loss and
admixtures significant increases in the degree of hydration achieved in the
specimens at longer ages [87].
In the previous section, an approach was presented for By simply changing the surface tension (and viscosity) of the
reducing autogenous shrinkage and early-age cracking by pore solution, the early-age properties of cement-based materials
basically increasing the r term in Eq. (1). Another option is to can be significantly modified. In addition to the influences on
reduce the magnitude of γ, the surface tension of the pore drying rates and internal stress development, SRAs also increase
solution. Such a reduction can be conveniently achieved by the the freezable water content of cement pastes cured under saturated
addition of a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA) to the conditions at early ages [1,86], which may have negative impli-
mixture. First employed in Japan over twenty years ago [80], cations for the early-age frost resistance of these materials. This
SRAs have been utilized to reduce drying shrinkage for the past paper reinforces the critical role that water menisci play in the
ten years or so in the U.S. [81,82]. The addition of a few percent performance of partially saturated cement-based materials at early
SRA (by mass of cement) can reduce the measured surface ages and beyond. More research on this topic should result both in
tension of the concrete pore solution by a factor of two [5,10]. improved early-age performance, particularly in terms of
All other properties (contact angle, etc.) remaining equal, this avoiding early-age cracking, and in more durable concrete in
will result in half the capillary tension according to Eq. (1), the longer term.
which should translate into half the autogenous strain according
to Eq. (2). This hypothesized reduction in autogenous shrinkage
for systems containing SRA has been verified experimentally as References
exemplified in Fig. 10 [10,83–85].
The addition of an SRA has another significant influence on [1] D.P. Bentz, Ten observations from experiments to quantify water movement
and porosity percolation in hydrating cement pastes, in: B. Mobasher, J.
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