Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Ó The Author(s), published by EDP Sciences, 2024

https://doi.org/10.2516/stet/2024064

Decarbonizing Energy Systems: Smart Grid and Renewable Technologies Available online at:
stet-review.org
Fang Rui-ming and Qiangqiang Liao (Guest Editors)
REGULAR ARTICLE

Design and implementation of magnetically coupled inductive power

transfer system for electric vehicle charging applications
Charan Singh Banothu, Srinivas Rao Gorantla*, and Attuluri Rakada Vijay Babu*

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research, Guntur 522213,
Andhra Pradesh, India

Received: 11 May 2024 / Accepted: 7 August 2024

Abstract. A research paper or proposal on designing a 1.6 kW Resonant Inductive Power Transfer (IPT)
system for electric vehicles (EVs). Design, Modeling, and Analysis of a 1.6 kW Resonant IPT System for
EVs. To Enhance Design Performance: Improve the efficiency and effectiveness of power transfer compared
to traditional EV charging systems. Conduct Loss Analysis and Analyze and minimize losses associated with
the IPT system. The Advantage Highlight advantages of the proposed system over existing EV charging
methods. Methodology, Integration with AC Grid: Despite EV systems being connected to the grid, this
research proposes further integration and improvement using resonant (Compensated Network) circuits within
IPT systems. Resonant Circuit Utilization: By matching the supply frequency with the circuit’s resonant
frequency, optimal performance is achieved, addressing current IPT system drawbacks. Implementation Steps,
Simulation: Evaluate primary and secondary circuits through simulation. Component Selection: Determine
component values based on derived equations. Hardware Implementation: Construct the system in hardware
based on simulation results. Feasibility Testing: Validate calculations through simulation and practical
hardware testing. Contribution, this research aims to contribute to the field by demonstrating, improved per-
formance through resonant IPT systems. Feasibility of integrating such systems into EV applications. Practical
benefits over conventional EV charging methods. By leveraging resonant circuits in IPT systems, this study
aims to demonstrate enhanced performance and efficiency suitable for EVs, thereby contributing to the
advancement of EV technology and grid integration. This structured summary encapsulates the key aspects
and goals of the research paper as described.

Keywords: Power electronic topologies, Performance evaluation, Coupling coils, Simulation analysis, Induc-
tive power transfer.

1 Introduction EVs, suggests a complementary approach alongside

battery-EVs. Stationary Wireless Charging: Introducing
Electric vehicles (EVs), focusing particularly on advance- stationary wireless charging stations is proposed as a
ments in technology and infrastructure, Energy Sources: solution to charging range limitations [5–7]. This technol-
You emphasize the use of renewable energy sources like ogy allows EVs to recharge while parked, thus minimizing
solar, wind, and geothermal for powering electric automo- range anxiety and making electric cars more convenient.
biles [1, 2]. This reduces reliance on fossil fuels and promotes Infrastructure and Collaboration: Collaboration between
green energy. Battery Technology, Greater battery power the automotive industry, energy sector, and governments
density is highlighted as crucial for improving the range is stressed as necessary to invest in research and develop-
of electric cars. Advancements in battery technology, mate- ment of EV technologies and infrastructure [8, 9]. Standard-
rials science, and chemistry are essential for boosting energy ization of wireless charging systems is also highlighted to
storage capacity and enhancing efficiency [3, 4]. Hybrid and facilitate easier adoption and interoperability [10, 11].
Fuel Cell Technologies, the potential of fuel cell and plug-in Economic Viability, Ensuring that charging infrastruc-
hybrid technologies to extend the range and efficiency of ture is economically feasible through financial incentives,
public-private partnerships, and cost-effective deployment
strategies is seen as crucial for the widespread adoption of
* Corresponding authors: [email protected] EVs [12, 13]. Overall, your argument underscores the
(G. Srinivas Rao); [email protected] (A.R. Vijay Babu) importance of technological innovation, infrastructure
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

development, and collaborative efforts to overcome barriers

and make EVs a practical and successful option for personal
mobility [14, 15].
Wireless power transfer (WPT) systems need high-fre-
quency and high-power power electronic converters for
long-distance power transfer [16]. High-frequency and
high-power power electronic converter research is challeng-
ing and interesting. Effective wireless power transmission
requires these converters [17, 18].
Current Converter Problems: Switching losses, high
Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI), and excessive EMI
are examined in current hard-switched and pulse-width Fig. 1. Basic structure of IPT charging system of EVs.
modulation (PWM) converters [19, 20]. To overcome these
constraints, resonant power converters were developed. The
presented control method regulates load power independent
of supply voltage and coupling transients. Testing this con-
trol method by altering the air gap between coils focuses on
accurate output power regulation [21, 22]. Inductive Power
Transfer (IPT) System: IPT systems operate between 10
and 100 kHz, experiencing switching losses in converters
and copper and core losses in the coupler [23, 24]. Explain-
ing ferrite and Litz wire choices to reduce eddy currents and
losses. Core loss in circular pad constructions is analyzed Fig. 2. Transmitter coils used in this research. (a) Spiral
using finite-element analysis (FEA). Litz wire reduces circular type coil. (b) Spiral Square type coil.
transformer winding loss by minimizing high-frequency
eddy current losses [24, 25]. The study emphasizes the need
to select the right Litz-wire type during design to ensure transmitter and receiver coils due to the mismatch, leading
that AC loss is reduced more than DC loss, especially in to a decrease in transmitted power. For efficient power
medium-frequency applications [26, 27]. Simulation and transmission, it is crucial to carefully design the transmitter
test bench data are presented in the book to examine trans- and reception coils, taking into account both self and
mitting 1.6 kW of electric power [28]. The setup includes mutual inductance. This section describes the design of
transmitter coils in parking spots, a parking lot to shield the transmitter coil and compares it with the measure-
the subsurface transmitter coil, and a receiver coil on a ments. The next section will include the receiver coil design,
small two-seater EV [29, 30]. In the third portion, transmit- measured findings, and a visual representation of the design
ter and receiver coils, compensating circuits, power elec- arrangement. Two primary coils are employed for the gear-
tronic topologies, and transmitter/receiver control are box, while secondary coils are utilised for receiving [35, 36].
briefly discussed and evaluated for flat-rate pricing [31,
32]. To reduce costs and affect coupling coefficients, the 2.1 Primary coil (transmitter coil)
transmitter coil length might be increased [33, 34].
Inside this pertains to the development and evaluation of A rectangular coil with dimensions of 475 cm by 7.8 m and
a flat-rate pricing strategy. Section 2 addresses the design of consisting of 16 turns has been built for the transmitter.
transmitter and receiver coils. The transmitter coil is length- Figure 1 displays a schematic of the transmitter coil utilised
ened relative to the receiving coil to reduce the expenses in this research [17].
associated with the transmitter circuit. The low coupling Handmade coils led to variations in geometric qualities
coefficients between the transmitter and receiving coils are throughout production. The actual characteristics of the
due to this imbalance. Comparisons are conducted between produced coils differ from the expected values in several
the estimated self and mutual inductance of the transmitter aspects. Figure 2 displays the completed coil, and Tables 1
and receiving coils and the real measurements. Section 3 cov- and 2 provide the obtained geometric and self-inductance
ers compensatory circuit design, power electronic topologies, values [18].
and transmitter/receiver control. Compensation circuits, The Inductance Capacitance and Resistance (LCR)
when built and adjusted precisely, enhance power transfer metre was utilised to manually modify the air gap until
in situations with low coupling coefficients. achieving a mutual inductance of 41 lH with a 16.5 cm
air gap, after the creation of the analytical formula for
mutual inductance. Compatibility is validated when all
measured capacitances fall within the specified range [19].
2 Magnetic coupling coils and compensation The simulation findings, when integrated with the parame-
network characterises ters specified in SAE J2954, correspond with the theoretical
analysis, validating the suggested method’s suitability and
To save expenses related to static charging infrastructure, effectiveness for interoperability testing. One may get
a stationary transmitter coil was used instead of a receiv- the inductance of a rectangular coil by applying the equa-
ing coil. The coupling coefficient decreases between the tion (1).
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 3

Table 1. Ideal geometric parameter.

Coils N Dout (mm) Din (mm) S (mm) W (mm)
Primary 14.25 475 99 0 4.8
Secondary 12.16 475 362 7.8  102 4.8

Table 2. Practical dimensions for manufacturing coils.

Coils N Dout (mm) Din (mm) L (lH) R (X)
Primary 16 475 96.5 398.12 0.15
Secondary 15 475 358 107.12 0.06

Fig. 3. Photograph of the measured transmitter coil.


lO :n 2 a b Fig. 4. Quantified frequency-related transmitter coil induc-
L¼  b  ln þ a  ln ð1Þ
p r r tance and Q-factor. The solid blue line indicates inductance,
whereas the dashed red line shows Q-factor [24].
a, b, r, and n represent the size of wires and the number of
turns in a coil. The transmitter coil in Figure 1 has dimen-
sions of 7.8 m for a, 6.3 m for b, and 16 turns for n. The
coils used in this investigation were constructed from
3 mm Litz wire capable of carrying a current of 40-A.
The research calculated the inductance of the transmitter
coil to be 398 lH for circular coils and 107 lH for square
coils using equation (1). The inductance and Q-factor of
the transmitter coil were measured in a shielded environ-
ment using an LCR metre by varying the frequency. Fig-
ure 3 displays the transmitter coil that was measured [37,
38].
Figure 4 shows the frequency-dependent inductance and
Q-factor of the transmitter coil. Figure 5 shows the induc-
tance represented by a solid blue line and the Q-factor by
a dashed red line [23].
Figure 4 displays the measured inductance of the trans- Fig. 5. Displays the inductance and Q-factor of the receiver coil
mitter coil as 398 lH, in accordance with equation (1). The at different frequencies. The solid blue line represents induc-
Q-factor of the transmitter coil peaked at 440 at a frequency tance, whereas the dashed red line represents Q-factor.
of 90 kHz [25].

the transmitter coil while the reception coil is operational

2.2 Secondary coil (receiver coil)
in an electric automobile. Equation (2) calculates the induc-
A circular coil with a diameter of 475 cm and 15 turns was tance of a circular coil [26].
made for the receiver. Figure 2 shows the transmitter and

8R
receiver coil used in this study. The ferrite and aluminium L ¼ lo  R  n ln
2
2 ð2Þ
insulate the test vehicle’s body from the magnetic field of r
4 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Fig. 7. The coupling coefficient k changes with the height h.

The solid blue line represents the observed value, whereas the
dashed red line represents the value calculated using equation
(3).

Fig. 6. Interoperable coupling coils.

R represents the average radius of the coil. r and n are

important, much like equation (1). Equation (2) calculated
the inductance of the receiving coil as 107 lH using an aver-
age coil radius (R) of 0.06 m and a wire radius (r) for the
Fig. 8. A schematic circuit design was utilised to analyse the
transmitter coil. The inductance and Q-factor of the receiv- potential maximum power transfer efficiency.
ing coil changed depending on the frequency, similar to the
transmitter coil. Figure 2b displays the receiver coil
that was measured. Figure 5 displays the inductance and
Q-factor of the frequency-based receiver coil. Figure 5 a bigger transmitter coil can decrease the cost per unit mile
displays inductance represented by a solid blue line and of the infrastructure by necessitating less power electronic
Q-factor by a dashed red line [27]. equipment and fewer compensating circuits for the same
The receiving coil’s inductance was 107 lH, according to road length. Equation (4) shows that the coupling coeffi-
equation (2) with an estimated average radius of 0.06 m. cient k decreases as the length (a) of the transmitter coil
The graph shows that the receiver coil has a maximum increases. A smaller value of k leads to less power transfer
Q-factor of 280 at a frequency of 100 kHz [39]. efficiency (ϋ) and available power for the system. Analyse
the circuit in Figure 9 to determine the maximum power
2.3 Coupling coefficient of the transmitter and receiver transfer efficiency (ϋ) of the system [30].
coils I 2 2 RL
g¼ 2
I 1 R1 þ I 2 2 R1 þ I 2 2 R2
In Figure 6, the coupling coefficient k is directly propor-
RL
tional to the ratio of the overlapping coil area to the trans- ¼ 2 2
mitter coil’s area and inversely proportional to the cube of ðR2 þ RL Þ þ ðxL2 þ X L Þ
2 ð4Þ
the distance between the coils when the receiver coil is posi- ðxM Þ
tioned above the transmitter coil at height h. When b < 2R, 1
equation (3) may be utilised to determine k [29]. gmax ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi :
!3 2 k 2 Q1 Q2 þ 1
1þ 2 þ2
2R R k Q1 Q2 k 2 Q1 Q2
k¼  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð3Þ
a b2 þ 4h 2 To achieve the highest power transfer efficiency as defined
Figure 7 shows the measured coupling coefficient plotted in equation (5), the appropriate load must be applied as
determined by the subsequent equation [31].
against h, compared to the value obtained from equation (3).
The measured values in Figure 8 correspond with the pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RL max ¼ R2 1 þ k 2 Q 1 Q 2
estimate. Establishing the height h as 100 mm led to the ð5Þ
calculation of the coupling coefficient k as 0.09. Employing X L max ¼ xL2 :
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 5

Fig. 9. This investigation’s transmitter and receiver circuit

diagram.

With a separation of 100 mm between the receiver coil

and the transmitter coil, operating at a frequency of
90 kHz, and having values of k = 0.09, Q1 = 440, and
Q2 = 280. Equation (5) was used to determine that the Fig. 10. Exhibits A’s simulated voltage and current. The
system’s maximum power transfer efficiency is 94%. Maxi- dashed red line denotes voltage, whereas the solid blue line
mum power transfer efficiency is unattainable because of shows current.
the challenge in choosing a suitable load. Compensation
circuits for the transmitter and receiver must be carefully
designed to avoid additional reductions in power transfer
efficiency. The following section will discuss the design of
the compensating circuits [32].

2.4 Compensation circuits

In low coupling coefficient circumstances, the compensating
circuit uses two resonators to improve performance. Extra
resonators assist tune the system for optimal resonance
when the coupling is low. A key feature of the compensation
circuit is its ability to precisely adjust resonance frequency.
Flexibility is needed to maintain resonance with low trans-
mitter-receiver coupling coefficients. Both transmitter and
receiver have compensating circuits [33].
Dual-sided compensation improves performance at both Fig. 11. Simulation of B’s voltage and current. The dashed red
ends of the IPT system [34]. To assess circuit performance, line denotes voltage, whereas the solid blue line shows current.
the simulation may test its behaviour under various condi-
tions. Simulation can evaluate resonance frequency,
efficiency, and power transmission [35]. Comparing simu-
lated and measured properties validates simulation model
accuracy [36]. Disparities can be studied to improve simula-
tion precision or identify performance-affecting real-world
factors [37]. Essential to the study, providing information
on the compensating circuit’s efficiency with two
resonators. Simulation and observed data will be used to
understand the circuit’s behaviour and its influence on
the IPT system with low coupling coefficients.
The simulation frequency of 78 kHz suggests that the
system operates in the high-frequency range. The shapes
of the voltage and current waveforms provide insights into
the rectifier’s performance, including its efficiency, power
factor, and potential issues like harmonics Analyze the rela-
tionship between voltage and current waveforms at both Fig. 12. Displays the simulated and actual voltage of the
points A and B to understand power transfer efficiency. transmitter coil. The solid blue line shows the actual measure-
Look for any distortions or abnormalities in the waveforms ment, while the dashed red line indicates the simulated result.
that might indicate issues such as harmonics or undesired
behaviours. Consider how well the rectifier is performing
its intended function, and if needed, optimize its design Factor, Figures 10, 11 and 12 illustrate a 20° phase mis-
for better overall system performance. match between voltage and current at locations A and B.
A technical analysis or experiment related to inductive The power factor (cos /) is reported to be 0.94. A high
charging systems for EVs. Let’s break down the key points power factor indicates efficient delivery of electricity, mini-
based on your description, Phase Mismatch and Power mizing reactive power losses. Measurement Environment,
6 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Fig. 13. Compares transmitter coil current simulation and Fig. 14. Displays simulated and observed receiver coil voltage.
measurement. The solid blue line indicates the measured value, The solid blue line indicates the measured value, while the
while the dashed red line shows the simulation. dashed red line shows the simulation.

Power, current, and voltage measurements were conducted

in a secure environment, ensuring accurate and reliable data
collection. Simulation vs. Measurement, Figures 13–15
compare simulation results with actual measurements. In
Figures 13 and 14, the transmitter coil voltage and
current are depicted. The solid blue line represents the
measured data, while the dashed red line represents
simulated data.
The comparison between simulation and measurement
findings helps validate the accuracy of the simulation model
against real-world performance. An experimental setup or
analysis focused on evaluating the performance of an induc-
tive charging system. The emphasis on phase mismatch,
power factor, and the comparison between simulated and
measured data underscores the importance of ensuring effi-
ciency and reliability in WPT technologies for EVs. This
type of analysis is crucial for optimizing system design Fig. 15. Displays measured and simulated receiving coil
current. The solid blue line shows actual data, whereas the
and enhancing the practicality of inductive charging solu-
dashed red line models it.
tions in real-world applications.
The transmitter coil voltage and current match the
model’s Figures 13 and 14. Figure 14 shows that the trans-
mitter coil’s current is less than 40 A, the study’s Litz wire’s
maximum capacity. The receiving coil voltage and current
are shown in Figures 14 and 15.
Figures 14 and 15 show voltage and current readings
that match the model. The system provided 1.176 kW to
the load, according to a power meter. Power transmis-
sion efficiency was 92.8%. The waveform distortion in
Figures 14 and 15 causes the disparity between equation
(5)’s measured and anticipated values.

3 Resonant circuit of WPT system

Inductive charging systems for EVs. Here’s a breakdown
and clarification of your points, Power Conversion Effi-
ciency: Inductive charging systems for EVs rely on power
electronics to achieve maximum efficiency in converting
power. This efficiency is crucial for early adoption and wide-
spread use of wireless charging technology in EVs. Figures
16 and 17 shows the bridge design using partial bridge or Fig. 16. Half bridge DC-AC converter.
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 7

Fig. 19. Voltage source inverter topologies.

Fig. 17. Full bridge DC-AC converter.
maximize efficiency, reduce losses, and improve overall
performance, thereby advancing the feasibility and adop-
tion of wireless charging technologies in the automotive
industry.

3.1 Primary side DC-AC

Several configurations may be explored, focusing on the
initial DC-to-AC conversion and the following AC-to-DC
conversion. A passive rectifier with a DC-DC converter or
an active AC-DC network connects the secondary source
side to the load side battery on the auxiliary plane 7. The
main side generally chooses a half bridge or full bridge con-
Fig. 18. The secondary side AC-DC converter. verter design to increase power quality. This study uses a
full bridge current-fed converter to boost voltage
transmission.
complete bridge design for power conversion. These designs
are common in power electronics for efficiently managing 3.2 Secondary side AC-DC
power flow and voltage regulation. Magnetic Link and
AC Generation, Inductive charging operates based on a An optional AC-DC converter converts IPT AC electricity
magnetic link between coils (loops), which generates alter- to DC voltage for battery charging. AC-DC systems use
nating current (AC). This AC is essential for transferring passive or active rectifiers for efficiency and control. Utility
power wirelessly from the charging station (transmitter) meets power factor to load total harmonic distortion with
to the vehicle (receiver). Separate Control Converters: AC/DC converter. The compensation network receives
The system requires separate control converters for the high-frequency voltage pulses with variable duty cycles
essential (main power transfer) and non-essential (auxiliary from the stable DC voltage on the primary side. Different
or secondary functions) sides of the charging process. This compensation networks serve different goals. Optimal
segregation helps in managing power flow and optimizing power transfer needs load-source impedance matching.
efficiency. Dual-Stage Design, Typically, inductive charging From magnetically coupled coils, passive rectifiers convert
systems use a dual-stage design involving AC-DC and DC- AC signals with four diodes. DC voltage must be adjusted
AC converters. This setup facilitates the conversion of for battery charging. Controlling separated rectifier-battery
power from the grid (AC) to high-frequency AC for IPT. charging current requires DC-DC conversion. Figures 24–29
Compensation Networks, To mitigate losses and improve show this solution.
efficiency, parallel and series compensation networks are
utilized. These networks help in managing reactive power 3.3 Classifications based on power converter topologies
and optimizing the overall power factor of the charging sys-
tem. Research Focus: Current research is focusing on IPT inverters use direct current from solar modules or
improving both the primary (main power transfer) and sec- rectified alternating current grids. This converter supplies
ondary (auxiliary power management) components of the high-frequency alternating current to the primary resonant
system. This includes reducing losses and enhancing overall tank and controls load power. Literature classifies IPT
efficiency. power converter designs. Configuring Voltage Source Invert-
The technical intricacies involved in optimizing induc- ers: Toggling two switches usually unbalances the neutral
tive charging systems for EVs. These systems require point voltage between two capacitors. The half-bridge archi-
sophisticated power electronics and control strategies to tecture is limited to providing AC output with ±vdc/2
8 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Fig. 21. Transforming to equivalent series Resistor Inductor

Capacitor (RLC) circuit.

Fig. 20. CSI topologies.

amplitude, making it appropriate for lower-power applica-

tions. H-bridge converters are practical and recommended
in most situations. Figure 24 depicts voltage source inverter
architectures.
IPT systems sometimes employ current source inverters
(CSI) [5–7]. Figure 19 depicts the current-fed push-pull
inverter that powers current IPT systems with parallel
Inductor Capacitor (LC) transmitter coil tank networks.
The literature describes these systems’ benefits.
Table 3 lists IPT factors. Fig. 22. Frequency with inductance.
Table 3 displays assessed inductive power transmission
parameters. The simulation model and analysis employ
the same parameters for voltage-fed and current-fed topolo-
gies. Table 2 compares LC values for transmitter-side
capacitor voltage stress, transmitting coil voltage stress,
transmitter-side capacitor current stress, inverter switches
voltage stress, source protection, and coil weight for various
frequency range characteristics of IPT topologies. Simula-
tion research computation will be examined.
IPT systems for charging electric cars are being exam-
ined. Electrical properties of inductive power transmission
are evaluated for current-fed and voltage-fed topologies.
The simulation models for performance analysis in Mat-
lab/SIMULINK incorporate these parameters. An exten-
sive comparison of the results and features of both
topologies shows that the current-fed topology exhibits bet-
ter performance because of reduced voltage stress on the
transmitting side, voltage stress on the inverter kept within
Fig. 23. Frequency v/s capacitance.
acceptable levels, source protection, and decreased coil
weight for inductive wireless power transmission. Designing
The primary circuit equations may be obtained from
the receiver coil and operating converters needs accuracy
resonant circuit ideas. In a circuit at resonance, the imagi-
and provides specific problems. The current fed architecture
nary components of complex impedance or admittance
is ideal for IPT in WPT, particularly for charging electric
are zero. Calculate the circuit’s total impedance and set
automobiles.
the imaginary component to zero to get its resonant
frequency (6).
Solve for x to obtain the following equation.
4 Calculation and simulation results
1
x ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : ð6Þ
The theoretical main circuit values are calculated using LC  L0 2
2

many equations. The main circuit schematic includes a sec- ðR Þ

ondary load Rl. Figure 20 shows how connecting the load
resistor directly to the primary side skips the transformer The final equation (7) for capacitance is derived from the
to simplify computation. The principal side resistor is Rl. equation provided previously.
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 9

Fig. 24. Simulation model output waveforms are given in the following figures.

Fig. 25. Complete bridge inverter simulation of 1.6 kW circuit.

Fig. 27. Inductor voltage simulation for 1.6 kW circuit.

Fig. 26. Simulation voltage across capacitor for 1.6 kW circuit. Fig. 28. 1.6 kW circuit input current simulation result.
10 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Table 3. Parameters simulated converter topologies.

Parameters Values
Output voltage, (V0) 400 V
Output current, (I0) 41 A
Source voltage, (Vs, rms) 44 V
Source current, (Is, rms) 41 A
Inverter voltage, (Vpeak, rms) 120 V
Load resistance, (R0) 10 X
Fig. 29. Simulation result of inductor current for 1.6 kW Input inductance, (Ld) 56 lH
circuit.
Primary inductance, (Lp) 47 lH
Secondary inductance, (Ls) 28 lH
1 L
C¼ þ  0 2 : ð7Þ Mutual inductance, (M) 7.6 lH
Lx2 R Primary capacitance, (Cp) 100 nF
Secondary capacitance, (Cs) 150 nF
To determine the capacitance value, input all variable
values into the provided equation. The relationship between Quality factor 5
voltage and current at resonance is defined by an equation Turns ratio 2.5
involving the input voltage represented as Vi (8). Voltage across the capacitor 600 V (rms)
" # Voltage across the inductor 611.88 V (rms)
ðxLÞ2 R0
V in ¼ I ð8Þ
ðR0 Þ þ ðxLÞ2
2
V c ¼ IX c
!

ðR0 Þ þ ðxLÞ
2 2
1 : ð12Þ
V c ¼ V in
Thus, the voltage drop in the resonant circuit during reso- 2
ðxLÞ R0 xC
nance is purely due to the component of the circuit
impedance. Replace that term with Q to get the capacitor voltage
The equation for the input current at resonance is rep- equation,
resented by equation (9). jV c j ¼ V in Q: ð13Þ
" #
ðR0 Þ þ ðxLÞ2
2 To compute inductor voltage, use the following method.
I ¼ V in 0 : ð9Þ Equation (13) states that the inductor and resistor are in
ðxLÞ2 R parallel when the secondary side resistor is connected to
the primary side in the main circuit.
To find the quality factor of this circuit, transform it into a qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
series RLC circuit as shown in Figure 21. jV L j ¼ V in 1 þ Q 2 : ð14Þ
The quality factor of a series RLC circuit is calculated
using equation (10). The following formula calculates the inductor current.
xL0 VL
Q ¼ 00 : ð10Þ IL ¼ : ð15Þ
R Lx
By solving the preceding equation, we can derive equation Capacitor current equals circuit current. Mathematical cal-
(11) for the quality factor by inserting the formulae for culations for 1.6 kW circuits. The equations from the previ-
resistance and inductance. ous section are used to calculate the circuit. Table 2 lists
1.6 kW system specifications.
R0 Equation (7) represents capacitor voltage.
Q¼ : ð11Þ
xL Substituting Vi = 120 V and Q = 5 yields,
The calculation for the Quality factor shown above is given jV C j ¼ 600 V rms ¼ V peak ¼ 848:525 V
in terms of inductance. Another equation may be formed by
utilising the Quality factor and capacitance. The Quality The voltage across the inductor is given by, equation (14)
factor of a series RLC circuit may be defined in relation pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
jV L j ¼ 120 1 þ 52
to capacitance as follows.
jV L j ¼ 611:285 V ðrmsÞ ¼ 865:23 V ðV peakÞ:
1
Q¼ :
xCR00 Value of inductance:
As indicated below, capacitor voltage may be determined. 74:875
L¼ ¼ 4:7669e05 H:
Equation (12) represents capacitor voltage. 5  2p  50 000
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 11

Table 4. L and C values for different frequencies. Table 5. Output voltages for different turns ratios.
Frequency Inductance value Capacitance value Turns ratio Inductance value
20 kHz 0.11916 mH 0.552658 lF 1 611.255 V rms
30 kHz 0.0794448 mH 0.368438 lF 1.5 407.125 V rms
50 kHz 0.0476669 mH 0.22106 lF 2 305.623 V rms

Calculate capacitance using the equation,

Q 1
¼ ð16Þ
Q 2 þ 1 xCR0

C Q2 þ 1
¼ : ð17Þ
1 xQR0
Substituting all right-hand numbers in the following equa-
tion yields capacitance, Fig. 30. Simulation of 1.6 kW secondary winding output
26 voltage.
C¼ ¼ 2:2106e07 F:
5  2p  50 000  74:875
2.5. This system’s secondary output voltage is 244.7529 V
Formula for total circuit current at resonance, with 2.5 turns. By rectifying the voltage with a DC-DC con-
verter, the secondary side may produce 400 V DC.
5 1 To reduce DC-DC power losses, the conversion ratio is
I ¼ 5 þ
2p  50; 000  4:76669  10 74:875 set between 0.4 and 0.6. Full-wave rectifiers convert AC
I ¼ 41:669 A: power to DC via a higher average DC output voltage than
half-wave rectifiers. Calculate turn ratio from system out-
Inductor current is calculated using the formula, puts. The system is evaluated at 1, 1.5, 2, and 2.5 turn
611:88 ratios. Table 5 shows the system’s possible output voltages
IL ¼ depending on turns ratios, per specifications [35].
4:76669  105  2p  50; 000

I L ¼ 40:86 A: 5 Simulation results for 1.6 kW system

Capacitor current equals circuit input current, Figure 24 shows the major circuit architecture simulation.
I C ¼ I ¼ 41:669 A: Simulations are done in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The simu-
lation model shows that a PWM generator generates inver-
Table 4 summarizes basic circuit model calculations. Fre- ter gate signals. The transformer’s primary windings are
quency affects circuit characteristics Changes in operating connected to the resonant inductor, and the inverter’s out-
or resonance frequency might change circuit properties. Fre- put powers the circuit. The circuit is simulated using the
quency increases circuit compactness, as described in the calculations from earlier sections, and the outputs are com-
previous chapter. Excessive frequency ranges may increase pared to the theoretical calculations. Figures 25–30 depict
system losses. The circuit parameters are calculated for the respective simulations [36].
20 kHz, 30 kHz, and 50 kHz to theoretically analyze the fre- Full bridge inverters convert 120 V DC input voltage to
quency effect. Each frequency value has different induc- 120 V AC voltage (Fig. 18).
tance and capacitance values. Table 2 lists inductance (L) Simulated outcomes match theory. Table 6 compares
and capacitance (C) values for different frequencies [34]. estimated and simulated values.
Figures 22 and 23 show L and C values changing with A 2.5 turn ratio is used in this simulation model to val-
operation frequency. idate prior work in this journal. Calculated values match
Figures 22 and 23 show frequency-induced L and C simulation findings for all Table 6 system parameters. Sim-
decrease. Higher frequencies reduce component values, ulations validate the 2.5-rotation system concept. Hardware
making systems smaller. This system uses 50 kHz because implementation to verify estimates will be explained [36].
less frequency increases size. Switching power losses and
magnetic fields must be considered while increasing frequen-
cies to minimize system size [33]. 6 Experimental and hardware results
Calculating system design ratio Based on system char-
acteristics, find the best turns ratio. The system’s turn ratio System viability depends on hardware implementation.
is 2.5 based on characteristics and observations. This Hardware implementation confirms theoretical findings.
research shows that fixing this issue raises the ratio to The hardware control and driver circuit designs are in the
12 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Table 6. Compares calculated and obtained values.

Parameter Theoretically calculated values Value obtained from the simulation
Voltage across inductor 611.88 V (rms) 867.5 V (peak)
865.3323 V (peak)
Voltage across capacitor 600 V (rms) 770.5 V (peak)
848.528 V (peak)
Input current 41.669 A (rms) 52.25 A (peak)
58.928 A (peak)
Current through inductor 40.86 A (rms) 49.95 A (peak)
57.78 A (peak)
Output voltage on the secondary side 244.75 V (rms) 327 V (peak)
346.13 V (peak)

Table 7. Low-power test bed simulation specifications.

Parameter Value
Input voltage 120 V
Power rating 1.6 kW
Operating frequency 85 kHz
Quality factor 5
Output voltage 48
Turns ratio 2.5

Fig. 31. Hardware setup. Control and driving circuits use 12 V. A 12 V power source
supplies the main circuit, and theoretical computations ver-
appendix. Before being assembled into a system, the con- ify outputs. The hardware circuit’s theoretical peak volt-
trol, driving, and inverter components are built and tested ages were 84.45 V for the resonant capacitor and 86.53 V
independently. System parameters are tested at each stage for the inductor. Figures 32 and 33 illustrate the hardware
to guarantee proper operation. Figure 31 shows the experi- experiment resonant inductor and capacitor voltage output
ment apparatus. waveforms [34].
Hardware testing for the low-power primary circuit Hardware measurements show peak capacitor and
model is complete. A low-power circuit is simulated before inductor voltages of 68 V and 84 V, respectively, which
hardware installation. Tables 7 and 8 list low-power test match theoretical values. The hardware’s capacitors and
bed simulation requirements. inductors resonate as predicted, confirming the theory.
UC-3875 Phase Shift Resonant Controller and IR2125 Using 2.5 and 1 turning ratios, the system is tested with
current-limiting single channel driver are used. In actual no load, 10%, 30%, and 50% load. Transmission and recei-
application, UC 3875’s oscillator can operate at 1 MHz. ver distances range from 0 cm to 8 cm during the tests.
This controller has beneficial defences. Until the input volt- Observations: The experimental setup records output volt-
age exceeds 30.75 V, all outputs will be active low. The age fluctuations with different loads and transmitter-recei-
device can guard against overcurrent by turning off outputs ver distances. Figure 34 displays load test results and
within 70 ns of failure. A 120 V DC power source activates output voltage fluctuations. At various distances, tables
the controller in this thesis. The controller has four outputs, and graphs show how transmitter-receiver distance affects
ABCD, with A and C in one phase and B and D in another. output voltage. Waveform analysis shows that V0 and
The controller signals the IR2125 driving circuits. Each of I0 are almost in phase, indicating a power factor near 1.
the four driving circuits sends gate control signals to an Only channels If 1 and If 6 are shown due to oscilloscope
inverter switch. The IR2125 is a high-speed MOSFET/ channel constraints, with approximately equal amplitude
IGBT driver with an overcurrent protection circuit. Using and phase angle. Figure 35 shows six load current ampli-
a driver circuit protects system hardware. Table 8 criteria tude changes as load resistance increases. All six resistances
establish test bed theoretical values. Low power circuit match. Coils’ parasitic resistances gradually reduce load
calculations employ the 1.6 kW model’s system parameter current. The computed load currents match the recorded
formulae. Table 9 shows all hardware configuration ones. System Efficiency: Figure 36 shows load resistance’s
calculated values [35]. effect on system efficiency. The solid line shows calculated
Low-power test bed simulations confirm theoretical efficiency, whereas the dots show measured values. Effi-
calculations. The experiment uses the 6.5-W main circuit. ciency peaks at 86.6% with a normalized load resistance
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 13

Table 8. Comparison of calculated and simulated low-power test bed values.

Parameter Theoretically calculated values Value obtained from the simulation
Voltage across inductor 61.188 V (rms) 87.5 V (peak)
86.53 V (peak)
Voltage across capacitor 60 V (rms) 77.1 V (peak)
84.85 V (peak)
Input current 0.5226 A (rms) 0.704 A (peak)
0.739 A (peak)
Current through inductor 0.512 A (rms) 0.643 A (peak)
0.724 A (peak)
Output voltage on the secondary side 24.475 V (rms) 34.44 V (peak)
34.613 V (peak)

Table 9. Calculated values for the hardware test bed.

Parameter Value
Voltage across the capacitor 60 V (rms), 84.85 V (peak)
Voltage across the inductor 61.188 V (rms), 86.533 V (peak)
Value of inductance 0.95 mH
Value of capacitance 0.069 lF
Total input current 0.5226 A (rms), 0.739 (peak)
Current through the inductor 0.512 A (rms), 0.724 A (peak)
Current through the capacitor 0.5226 A (rms), 0.739 (peak)

Table 10. Output voltage values at different distances.

Distance between transmitter and Output voltage
receiver in cm (V)
0 14
1 2.7
2 1.26
3 0.7
4 0.45
5 0.24
6 0.16

of 0.14. The findings show good efficiency, especially with

six loads. Figure 37 shows that the proposed WPT system’s
load current is load-independent regardless of load condi-
tions. This shows steady and reliable performance under
various load resistances. Table 10 shows the Output voltage
Fig. 32. Hardware output for voltage across capacitor without
values at different distances between transmitter and recei- transmission core.
ver. Hardware measurements, load tests, waveform analy-
sis, load current variations, and system efficiency prove
that the proposed WPT system works. The system is stable voltage decreased, yet there was always enough output
and efficient under diverse load conditions since theoretical across the secondary terminals regardless of the load condi-
predictions and actual results correlate well. tions. Verification of Theory and Simulation: The sec-
50% load test for turns ratio ¼ 2:5: ondary output voltage exhibited minimal decline when
the proximity between the main and secondary coils grew
Figure 38 represents the data indicating that the system and the load was heightened. The low-power circuit simula-
functioned effectively under varying load situations. As tions and theoretical calculations confirmed that the hard-
the coupling distance increased, the secondary output ware findings fit with theory and simulation expectations
14 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024)

Fig. 36. System efficiency against the load resistance.

Fig. 33. Hardware output for voltage across inductor without

transmission core.

Fig. 37. Load currents’ variations against the increasing load

resistance (R2 = R4 = R6 = 0; R1, R3, and R5 have the same
and varying load resistances).

Fig. 34. Experimental load current waveforms.

Fig. 38. Plot the relationship between output voltage and

distance for a turns ratio of 2.5, at 50% load.

regarding the primary terminals and resonant inductor

voltage matching. Increasing the coil distance from 0 cm
to 3 cm resulted in a notable decrease in output voltage
across all scenarios. Although secondary voltages remained
consistently at approximately half of the expected levels,
incorporating the hardware test bed on the Printed Circuit
Board (PCB) enhanced system output. PCBs were
observed to decrease losses and wire degradation, therefore
Fig. 35. Load current variations against the load resistance. improving overall efficiency. Conclusion: The test of the
 The Author(s): Science and Technology for Energy Transition 79, 86 (2024) 15

medium-voltage direct current network for the 1.6 kW IPT scheduling, IEEE Internet Things J. 9, 8, 6047–6057.
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applications. The compensating coil in the WPT system method: a UAE case study, IEEE Access 11, 94521–94535.
plays a dual role by helping achieve a resonant state for https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3308524.
improved energy transmission and transmitting energy to 10 Mangu B., Kumar K.K., Fernandes B.G. (2011) A novel grid
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