Aircraft Structural Loads

1.0 Airworthiness Requirements:-

Documentation exists for all classes of aircraft relating to structural strength and stiffness
requirements.
Military Aircraft
• UK – Def Stan 00-970, Vol 1 – FW, Vol 2 – RW
• US - Mil Specs
Civil Aircraft
• Europe – JAR (Join Airworthiness Requirements)
• US – FAR (Federal Airworthiness Requirements)
Gidude Wapan
General requirements/recommendations found in the restricted Def-Stan 08-5 document –
“Design Requirements for Weapon Systems (Guided Weapons, Torpedoes & Airborne
Armament Stores)”.
Includes, for example, following structural design information:
• n1 = 25 for small missile. , proof factor = 1.125 and ultimate factor = 1.33
2.0- Sources and types of Loads
Two broad categories:
Manoeuvring Cases
Result directly from action of pilot (or autopilot) occur as aircraft performs its intended role.
Environmental Cases
Due to environment in which vehicle operates examples of causes include:, atmospheric
turbulence, pressure differential, kinetic heating, runway unevenness
Limit Loads & Load Spectrum
Detailed structural design cannot commence until a detailed knowledge of the structural
loads is known. Two general sets are required for manoeuvre and environmental cases:
Limit Loads
• Maximum one-off loads expected to be experienced in normal operations.
Most structural components designed to these.
Load Spectrum
• Variable loads, magnitude less than limit loads but number of cycles
important. Important for components subjected to repeated cycling (e.g.
helicopters and helicopter-mounted GW) & prone to fatigue problems.
3.0 Categories of Aircraft Load Cases
Main classes are:
• symmetric flight loads (manoeuvre and environmental)
• asymmetric flight loads (manoeuvre and environmental)
• ground loads
• longitudinal acceleration and deceleration loads
Also many subsidiary cases concerned with specific parts of airframe.

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Longitudinal & Lateral
Most loads are considered to be due to accelerations which are normalized with respect to
gravitational acceleration g (standard value of 9.80665 m/s2) A longitudinal acceleration of 490.33
m/s2 therefore equivalent to a 50g acceleration (e.g. on a GW) Known as Longitudinal ( longax.)
Similarly, a lateral acceleration of 245.2 m/s2 equates to 25g Known as lateral latax. Usually
represented as a normal load factor (n) = 25 in this case.
Load Factors
Aerospace structures conventionally designed through use of (design limit loads x load factors.)
Design Limit Loads
Maximum loads expected under normal operating conditions.
Load Factors
• Two type are generally used:
Proof Factor
• Under proof loading, airframe should not distort permanently by more than a small specified
amount (typically 0.1% ,0.2%, &0.5 permanent strain).
• Factor intended to ensure that structure always returns to original shape after design limit load
has been applied.
• Design stress x proof factor must be less than material allowable proof stress.
• For military a/c, proof factor = 1.125
• For civil a/c, proof factor = 1.0
Ultimate Factor
• Factor intended to cover variation of material and structural properties, deterioration in
service, inadequacy of load & stress analysis assumptions, flight outside envelope, etc.
• Under ultimate loading, airframe should not collapse.

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 • Design stress x ultimate factor must be less than material allowable ultimate stress.
• Usually ultimate factor = 1.5 for all a/c.
Structure Life
• Application of proof and ultimate factors to limit loads generally only adequate for short-lived
aerostructures (e.g. GW).
• For most aircraft, additional design measures required to account for operational lifetimes.
• Three methods:
Safe Life & Life Factor
• Adequate life factor applied (usually > 3).
• Structure designed to have no catastrophic failure during life expectancy (x life factor).
• Structure tested to demonstrate this.
Fail Safe Concept
• Sometimes possible to design structure with
alternative load-paths if failure occurs.
• Failure has to be easily detectable on
inspection and repairable.
Damage Tolerant Design
• Fail safe concept limited since many cracks
are difficult to detect and locate.
• Overcome by ensuring that rate of crack
growth is very slow or completely arrested.

Symmetric Manoeuvre Loads

Occur when pilot (or autopilot) operates longitudinal control surface (e.g. elevator) to cause aircraft
to pitch nose-up or nose-down.
• May result in two forms of acceleration:
– translational
• longitudinal (along flight path)
• normal to flight path
– rotational
Normal Load Factor (n)
• Loads due to symmetric manoeuvres often analysed through use of normal load factor (n).
• Actual definition is: n = Lift (L) / Weight (W)
• Often quoted in terms of gravitational accelerations (“g”), e.g. if n = 5, L = 5 W and aircraft is
experiencing load equivalent to 5 g’s.

Symmetric Manoeuvres:
Unaccelerated Flight
• Analysis simplified by:
– ignoring couples produced by misalignment of lift, thrust,
drag and weight vectors
– neglecting tailplane and fuselage lift
• Three cases to consider:

Unaccelerated straight & level (cruise) flight

• Simplest case of all.
L W TD
n=L/W=1

Unaccelerated climbing flight

 n = L/W = cos L  W cos

T  D  W sin 

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 Unaccelerated descending flight
T  D  W sin 
L  W cos
 n = L / W = cos

Accelerated Flight
• A body of mass (m) subjected to an acceleration (a) possesses an inertial force of magnitude
(ma) acting in opposite direction to acceleration.
• (From Newton’s 2nd & 3rd laws of motion).
• D’Alembert’s principle states that, if the inertial loads are included then the whole system of
loads and reactions can be considered as being in state of quasi-static balance.

Accelerated level flight

Quasi-static balance gives:
L = W + Fn = W + (W/g)an
 L = W [1+ (an/g)]
 n  L / W  1   an / g  
and also:
T = D + Ff = D + (W af/g)
Climbing flight
Quasi-static balance gives:
L = W cos + Fn
= W cos + (W/g) an
L = W [cos +(an/g)]
 n  L / W  cos    an / g  
and also:
T = D + W sin + Ff
= D + W(sin + af/g)
Diving flight
Quasi-static balance gives:
L + Fn = W cos
L = W [cos - (an/g)]
 n  L / W  cos    an / g 

and also: T + W sin + Ff = D

 T = D - W(sin + af/g)
Accelerations due to Direction Changes
• Since velocity is a vector quantity, accelerations can arise due to direction changes at constant
speed.
• Consider body of mass (m) in circular motion in horizontal plane.

Centripetal & Centrifugal Forces & Accelerations

• Force maintaining circular motion is centripetal force (Fcp)
– acts towards centre of circle and is of magnitude mV2/R
• Reaction to centripetal force is an inertial force known as the
centrifugal force (Fcf)
– acts away from centre of circle and is also of magnitude mV2/R
– should be included in free body diagram for quasi-static balance

Pull-Ups
• Consider an aircraft pulling out of a dive in the vertical plane.
Centrifugal force:
Fcf = mV2/R
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 = WV2/(Rg)
Quasi-static balance at (B) gives:
L = W cos + W V2 / (Rg)
= W [cos + (V2 / (Rg))]
 n  L / W  cos   V 2 /  Rg 
nmax  1  V 2 /  Rg 
nmax when  = 0o (i.e. at bottom of pull-up)

Pull-Up – Example
• An aircraft weighing 18 kN pulls out of a dive, as shown.
• Its speed is 250 km/hr at A & B but 160 km/hr at C.
• Calculate the lift and normal load factor at positions A, B & C.

Pull-Up – Example - Solution

250 km/r = 69.44 m/s, 160 km/hr = 44.44 m/s
• At A:
L = W [cos45o + V2/(gR)] = 48.123 kN
n = L/W = 48.123/18 = 2.673
• At B:
L = W [1 + V2/(gR)] = 53.395 kN
n = L/W = 53.395/18 = 2.966
• At C:
L = W [cos30o + V2/(gR)] = 30.086 kN
n = L/W = 53.395/18 = 1.671

Manoeuvre (n-V) Diagram or Flight Envelope

• All aircraft have operational flight envelopes of
permissible load factor (n) against airspeed (V) - as
defined by appropriate operators, authorities and
designers.
• Aircraft is designed to withstand all flight
conditions within this envelope.
• Any flight condition outside the envelope is
potentially structurally unsound.
• As defined by DEF-Stan 00-970 Chapter 202
Speeds
• VH = Normal Operating Speed
maximum speed attainable in level flight at
basic design mass with no external stores and maximum continuous cruise engine
conditions
• VD = Design Diving Speed
VH x factor given in specification, typically 1.25
For aircraft designed for dive bombing and ground attack, VH = VD
• VA = Optimum Manoeuvre Speed
minimum speed at which n1 can be achieved
• VS = Steady Level Flight Stall Speed
conditions at which n = 1
Note all plotted in terms of equivalent airspeed units (Ve, Veas)

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Boundaries
• n1 = maximum positive limit load factor (given in aircraft specification) Typically:
– n2 = 1 – 0.3 n1
– n3 = - 0.6 (n1 – 1)
• Stall boundaries:
– Using n = L/W = (0.5ρoVe2SCL,max)/W
– n = (ρoSCL,max/2W)Ve2
– Negative stall as for positive case but different CL,max
As defined by JAR 25 VC = normal operating (cruise) speed

Military Transports 3 to 4 -1 to -2
strategic bombers 3 -1
tactical bombers 4 -2
Fighters 6.5 to 9 -3 to -6
Civilian transports (<1870 kg) 3.8 -1.5
transports (>22 t) 2.5 -1
Utility 4.4 -1.8
Aerobatic 6 -3
Homebuilts 5 -2

GW Manoeuvre (n-V) Diagram

• For an axisymmetric missile typically:
Flight outside envelope prevented by built-in accelerometers which over-ride control
application.
– Typical n1 values: ASRAAM = 60?, standard tactical GW = 25

Symmetric Manoeuvres
Accelerated Flight with Pitching Acceleration

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 Aircraft pitching acceleration =
 resultant normal acceleration =
(where r is distance from a/c CG)
 normal inertial force =

Accelerated Climbing Flight with Pitching Acceleration

Quasi-static balance:
 a r 
L  W cos  Fn  F  L  W  cos   n  
 g g 
 a 
T  D  W  sin   f 
 g 
Symmetric Environmental Loads
Gust Loads
Can exceed manoeuvre loads in some cases, especially for slow & light a/c.
Consider a/c in steady level flight at airspeed V experiencing gust U in vertical upwards direction.

• Initially at angle of attack () with lift coefficient (CL) and lift curve slope (a1).
• Assume instant effect of gust on entire a/c with no resultant trim change.
• Change in angle of attack () = tan-1 (U/V)
• For small values of ,  = (U/V)
 CL = (U/V) a1
 L = ½ ρ V2 S CL = ½ ρ V2 S (U/V) a1
VUa1
ng  L / 
2 W / S 
= ½ ρ V U S a1
• Or, since L = W = ½ ρ V2 S CL
ng = ρ V U a1 S / (2 W) = ρ V U a1 S / [2 (½ ρ V2 S CL )]
i.e.
Ua1
ng 
VCL
Gust Alleviation Factors
• In reality, gusts follow cosine-like intensity as aircraft flies through, thus reducing impact:
• Gust alleviation factor (K) applied to “design” gust speeds:

K  0.88  5.3   
K  1.03  6.95  1.03 
  2 W / S   gca1
• Where
and accounts for smaller aircraft being more susceptible to gusts than large aircraft and also
altitude dependence.
Design Gust Values
• Usually use following (all in EAS), or similar:
– At VD, U = 7.6 m/s

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 – At VH or VC, U = 15.2 m/s
– 0At “rough air speed” (VG or VA), U = 20 m/s
• Positive and negative gust load factors then calculated from equations (8a) or (8b) (including
gust alleviation factors) and superimposed onto n-V diagram to establish critical conditions.

Gust Envelope - Example

Construct gust n-V diagram for BAe 125 executive jet for an altitude of 10.5 km (ρ/ρo = 0.3163)
Gross weight = 59 kN; gross wing area = 33 m2; rough airspeed (V G) = 400 km/hr (TAS);
cruise airspeed (VC) = 720 km/hr (TAS); dive airspeed (VC) = 830 km/hr (TAS); CL,max = 1.8,
lift curve slope = 4 per rad; K = 0.73

Airspeed (EAS) Gust (EAS) 0-6 km Gust (EAS) > 15

alt km alt
VG ± 20 ± 12
VC ± 15 ±8
VD ±8 ±4

Gust Envelope – Example - Solution

• Aircraft equivalent airspeeds in m/s:
– VG = 400 x (1000 / 3600) x 0.3163 = 62.49 m/s
– VC = 720 x (1000 / 3600) x 0.3163 = 112.48 m/s
– VD = 830 x (1000 / 3600) x 0.3163 = 129.67 m/s

• For 10 km gusts, linearly interpolate between 6 and 15 km:

• At VG: U = ½ (20 + 12) = ± 16 m/s
• At VC: U = ½ (15 + 8) = ± 11.5 m/s
• At VD: U = ½ (8 + 4) = ± 6 m/s
• For positive stall curve:
– using n = L/W = ½ ρo Ve2 S CL,max / W
= ½ x 1.225 x 33 x 1.8 x Ve2 / 59000
= 6.167 x 10-4 Ve2

Ve 10 20 30 40 50 60
n 0.062 0.247 0.555 0.987 1.542 2.220
• For gust lines: using equation (8a):
ng = ρ Ve Ue a1 K / 2 (W/S) = (½ x 1.225 x 4 x 0.73 x 33 / 59000) Ve Ue = 1.003 x 10-3 Ve Ue
• At VG = 62.49 m/s:
ng = 1.003 x 10-3 x 62.49 x 16 = ± 1.0
 n = 1 ± 1.0 = 0, +2.0
• At VC = 112.48 m/s:
ng = 1.003 x 10-3 x 112.48 x 11.5 = ± 1.29
 n = 1 ± 1.29 = -0.29, +2.29
• At VD = 129.67 m/s:
ng = 1.003 x 10-3 x 129.67 x 6 = ± 0.78
 n = 1 ± 0.78 = +0.22, +1.78

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Aircraft Inertial Loading
Product of relevant normal load factor (n) and weight distribution
Example
For a constant n = 3 case:
Total Inertia Load Calculation Obtained from inertia loading distribution

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I1 = area under curve 0-1
n
I   In
Total load (I) from: 1
n
Ix   I n xn
Position at which it acts 1

( ), found from:

Split total area under curve into as many increments as required for accuracy. Treat each increment
as either a triangle or square.
• As follows:
1  2 
I1   x1y1  x1   x1 
2  3  (1)
1 
I 2  I 2, R  I 2,T   x2 y1    x2  y2  y1  
2  (2)
1 
2 
x2,T  x1   x2  x2, R  x1   x2 
3   2  etc.

Fuselage Shear Force Diagram

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Obtained directly from loading distribution: Sign convention – say positive when up when moving
left to right
x
shear force (SF)   I l dx
0
i.e. shear force at any point = area under load distribution curve up to that point.
Example – due to distributed loading with point loads.

– SF at 0 and C = 0
– SF at A = - (area under curve 0-1) SF at A = - (area under curve 0-1) + LA
– SF at B = - (area under curve 0-1-2) + LA SF at B =-(area under curve 0-1-2)+LA+LB

Notes
• steps at point loads
• total +ve area = total –ve area
Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagrams
• Bending moment = shear force x distance
x
bending moment (BM)   (SF)dx
i.e. 0

• BM at any point = area under SF diagram to one side of that point (can be either side since
shear forces and moments must balance out for equilibrium).
• Sign convention arbitrary, say positive for anti-clockwise moment (moving left to right).
Example – using previous loading and SF diagrams.
– BM at 0 = 0
– BM at A = + (area under SF curve 0-1)
– BM at J = + (area under SF curve 0-1) - (area under SF curve 2-J)
– BM at B = + (area under SF curve 0-1) - (area under SF curve 2-J) + (area under SF curve J-3)
– BM at C = 0
Notes
• maxima and minima when SF = 0 (since SF = d(BM)/dx)
• can be drawn directly from loading diagram if required
• steps only if point moments act (e.g. pitching moment about wing aerodynamic centre)

Loading, SF & BM Diagram Example

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Beam cantilevered at 0 UDL1 = 10 kN/m, W1 = 20 kN, W2 = 30 kN

Solution

First find M1 and R1

R1 = UDL1 x a + W1 + W2 = 100 kN
M1 = (UDL1 x a x a/2) + (W1 x b) + (W2 x c) = 565 kNm

SF Diagram

BM Diagram

A/C Example (1) Loading, SF & BM Diagrams –

Consider following combat aircraft:
Wing gross plan form area = 21 m2

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Wing geometric chord = 2.7 m
Wing pitching moment coefficient = -0.05
At particular moment in a symmetrical manoeuvre, following conditions exist:
flight path angle to horizontal = +20o; equivalent airspeed = 500 km/hr; acceleration normal to flight
path = +15 m/s2; pitching acceleration = +1.6 rad/s2 (nose-up)
1-Calculate variation of normal load factor along fuselage.
2-Obtain inertia loading distribution normal to fuselage axis.
3- Calculate aerodynamic loads at wing & tail aerodynamic x (m) r (m) n
centres. 0 7.277 3.647
4- Calculate and plot SF diagram. 2 5.277 3.321
Solution 4 3.277 2.995
Using eq. (7a): 6 1.277 2.669
n  L / W  cos   an / g  r / g 8 -0.773 2.343
n = cos 20 + (15 + 1.6 r) / 9.81 10 -2.773 2.016
= 2.4687 + 0.1631 r 10.5 -3.273 1.935
(x = distance from front datum, r = distance forward of CG) 11 -3.773 1.853
Inertia loading = weight distribution x local n value. 12 -4.773 1.690

x (m) N Weight distribution (kN/m) Inertia loading (kN/m)

0 3.647 0 0
2 3.321 3 9.963
4 2.995 6 17.97
6 2.669 6, 14 16.01, 37.37
8 2.343 14 32.80
10 2.016 14 28.22
10.5 1.935 14, 6 27.09, 11.61
11 1.853 4 7.412
12 1.690 0 0
Inertia loading distribution For wing
pitching moment:
M0 = 0.5 x 1.225 x (500/3.6)2 x 21
x 2.7 x -0.05
= -33.5 kNm
Summing vertical forces:
LW + LT = I _____ (1)
(I = total inertial force)
Moment balance about nose:
(LW x 6) + (LT x 10.5) – Mo = I
(where = distance from nose where I
acts)
 6 LW + 10.5 LT = I - 33.5 _________ (2)

Need values for inertia load (I) and position at which

it acts ( x ).
Obtained by breaking down inertia loading
distribution into number (= m) of smaller increments.
Then calculate average inertia load due to each increment (Im), comprising contributions due to
rectangular and triangular elements. calculate positions at which each incremental load acts ( xm ).

X Loading x Im
(m) (kN/m) (m) (kN) (m) (kNm)

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0 0 2 9.96 1.33 13.28
2 (m = 1) 9.963
2 9.963 2 19.93 + 8.01 = 27.94 3 59.79 + 26.67 = 86.46
4 (m = 2) 17.97 3.33
4 37.37 2 32.02 + 1.96 = 33.98 5 160.1 + 9.15 = 169.25
6 (m = 3) 32.80 4.67
6 37.37 2 65.6 + 4.57 = 70.17 7 459.2 + 30.48 = 489.68
8 (m = 4) 32.80 6.67
8 32.80 2 56.44 + 4.58 = 61.02 9 507.96 + 39.71 =
10 (m = 5) 28.22 8.67 547.67
10 28.22 0.5 13.55 + 0.28 = 13.83 10.25 138.89 + 2.85 = 141.74
10.5 (m = 6) 27.09 10.17
10.5 11.61 1.5 8.71 11 95.78
12 (m = 7) 0

m7
I   Im m 7
Ix   Im xm =
m 1
= 225.61 kN m 1
1543.86 kNm
 x = 6.84 m
Substituting into (1) & (2):
x (m) SF (kN) point load (kN) SF (kN)
LW = 225.61 – LT
0, 2 -9.96 0, -9.96
6 LW + 10.5 LT = 1543.86 - 33.5 =
2, 4 -27.94 -37.9
1510.36
4, 6 -33.98 +190.79 -71.88
 LT = 34.82 kN, LW = 190.79 kN 6, 8 -70.17 +118.91, +48.74
8, 10 -61.02 -12.28
10, 10.5 -13.83 +34.82 -26.11
10.5, 12 -8.71 +8.71, 0
SF Diagram

Example 2
An aircraft in steady level flight at Ve = 550 km/hr is subjected to an upwards acceleration of
15 m/s2 and a nose-up pitching acceleration of 1.2 rad/s2. Calculate the variation of the load
factor n along the fuselage length and plot the SF and BM diagrams.
Aircraft Data: Wing: area = 145 m2, mean chord = 5 m, CM0 = -0.07

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Tailplane: area = 50 m2, mean chord = 3 m, CM0 = 0

Aircraft loading Example (2)

Solution
• First calculate CG position:
x (m) m (kg) Moment about x=0
5 2,800 14,000
10 13,000 130,000
15 8,000 120,000
20 2,500 50,000
25 5,000 125,000
Σ 31,300 Σ 439,000
• CG = 439,000 / 31,300 = 14.026 m from nose

For variation in normal load factor (n), use equation

where r = distance forward of CG Using an = 15 m/s2, = 1.2 rad/s2
n = 2.529 + 0.122 r = 2.529 + 0.122 (14.026 – x)
Next calculate inertia forces:
x n m I (kN) Ix (kNm)
5 3.630 2,800 99.71 498.5
10 3.020 13,000 385.14 3,851.4
15 2.410 8,000 189.14 2,837.1
20 1.800 2,500 44.15 882.9
25 1.190 5,000 58.38 1,459.5
Σ 776.52 Σ 9,529.4

Next calculate pitching moments.

Using: M = ½ V2 S c CMo
For wing: M0 = 0.5 x 1.225 x 152.782 x 145 x 5 x -0.07 = -725.54 kNm
For tailplane: M0 = 0
Next calculate lift from wing (LW) and tailplane (LT)
Resolving forces vertically: LW + LT = 776.52 _____ (1)

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Taking moments about nose: (LW x 12) + (LT x 27) + 725.54 = 9529.4 ____ (2)
Solving simultaneous equations gives:
LW = 810.79 kN, LT = -34.28 kN
Next calculate SF and BM values from following resultant loading diagram:
x (m) SF (kN) BM (kNm)
0 0 0
5 0, -99.71 0
10 -99.71, -484.85 +498.6
12 -484.85, +325.94 +1468.3, +2193.8
15 +325.94, +136.80 +1216.0
20 +136.80, +92.66 +532.0
25 +92.66, +34.28 +68.72
27 +34.28, 0 0
30 0 0

SF & BM diagrams for Example 2

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Wing & Tail Loads

Obtained from general balance of forces acting on airframe for any general manoeuvre.

Assuming T acts along flight path, summing forces normal and parallel to flight path and summing
moments about CG gives:

LWB  LT  W cos   Wan / g  0

T  D  W sin   Wa f / g  0
LWBlW  LT lT  M 0  M 0T  I p  Dd  Tt  0

Number of unknowns usually 4 (LWB, LT, T & D) so that iterative approach required, allied with use
of drag polar equation (CD = CD0 + kCL2)

Example (Wing & Tail Loads )

Britten-Norman Islander aircraft shown below:

weight = 29 kN; gross wing area = 30 m2; wing mean chord = 2 m; wing/body pitching moment
coefficient = -0.065; gross tailplane area = 9 m2; tailplane mean chord = 1.4 m; tailplane pitching
moment coefficient = -0.075; drag polar CD = 0.045 + 0.08 CL2

1- Obtain wing and tailplane lift for  = 10o at equivalent airspeed of 60 m/s.

Solution
• Using equations (13) in this case:
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 LWB  LT  W cos   0
T  D  W sin   0
LWBlW  LT lT  M 0  M 0T  Dd  Tt  0
• Using
M 0  0.5oVe ScCM 0
2

M0 = 8.6 kNm & M0T = 2.08 kNm

• Using data given:
LWB + LT = 28855
T – D = 5088
LT = (1.8 LWB – 0.3 T + 0.6 D – 10683) / 4.8

• Step 1 – assume LT = 0,  LWB = 28855 N

 CL,WB = LWB / (0.5 ρo Ve2 S) = 0.436
 CD = 0.045 + 0.08 CL2 = 0.0602
 D = (0.5 ρo Ve2 S) CD = 3983.7 N
 T = 9071.7 N and LT = 8526 N

• Step 2 – now use LT = 8526 N,  LWB = 20329 N

 CL,WB = 0.307,  CD = 0.0526,  D = 3476.5 N
 T = 8564.5 N and LT = 5297 N

• Step 3 – now use LT = 5297 N,  LWB = 23558 N

 CL,WB = 0.356,  CD = 0.0551,  D = 3644.9 N
 T = 8732.9 N and LT = 6540 N

• Step 4 – now use LT = 6540 N,  LWB = 22315 N

 CL,WB = 0.337,  CD = 0.054,  D = 3579 N
 T = 8667 N and LT = 6048 N

• Step 5 – now use LT = 6048 N,  LWB = 22807 N

 CL,WB = 0.345,  CD = 0.055,  D = 3605.8 N
 T = 8693.8 N and LT = 6234 N

• Step 6 – now use LT = 6234 N,  LWB = 22621 N

 CL,WB = 0.342,  CD = 0.0544,  D = 3596 N
 T = 8684 N and LT = 6164 N
• Approximate solution is:
LWB = 22.7 kN
LT = 6.15 kN

Wing Aerodynamic Loading (Subsonic

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Accurate predictions involve complicated processes, e.g. wind tunnel experiments, aerodynamic
panel methods and CFD programs.
For preliminary design work, classical lifting-line theory (e.g. using vortex lifting line and Kutta-
Joukowski theories) valid. Spanwise distribution may be obtained using Schrenk’s approximation
method
Schrenk’s Loading Approximation
Method commonly used to determine overall spanwise lift distribution, especially for low sweep and
moderate to high aspect ratio wings. Load distribution is arithmetic mean of:
– load distribution representing actual planform shape
– elliptical distribution of same span and area

Elliptical distribution representation

area of wing (semi-span) = area of elliptic quadrant = S/2

1  
S /2 (2a)(b) 
Area 4  4   a = 4 S / ( b)
4S   2 y  
2

cy  1    
 b   b  
For an ellipse

, 

To convert into load distribution, put wy (N/m) in place of cy L (N) in place of S.

4L   2 y  
2

wy  1  
 b   b  


Aircraft Example – Boeing 707

Approximation of wing spanwise aerodynamic loading given by eq. (20):

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 4L   2 y 2 
wy  1    
b   b  
where L = total wing lift = 750 kN, b = wing span = 40 m, y = outboard distance from a/c centre-line
(a) Calculate and plot aerodynamic loading at y = 0, 5, 9.5, 14.5, 18 & 20 m,
(b) calculate and plot total weight distribution,
(c) construct SF and BM diagrams,
(d) calculate SF & BM values at wing root.

For aerodynamic loading, use: with L = 750 kN, b = 40 m

4L   2 y  
2

wy    
 b   b  
1

y (m) 0 5 9.5 14.5 18 20

w (kN/m) 23.87 23.12 21.01 16.44 10.41 0

Plots of aerodynamic loading, weight distribution and point loads.

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 y SF SF BM BM
(m) (kN) (kN) (kNm) (kNm)
20 0 0 0 0
19 1.6 1.6 - -
18 6.5 8.1 3 3
17 6.5 14.6 - -
16 8 22.6 32 35
15 9.3 31.9 - -
14.5 5 36.9 46.5 81.5
14.5 -18 18.9 - -
14 5.4 24.3 11.5 93
12 22.8 47.1 72 165
10 25.2 72.3 122 287
9.5 6.4 78.7 38 325
9.5 -18 60.7 - -
9 6.4 67.1 31.5 356.5
8 13 80.1 73 429.5
6 26.4 106.5 184 613.5
4 26.4 132.9 240 853.5
2 26 158.9 292 1145.5
0 25.4 184.3 340 1485.5

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