31-03-2017

PROPELLER THEORY

• propeller theory shows that even in ideal

conditions there is an upper limit to the
efficiency of a propeller, and that this
efficiency decreases as the thrust loading on
the propeller increases.
• propeller theory can be used to determine the
detailed geometry of a propeller for optimum
performance in given operating conditions

• the origin of the propeller thrust is explained

entirely by the change in the momentum of the
fluid due to the propeller
• The momentum theories are based on correct
fundamental principles but give no indication of
the shape of the propeller
• The blade element theories rest on observed
facts rather than on mathematical principles, and
explain the action of the propeller in terms of the
hydrodynamic forces experienced by the radial
sections

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Axial Momentum Theory

• In this propeller is regarded as an “actuator disc”
which imparts a sudden increase in pressure to
the fluid passing through it.
• The mechanism by which this pressure increase is
obtained is ignored
• it is assumed that the resulting acceleration of
the fluid and hence the thrust generated by the
propeller are uniformly distributed over the disc

It is also assumed that

• the flow is frictionless,
• there is no rotation of the fluid,
• unlimited inflow of fluid to the propeller
• The acceleration of the fluid involves a
contraction of the fluid column passing through
the propeller disc
• since this cannot take place suddenly, the
acceleration takes place over some distance
forward and some distance aft of the propeller
disc

• The pressure in the fluid decreases gradually

as it approaches the disc, it is suddenly
increased at the disc, and it then gradually
decreases as the fluid leaves the disc
• Consider a propeller (actuator disc) of area AO
advancing into undisturbed fluid with a
velocity VA

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• The pressures and velocities in the fluid

column passing through the propeller disc be
p0 and VA
• p1 and VA+v1 just ahead of the disc
• p1I and VA+v1 just behind the disc
• p2 and VA+v2 far behind the disc
• far behind the propeller must be equal to the
pressure far ahead
p 2  p0

• The mass of fluid flowing through the

propeller disc per unit time is given by :
m   AO V A  v1 

•  is the density of the fluid. This mass of fluid

is accelerated from a velocity VA to a velocity
VA+v2 by the propeller
• propeller thrust T is equal to the change of
axial momentum per unit time :
T  m V A  v 2  V A    AO V A  v1  v 2

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• The total power delivered to the propeller PD

is equal to the increase in the kinetic energy of
the fluid per unit time
PD  12 m VA  v2   VA2    AO VA  v1  v2 VA  12 v2 
2


 T VA 
1
2
v2 
• This delivered power is also equal to the work
done by the thrust on the fluid per unit time
PD  T V A  v1 

v1  1
2
v2
• i.e. half the increase in axial velocity due to
the propeller takes place ahead of it and half
behind it.

• By applying the Bernoulli theorem

successively to the sections far ahead and just
ahead of the propeller, and to the sections far
behind and just behind the propeller, one
obtains
p0  12  VA2  p1  12  VA  v1 
2

p2  12  VA  v2   p1'  21  VA  v1 

2 2

• Since p2 = p0
p1'  p1  1
2

 VA  v2   VA2
2

 
 V A  12 v2 v2 
• The propeller thrust is given by
  1 
T   p1  p1  AO   AO V A  v 2  v 2
   2 

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• The useful work done by the propeller per unit

time is T VA. The efficiency of the propeller is
therefore
T VA T VA 1 1
i    
PD  
T VA  12 v2 1  v1 1  a
VA
• The efficiency i is called the “ideal efficiency”
because the only energy loss considered is the
kinetic energy lost in the fluid column behind the
propeller

• The thrust loading coefficient of a propeller is

T
CTL 
1
 AO V A2
2

• Substituting the value

T   AO VA  v1  v2
v1 = a VA
v2 = 2a VA

a  1 i   1

2
i 
1  1  CTL

• it shows that the maximum efficiency of a

propeller even under ideal conditions is
limited to a value less than 1
• It therefore follows that for a given thrust the
larger the propeller the greater its efficiency

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Momentum Theory Including Rotation

• In this theory, also sometimes called the impulse
theory
• the propeller is regarded as imparting both axial and
angular acceleration to the fluid flowing through the
propeller disc
• Consider a propeller of disc area AO advancing into
undisturbed water with an axial velocity VA while
revolving with an angular velocity 

• Let the axial and angular velocities of the fluid

then be VA + v1 and 1 at the propeller disc
and VA+v2 and  2 far downstream

• The mass of fluid flowing per unit time

through an annular element between the radii
r and r + dr is given by
dm   dAO  V A  v1 

where dAO is the area of the annular element

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• The thrust developed by the element is

determined from the change in the axial
momentum of the fluid per unit time :
dT  dm  V A  v 2   V A    dAO  V A  v1  v 2

• The torque of the element is similarly

obtained from the change in angular
momentum per unit time :
dQ  dm r 2 ( 2  0)   dAO  V A  v1   2 r 2

• The work done by the element thrust is equal

to the increase in the axial kinetic energy of
the fluid flowing through the annular element.
Per unit time
dT VA  v1   12 dm  VA  v2  2  VA2 

 dAO  V A  v 2  v 2  V A  v1   12  dAO  V A  v1  v 2  2V A  v 2 
v1  1
2
v2

• The work done per unit time by the element

torque is similarly equal to the increase in the
rotational kinetic energy of the fluid per unit
time
dQ 1  1
2

dm r 2  22  0 

1
2
 dAO  VA  v1  2 r 2 .2


1
2
d Q 2
1  1
2
2

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• The total power expended by the element

must be equal to the increase in the total
kinetic energy (axial and rotational)
dQ   dT VA  v1   dQ 1

d T V A  v1   dQ     1 

• the efficiency of the element

1
   1  VA 1
dT VA  1  a
    
dQ   VA  v1   1
v1 1 a
VA

• where a =  1 /  and a = v1/VA are the

rotational and axial inflow factors

• By making the substitutions

dAO  2  r d r , v1  a V A , v2  2 a V A
1  a   2  2 a 
dT  dm  V A  v 2   V A    dAO  V A  v1  v 2
dQ  dm r 2 ( 2  0)   dAO  V A  v1   2 r 2

dT  4   r d r V A2 a 1  a 

dQ  4   r 3 d r V A  a  1  a 

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• The efficiency of the annular element is then

given by
dT V A 4   r d r V A2 a  1  a .V A a V A2
  
dQ  4   r d r V A  a   1  a   a   2 r 2
3

• Comparing two efficiency

a V A2 1  a
  
a 2 r2 1 a

a   1  a   2 r 2  a  1  a  V A2

• the relation between the axial and rotational

induced velocities in a propeller when friction
is neglected

Blade Element Theory

• It is concerned with how the propeller generates

its thrust and how this thrust depends upon the
shape of the propeller blades
• propeller blade is regarded as being composed of
a series of blade elements
• Each of which produces a hydrodynamic force
due to its motion through the fluid
• The axial component of this hydrodynamic force
is the element thrust while the moment about
the propeller axis of the tangential component is
the element torque

• Consider a wing of chord (width) c and span

(length) s at an angle of attack  to an incident
flow of velocity V in a fluid of density 

• The wing develops a

hydrodynamic force whose
components normal and
parallel to V are the lift L
and the drag D. One defines
non-dimensional lift and
drag coefficients

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L
CL  1
2
 AV 2
D
CD  1
2
 AV 2
• A = s c is the area of the wing plan form. These
coefficients depend upon the shape of the wing
section, the aspect ratio s/c and the angle of
attack, and are often determined experimentally
in a wind tunnel
• Now consider a propeller with Z blades, diameter
D and pitch ratio p/d advancing into undisturbed
water with a velocity VA while turning at a
revolution rate n. The blade element between the
radii r and r + dr

• The blade element will then produce a lift dL

and a drag dD, where
dL  C L 12  c d r V R2

dD  C D 1
2
 c d r V R2

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• If the thrust and torque produced by the

elements between r and r + dr for all the Z
.

blades are dT and dQ

1  dD 
d T  dL cos   dD sin   dL cos   1  tan  
Z  dL 
1  dD 
dQ  dL sin   dD cos   dL cos   tan   
rZ  dL 

VA
tan  
2 n r

• Putting tan  = dD/dL, and writing dL and dD

in terms of CL and CD, one obtains :

dT  Z C L . 12  c d r VR2 cos   1  tan  tan  

dQ  r Z C L . 12  c d r VR2 cos   tan   tan  

• The efficiency of the blade element is then

dT V A V A 1  tan  tan  tan 

  
dQ 2  n 2  n r tan   tan  tan     
• If the propeller works in ideal conditions, there is
no drag and hence tan  = 0, resulting in the
blade element efficiency and hence the efficiency
of the most efficient propeller being  = 1

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• The primary reason for this discrepancy lies in

the neglect of the induced velocities, i.e. the
inflow factors a, a. If the induced velocities
are taken into account

dT  Z C L . 12  c d r VR2 cos  I  1  tan  I tan  

dQ  r Z C L .  c d r V cos  I
1
2 R
2
 tan  I  tan  

dT V A V A 1  tan  I tan  tan 

  
dQ 2  n 2  n r tan  I  tan  tan   I   

tan  tan  I 1  a tan  I

 
tan   I   
.
tan  I tan   I    1 a

tan  
VA V A 1  a  1 a
tan  I   tan 
2 n r 2  n r 1  a  1  a

• the expression for efficiency consists of three

factors:
(i) 1 1  a  , which is associated with the axial
induced velocity,
(ii) (1-a ), which reflects the loss due to the
rotation of the slipstream
(iii) which indicates the effect of blade element
drag

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• In order to make practical use of the blade

element theory,
• it is necessary to know CL, CD, a and a for
blade elements at different radii so that and can
be determined and integrated with respect to the
radius r.
• CL and CD may be obtained from experimental
data, and a and a with the help of the
momentum theory.
• This procedure does not yield realistic results

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