-

KENYATTA
UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN DISTANCE & e LEARNING
IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
DEPARTMENT: GEOPRAPHY

AGE 400
REMOTE SENSING AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

WRITTEN BY: EDITED BY:

COURSE AUTHOR’S NAME COURSE AUTHOR’S NAME
Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2009
All Rights Reserved
Published By:
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS
 1.0 LECTURE ONE
INTRODUCTION TO REMOTE SENSING
1.1 Introduction

This lesson deals with fundamental concepts of remote sensing. Her, remote
sensing is defined as the collection of data by a device. Which is not in direct
contact with the phenomena to be investigated. Other concepts that are covered
by this lesson include types of remote sensing. The definition of satellites,
resolution and multi-concept. The lesson is concluded with advantage and
disadvantages of camera and satellite systems.

1.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a) Define remote sensing.
b) Describe two types of remote sensing.
c) Describe the various types of resolution and multi-concept.
d) Describe satellites.
e) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of photographic cameras and
satellite.

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
1.3.1 Remote sensing
Remote sensing means feeling, measuring or imaging sensations from
near or distant objects, areas and others through the analysis of data
by a device that is not in direct contact with phenomena to be
investigated. The remotely collected data can be of many forms
including:
a) Acoustics: A branch of science that deals with sound-reflecting
character at an interval space by recording, reinforcement, hearing,
or perceptions of sounds and hearing aids.
b) Force of gravity: On of the fundamental forces of nature. The
other three being the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear
force, and the strong nuclear force. The gravitational force the
weakest of the four forces, but it acts over great distances. Gravity
is force of attraction that arises among objects by virtue of their
masses. On earth, gravity is the force of attraction between any
object in the earth’s gravitational field and the earth itself.
c) Seismology: The study of earthquakes, the seismic waves they
produce, the processes that cause them and the effects they have.
By examining the global pattern of waves produced by an
earthquake, seismologists can deduce the nature of materials
through which they have passed. This leads to an understanding of
the earth’s internal structure. On smaller scale, artificial earthquake
waves generated by explosions or mechanical vibrators can be
used to search for sub- surface features such as oil or mineral
explorations.
d) Radio astronomy: The branch of astronomy that deals with the
origin and nature of emissions from extraterrestrial sources in the
radio waves range of the electromagnetic radiation rather than in
the visible range. It is specifically deals with celestial phenomena
through measurement of the characteristics of radio waves emitted
by physical processes occurring in space.
e) Forensic medicine: The use of scientific techniques to solve
criminal cases. It is a multi displinary field embracing chemistry,
physics, botany, zoology and medicine including identification of
human bodies or traces. Ballistics the study of projectiles such as
bullets is another traditional forensic field that makes use of such
tools as the comparison microscope and electronic microscope.
Traditional methods such as fingerprinting are still in use. Among
other techniques is the electrostatic document analysis (ESDA),
 used for revealing the indentations on paper, which helps in
determining if documents have been tampered with.
f) Electromagnetic energy distribution:
Energy rays that are either emitted or reflected as radiation by
objects. Satellite sensors collect this energy, but what the detectors
capture is only a small portion of the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.

Note that:

These are all good examples of remote sensing because the useful data from
these branches of science are through the analysis of data acquired by a device
that it is not in direct contact with the phenomena to be studied.

In environmental sciences, remote sensing is understood as the acquisition,

recording processing and classification of data obtained through the use of
electromagnetic radiation sensors. Here, remote sensing is understood as the
imaging sensations of the earth’s atmosphere, land and water surfaces from
the outer space. Normally, this space is cloud-free and has limited air, and
therefore the personnel sensing the area below it has to carry oxygen masks.

It should be stated here at the outset that useful environmental data obtained
from exploitation of acoustic waves, force fields and others from sensors
that are not designed to produce any forms of imagery from their fields of
view are excluded from the scope of this module. However, air photographic
interpretation, in which much of the information is acquired using the
electromagnetic energy without actually setting foot on the ground, part of
the general field of remote sensing will form the bulk of the module.
1.3.2 Types of Remote Sensing

Two types of remote sensing are recognized namely: active and passive
remote sensing.

a) Active Remote Sensing

This type of remote sensing uses imaging sensors that supply their own
source of energy to illuminate features of interest. Part of this illumination is
reflected back to the sensor for recording. All active sensor systems such as
radar operate in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
(EMS), namely from about 1 millimeter to 1 meter wavelength range (lesson
3).

b) Passive Remote Sensing

In passive remote sensing, the sensor system relies upon the naturally
available energy normally from the sun. Many passive sensor systems
operate from the visible to the infrared regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, namely from about 0.25 to 2.3 wavelength bands.

A simple and common example of an active system is a camera used with

flash bulbs, it becomes a passive sensor system.

1.3.3 Satellite

This is the body in space orbiting around a larger body such as

the moon that orbits around the earth. Manmade satellites such as the
telecommunication satellite are those put in orbit around a planet, which
relays back to the earth telephone messages or radio and television (TV)
signals received from any part of the earth. It should be noted that a satellite
image is not different from a TV signal (pictures) for the built up and
reproduced electronically from do-like elements called pixels. Since pixels
are the smallest item of information that can be registered by the satellite
sensors, it determines the resolution of the image. In other words, any object
size that may be smaller than the pixel of the real world cannot be detected
by the satellite sensors/scanners even if its radiometric and spectral
resolution are greater than the surrounding areas.

Remote sensing satellite use two types of orbits: geostationary and polar.
Geostationary satellites are put into orbit 35,900km directly above the
equator. At this altitude the speed of satellite exactly matches the earth’s
rotation. To all intends and purposes. Therefore, the satellite is geo-
stationary-hovering continuously over the same part of the earth.
Consequently, geo-stationary satellite are used either to transmit
telecommunications signal or to get a very broad view of the weather.

Polar orbits, on the other hand, are lower in altitude, 600-1500 km above the
earth surface. in polar orbit, a satellite follows a north-south path close to the
poles, and gradually traverses every part of the earth over a period of days. It
then starts the same cycle again, and since in effect it constantly retraces its
steps, it is ideally placed to view and monitor environmental changes. Some
of these changes include seasonal rhythms, for example, or short-term events
(floods, forest fires, pollution and the like) or changes in land-use patterns in
farming and urban areas.

The second generation of American LANDSAT satellites returns to the same

point on the globe every 16 days. The orbits are sun-synchronous, i.e. the
satellites across the equator always at about 9.45 AM local time on the
ground below.

1.3.4 Resolution

Resolution is an indication of the sharpness of images or it is

the ability of a sensor to show details of a phenomenon. In other words, it is
an expression of the size of the smallest object that can b e depicted. The
term is most commonly associated with the raster data model where the
resolution of a gaster or grid is equal to the size of the cell in the real world.
For example, the resolution of a remotely sensed image may be
10m(meaning each cell is representing 10mx10m on the ground). Increased
resolution leads to larger storage requirements, increased processing and
higher costs for a given area. Many things affect resolution including pixel
counts, format, receiver quality, lenses, and lighting, among others. The
quality of image is measured by the quality of information extractable from
it, which is strongly influenced by three types of resolution namely (ground),
radiometric and spectral.

a) Spatial Resolution
This is the ability of the lens-film-filter combination to image distinctly
small details. In other words, it is the smallest feature that is covered by an
instantaneous field of view (IFOV) and can be seen from any a given
altitude. Many IFOVs form the beginning blocks of imagery.

b) Spectra Resolution
It is the capability of a remote sensing system to picture ground the objects
that reflect light of the different intensities (color). It encompasses the width
of the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and the number of channels
that are sensed. Sometimes chromatic aberrations may prevent certain
light intensities from reaching the sensor system, and thus preventing
important images from being registered. A chromatic aberration is a defect
in an optical image, and every sensor system has some degree of abberation.

c) Radiometric Resolution
This is the sensitivity of a sensor system to differentiate signal strength.

d) Temporal Resolution
It is defined as the length of time intervals between measurements. It is
usually recommended that the data for temporally resolution be obtained on
the same time of the same date for comparative analysis.

1.3.5 Multi-Concept

The re mote sensing specialist uses different definitions that are

meant to enhance resolution, thereby incorporating what is know as the
“multi-“ approach: thus the use of multi-scale, and multi date, among others:
a) Multi-spectral refer to the use of different parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum, and is synonymous with multi-band.
 b) Multi-date is the acquisition of data at different moments in time, and
is synonymous with multi-temporal.

c) Multi-scale is the use of remotely sensed data at different scales and

hence from different altitude. The multi-scale approach is imperative
when extrapolation of large-scale photography is used in conjunction
with satellite imagery.

d) Multi-polarization refers to the various ways that comprise a beam or

an illumination of energy usually from the sun that can be considered
to be vibrating in all sensor platforms as they travel through the
atmosphere and impinge on the earth’s surface. However, the light
that is reflection back into the atmosphere form one kind of feature on
the earth surface such as a body of water may be strongly polarized
(that is, vibrating primarily in the platform) while that reflected back
from some other kind of feature such as vegetation or fractured rocks
may be polarized only slightly, if at all. Since the polarizing capability
of a feature is a clue to its identity, more information about earth
resource features can b obtained from multi-polarization sensor than
from one polarization.

1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cameras and Satellites

The detection and capture of electromagnetic energy can

be performed either by cameras or satellites. The camera system offer
mainly advantages that include:

➢ They are relatively simple in operation.

➢ They provide a high degree of spatial resolution and geometric
integrity. That is, they have superior resolution capabilities and little
rectification is required.
➢ Minimal space and power are required.
➢ The equipment’s cost is low.
The disadvantages are:
➢ The camera systems have a limited range of the spectrum in which
they operate, ranging from UV (0.25) to near infrared (0.9 ).
➢ They have a problem of operating large amounts of data.

Satellites are electronic sensors that generate an electrical signal that

corresponds to the energy in the original scene. They have the following
advantages:

➢ The information from satellites is in electronic form; therefore,

relatively easy to radio it down to ground receiving stations for
reconstruction or reconstitution into computer generated images.
➢ They operate in a wider spectral range (UV through infrared and
microwave). Unlike cameras that have one great problem of weather,
the satellite circumvents the problem of weather by ignoring the use
of visible and infrared as sources of information. Since satellites are
active systems, they are all-weather system and are in operation for 24
hour.

Other advantages include:

➢ They have a practical output, either digital or analog for computer

processing.
➢ Further, they have a greater range in detectors than films in camera,
➢ They are fast in processing and analyzing of data by computers,
➢ It is relatively easier to obtain quantitative radiometric data from
calibrated scanners, and
➢ It is easier to compare data of different scales and wavelength.

Disadvantages:

➢ Satellites have lower resolution.

➢ The equipment costs are higher.
1.5Summary

➢ Remote sensing is defined as a means of collecting data/information from

objects, areas or conditions by a device that is not in direct contact.
➢ Active and passive are two types of remote sensing.
➢ A satellite as a body in space orbiting around a larger body such as the
moon that orbits around the earth.
➢ Resolution as an ability of a sensor to show details of a phenomenon,
determines the image quality, which in turn is strongly influenced by
three types of resolution: spatial, radiometric and spectral.
➢ Multi-spectral, multi-date, and multi-scale photography, among others
enhance resolution of images.
➢ The camera and satellite systems offer many advantages and
disadvantages.

1.6Review Questions

1. Define the following:

➢ Remote Sensing
➢ Air Photo-Interpretation.
2. Distinguish between the following:
➢ Radiometric and Spectral resolution.
➢ Active and Passive Remote Sensing.
➢ Geostationary and Polar-Orbiting Satellites.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of photographic cameras and
satellites?
4. Do you think satellite images can replace aerial photographs in earth resource
mapping? Justify your answer.
1.7Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A Look at Remote Sensing: Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter, J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and other Materials;
London: Macana Ltd.
Cracknell, A. and L. Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Survelliant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 2.0 LECTURE TWO
SIGNIFICANCE AND HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING
2.1 Introduction

In this lesson, significant advantages related to remote sensing that use the
electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) sensor systems over other systems are
discussed. History of remote sensing, which was envisaged in c.400 BC is also
described. Further, in this lesson major historical developments of remote
sensing from space that earnestly begun between 1946 and 1950, when small
cameras were carried aloft the rockets at the White Sands Proving Ground in
New Mexico, America are Traced.

2.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of studying this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Describe the significance of remote sensing.
b) Trace the major historical development of remote sensing.

2.3 Importance of Remote Sensing

Modern remote sensing is directed to the surface of the

earth. Such sensing ordinarily is designed to facilitate the management of the
earth’s resources in an efficient manner. The rationale for Remote Sensing
can be expressed in four-part statement:
 ➢ Whether viewed on a local, regional, national or global basis the
human demand for most kinds of earth resources is rapidly
increasingly at the time when the supply of them is rapidly dwindling
and the quality of others is rapidly deteriorating.
➢ Belated to the situation is a call for the wisest possible management of
these resources.
➢ Wise management is greatly facilitated if timely, and accurate
inventories are periodically made available to the resource managers
so that they will know reasonably well at all times the amount and
condition of each kind of resource that is each portion of the earth that
they seek to manage.
➢ Almost invariably, such inventories can be made by means of remote
sensing, i.e. by obtaining aerial photography and satellite imagery,
and related data from aircrafts and spacecrafts during periodic over-
flights.

Significant advantages related to remote sensing that uses electromagnetic

spectrum sensor systems over other systems are:

a) Improved Vantage Point

From the air an observer’s field of view is tremendously increase.
Depending on the clarity of the atmosphere as well as other factors such as
altitude, an observe may be able to see and detect critical objects or
conditions several kilometers away. Aerial RS provides a bird’s-view of
large areas, which enables the observers to see features on the earth surface
in the context.

b) Increased Spatial Resolution and Geometric Fidelity

With proper selection of camera, film and other flight parameters, it is
possible to record more spatial detail on an imaging system (photograph or
imagery) than can be seen with the unaided eyes. This is particularly
important when viewed under magnification. With proper ground reference
data, accurate measurements of positions, distances, areas, heights, volumes
and slopes can be obtained easily from air.

c) Broadened Spectral Sensitivity

Human vision is spectrally limited. Others RS imaging systems, however,
can “see” and record over a wavelength range so many times broader than
can be seen with aided eyes. The human eye operates only in the vision
region (0.4-0.7 microns) range, whereas other imaging systems operate in
the visible, infrared and microwave portions of the EMS. Hence the
possibility of some sensors recording phenomena in the form of visible
image that cannot be seen with unaided eye.

d) Records
Satellite imagery and air photographs are virtually permanent records of the
then existing conditions. These records can be studied at leisure under office
environment rather than field conditions. In this way a single image can be
studied by a larger number of the end users. One area in Kenya where the
records of aerial images have been extensively used is the study of soil
erosion. For example in their book, More People Less Soil Erosion,
Gichuki, et al (1994) have used aerial images to demonstrate that many parts
of the former larger Machakos District had been subjected to serious soil
erosion before independence. They have compared these images with the
post-independence ones, and noted that the post-independence Machakos
has not had any serious soil erosion. Thus coming up with the title of the
book: “ More People Less Soil Erosion” because if one compare the two
periods, the post-independence has had more people than independence
when there was serious soil erosion in Machakos.

e) Other important uses are capability of “stop action” economy,

illustration, and communication.

2.4 History of Remote Sensing

Socrates envisaged the RS concept in c.400bc, when he

observed that: man must rise above the clouds to the top of the
atmosphere in order to understand the environment in which he
lives…” This prediction by Socrates might have formed the basis of remote
sensing.

Nicephore Niepce is credited with the invention of the photographic camera

in 1822, thereby giving humankind the opportunity to record vision. In 1858
a camera was hauled aloft a balloon in the air and pointed downwards to
take the first aerial photograph. A pevisian photographer. Gaspard later in
1858 used a balloon to ascend to a height of 80m from where he took a
“bird’s-eye view” photograph of Petit Bicetre in France. After these
hilarious events, balloon photography flourished widely.

Wallace (1960) is also remembered for having taken from a balloon, the
earliest existing aerial photograph over Boston. Although kites were initially
used for collecting meteorological data they later became useful platform
from which aerial photography could be launched. Archibald (1982) is
credited for having obtained the first aerial photography from the kites.

The aeroplane invented in 1903 was not used as a camera platform until
1909 when a “biosphere” motion pictures photographer accompanied Wilbur
Wright to take picture over Centocelli in Italy during one of Wright’s
training sessions for Italian naval officers. Thereafter, photography from
aircraft received heightened attention in the interest of military strategists
who realized the potential of this medium in the acquisition of military
information. During the two decades between 1st and 2nd wars, many non-
military application of aerial photography appeared. Civil engineers were
among the first people to use aerial photography for non-military purposes
when they begun using it in the early 19th century as a means for surveying
and mapping. In the USA, the Department of Agriculture began nation-wide
application of aerial photography for soil survey during the 1930s. George
Eastman, perhaps more than any other individual pioneered in the
improvements of photographic processes, which made photography widely
available to the average person. This began after the 2nd world war when
specialized cameras were developed for improved photography.

The practice of using a human interpreter to analyze photographs obtained

from airborne cameras was well established by 1940’s. Further progress
towards both and color infrared photography greatly improved the
effectiveness of aerial cameras as an important sensor of the earth surface. It
is important to point out that most advances in active remote sensing (air
photography) were initiated because of actual or impending wars or
conflicts, which is true even today. False color film, originally called
“camouflage detection film” was developed to enable quick, and accurate
discrimination between live vegetation and recently cut foliage or green-
painted canopies used to cover military targets. This technology is now used
to help identify crop types, vegetation under stress, water quality, and haze-
penetration.
Active remote sensing systems that use the microwave portion of the
spectrum were earnestly used for the first time during the World War II. As
the acronym radar suggests-radio detecting and ranging, its primary function
was to detect and determine the distance and speed of approaching ships and
aircrafts. Later technological advances led to recording of radar images
directly on the film. Today, radar imagery is collected and analyzed by oil
companies for mapping geological structures, especially in tropical
environments where cloud cover inhibits conventional remote sensing
systems.

2.5 Remote Sensing from Space

The use of rockets as platforms for remote sensing

equipment began in early 1900s. When rockets equipped with cameras were
launched over German landscape. However, it is estimated that earnest
remote sensing must have begun between 1946 and 1950 when small
cameras were carried aloft the rockets (V-2) that were shot at White Sands
Proving Ground in New Mexico. Over the succeeding years numerous flight
involving photography were made by rockets, ballistic missiles, satellites
and manned spacecraft. The photographs produced during the early flights
were generally of inferior quality because early missions were made
primarily for purposes other than photography. But crude as they were by
today’s standards, the early photographs demonstrated the potential value of
remote sensing from space.

Up to mid-1960’s, aerial photography using photographic film to record

visible light and near infra-red energy reflected by objects at the earth’s
surface constituted the dominant remotely sensed image products.
Thereafter, increasingly more versatile and sensitive non-photographic
systems were designed to record both reflected and emitted energy such as
the LANDSAT to produce imagery, the final product of non-photographic
systems. This development coincided with the design and launch of
automatic satellite that dramatically increased the capability of remote
sensing.

Beginning with TIROS-1 in 1960, the early weather satellite took imagery of
coarse views of cloud patterns with unclear images of the earth surface. With
the improvement in the imaging sensors aloft the meteorological satellite,
images of both atmospheric, and terrestrial objects and conditions become
clearer. The meteological satellite were satellite to conduct intensive studies
on surface areas of the earth to collect Jata on water, snow and ice features.
And this was the time “when looking through the atmosphere” had just
begun.

The features of remote sensing became more exciting as manned space

programmes (Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, Skylab and Space Shuttle) were
developed. In 1961, a sub orbital Mercury flight was made, on which
excellent photographs were taken. These photographs showed only the sky,
clouds and ocean because they mainly aimed at capturing them. In 1962,
three historic orbits were made around the earth and Mercury Mission took
colored photographs, MA-6. The photographs showed mostly clouds and
water, and most of the deserts of North-west Africa. On later Mercury
Missions, reversal photographs were taken with 70mm lens Hasselblad
Cameras. A specially modified Hasselblad camera with an 80 mm lens soon
became the workhorse for space photographic experiments conducted in the
programme.

Mission GT-4 of Gemini included the first formal photographic experiments

from space specifically directed at geology. This imagery soon led to new
and exciting discoveries in tectonology, volcanology and geomorphology.
With the success of the programme in geology, subsequent missions
included a host of similar experiments aimed at investigating various
oceanic and topographic phenomena. By the end of Gemini programme,
nearly 2500 photographs, mostly oblique views had taken with more than
1000 of these providing high quality colored imagery for earth resource
applications. Hence, the significance of remote sensing from space had
become well recognized during this programme.

Thereafter, serious thinking began on systematic and repetitive coverage of

the globe. The introduction of Apollo programme extended the knowledge
of space photography among the scientific community. The Apollo flights
were mainly dedicated to the objective lunar landings, but Apollo 6 and 9
(1967) included experiments in automatic color photography and multi
spectral orbital photography for earth resource studies that proved important
in the later development of the LANDSAT satellite system.
In 1973, the first American Space Workshop, SKYLAB was launched to
accommodate a wide range of space-related experiments. Its astronauts took
over 35,000 scenes of the earth with the earth Resource Experiment Package
(EREP) on board. The EREP incorporated a multi-camera array with long
focal lengths, a 13-channel multi-band scanner and two microwave systems.
The multi-camera array provided imagery at spatial resolutions of between
30 m and 80 m that are still useful to researchers and is a function of the size
of the data collection application specialists. It should be mentioned that the
EREP Programmes were the first to demonstrate the complementary nature
of photography and electronic imaging from space.

In early 1975, US, and USSR conducted a joint venture, Apollo-SOYUZ

TEST (ASTP) on a space station experiments with a remote sensing
component. In this venture, earth resource imaging was not a primary goal
and for various reasons, the overall qualities of most of the images from the
ASTP were disappointing. Like SKYLAB, the ASTP mission demonstrated
that trained crewmembers could obtain useful and sometimes unique earth
resource data from visual observation and discretionary imaging. The result
of training crewmembers to look for specific earth resource phenomena and
selectively record important events crystallized the complementary nature of
manned and unmanned observation systems.

The technological development of automatic and unmanned satellites

(LANDSAT, IICMM, SEASAT, METEOSAT, ETC.) to acquire remotely
sensed data came into effective use in 1970s. LANDSATS were originally
called Earth Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS) and their present
acronym of LANDSAT programmes were acquired 1975. LANDSAT 1 was
launched in 1972 and was equipped with a Return Beam Vidicon (RDV)
television camera system and a four-wave band. Multispectral Scanning
System (MSS). The latter operates in two channels of the visible spectrum
and two in the near infrared. It records radiant energy from the field of view
by means of on-board detectors that converts this, electronically on to a
magnetic tape and it can also be telemetered directly to ground receiving
stations.

LANDSAT 2 and 3 launched in 1975 and 1978 respectively were virtually

carbon copies of the prototype. These first three LANDSATS had an orbit
height of 910 km. And a capacity to image the entire earth’s surface (below
81) every 18 days.
LANDSAT 4 and 5 launched in 1982 and 1984 respectively incorporated
important improvements. They orbit at an altitude of 705 km and have a
global repeat imaging frequency of 16 days, but also carried a seven-wave
band sensor known as the Thematic Mapper (TM). From the start of the
programme, LANDSAT data were made available to the worldwide user
community free of access or copyright controls. This, together with the
quality and versatility of information made available, has been of great
significance in promoting the civilian use of remote sensing from the space
in the last two decades.

The HCMM Satellite in 1978 was experimentally operational between 1978

and 1980, and was equipped with scanning radiometer that obtained data in
visible, near infrared and thermal infrared wavebands. The orbital
configuration was designed to maximize opportunity to gain data on surface
temperatures. Geological and vegetation mapping, snow and ice melt
predictions and industrial pollution are amongst some of the applications
that have positive uses of HCMM data.

SEASAT was launched in 1978 on experimental basis to obtain information

on the World’s Oceanic surfaces (wave heights, patterns sea ice, etc.) and
has provided original data on land cover. It was the first satellite to use a
high-resolution radar-imaging instrument, synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
It was also equipped with a radar scatterometer that measured oceanic wave
heights, and a visible and infrared radiometer for determining sea-surface
temperature and cloud cover.

Other major contributions, outside United States of America are the USSR
military satellites and SPOT. Several series of both manned spacecraft and
automatic satellites have been operated by the USSR since the late 1960s
including the METEOR and COSMOS programmes. Unfortunately, details
of these programmes are not found in the West and there is no access to the
imagery archives for Western Scientists and other users, and therefore no
direct reference can be made to the Russian contribution to global remote
sensing. It is known that the main thrusts of application development have
been confined to the national territories of the USSR and CMECON states
with the exception of global meteorological and oceanographic sensing.

SPOT was the first civilian Earth Resource Satellite developed

independently of the USA and USSR. The first satellite in the series was
launched in 1985. Primarily, the French Space Center (CNES) developed it
with contributions from Sweden and Belgium. It supplies the global remote
sensing data-user community on an open access and commercial basis.

SPOT satellite senses in three bands in the visible and near infrared in the
multi-band mode and one band in the panchromatic mode. The main sensor
in SPOT is the “Pushroom” scanner that gives several advantages over
conventional Multispectral Scanning (MSS) devices such as improved
radiometric and geometric accuracy and higher spatial resolution. The two
scanners in SPOT-1 record in both panchromatic and MSS Modes- the
former giving the best known optimal spatial resolution of 10 m and the
latter of 20-25 m. but what makes it so innovative compared with
LANDSAT is its potential capability of “off-nadir” viewing [tilting of
sensors which allow it to make a sideway look ate areas which it has already
visited or is about to visit]. The sensor can be directed to -27 either side of
the field of view defined by the vertical axis between the ground and the
satellite. This means that the frequency of the repetitive coverage is lowered
from one to three days depending on the latitude.

The near-polar orbits are sun-synchronous, so, whenever the SPOT crosses
the polar it is always at given local time on the ground below. It surveys the
globe from an altitude of 832 km in 26 days. With tilting sensors it can view
an area much more frequently: 98 times a year at the Equator and 152 times
at 45 degree North.

The advantages in terms of frequency of viewing are obvious. Since the

satellite can sense the same area from two angles, it has the facility to
produce stereoscope pairs, and hence the capacity to provide a new form of
remote sensing information. In addition the possibilities for monitoring
rapidly developing or changing events are considerable. The main
shortcoming of SPOT includes the use of a limited range of the
electromagnetic spectrum in the visible and near infrared to sense the earth
resources. This means that it can only take high quality imagery when there
is a cloud-free sky.

Until mid-1980s, USA enjoyed the position of operating the only satellite
providing unclassified multi-spectral imagery available on a regular basis.
Now several nations are in the race for controlling of the remote sensing
market. Since the French successfully launched a high-resolution scanner
(SPOT) that has continuously for a long time now pursued a very aggressive
sales program, Japan, Canada, China, India, Brazil, and European Space
Agency (ESA) have also launched other advanced sensor system.

The late 1990s saw a worldwide trend of governments privatizing many of

their services and facilities. In the trace of this wave, was the USA
government that transferred its NASA LANDSAT program to NOAA
(National oceanic Atmospheric Administration). And late altogether
transformed to private enterprise (EOSAT). This was meant to foster
competition in remote sensing technology, as well as cutting the price of
satellite products. Some of the private companies licensed for permanent
earth observation were SpaceImaging, EarthWatch, and OrbImage.

The Orbview 1 developed by OrbImage, launched in mid-1990s was for

scientific meteorological research. Orbview 2, launched in 1997 is also used
for research purposes, and in particular for studying the ocean and coastal
areas.

The efforts made by Space-imaging yielded Ikonos-2, was successfully put

in orbit on September 24,1999. The panchromatic black-and-white Ikonos
images have a 1m resolution, while the multi-spectral images have a 4m
resolution. the showpiece of the EarthWatch is the Quick Bird 2 whose
panchromatic black-and-white images have a ground resolution of 70cm,
and multi-spectral images at 3m. The Tables 2.1,2.2 and 2.3 below give a
summary of some of the sensors of much higher spatial resolutions that have
been recently launched:

Table 2.1 Multi-spectral High Resolution Sensor Systems

Sensor Origin Resolution Resolution Swath Available
(Nadir*- (Nadir *- Width
IR)
Visible)
CLARK NASA 15km 3m 30km 1998
Quick Bird Earth- 3.3m 4m 22m 1998
1 watch
Orbview Orb-image 4m 4m 8km 1998
Space- Space 4m 4m 11km 1998
Imaging 1 Imaging
SPOT 4 CNES 20m 4 60km 1998
SPOT 5 CNES 10m 43m 60km 2002
 Table 2.2 Low Resolution Sensor Systems
Sensors Origin Resolution Resolution Swath Available
(Nadir*- (Nadir*- Width
Visible IR)
Folder CNES 4km NA 2500km 96-97
SPOT 4 CNES 1.1km NA 2200km 1998
EDS/MODIS NASA 275m 0.5km 2300km 1998
IRSP India 350m ? 1500km 1998
4/OCM
MERIS ESA 250m 500m 1500km 1999
MSG Eumetsat 1km 3km Earth 2001

Currently, the Department of Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys

(DRSRS) applies NOAA data at 1km spatial resolution in monitoring range
and estimating and of season biomass production in Kenya. With the
launching of NOAA satellite of improved spatial resolution (250m), DRSRS
is expected to improve in precision and open up new areas of research in
fields such as crop harvest forecasting and forest cover monitoring.

Table 2.3 High Resolution Sensor Systems (Panchromatic)

Sensor Origin Resolution Resolution Available
(visible – (IR-nadir*)
nadir*)
CLARK NASA 3km 6km 1998
Obview Orbimage - 4km 1998
Quick Bird 2 EarthWatch 70cm - 2001
Ikonos-2 Space Imaging 1m 4m 1999
LandSAT 7 CNES 15M 185KM 1999
*Nadir- the point vertically beneath the sensor when a plumb-line is
drawn meets the point at 90 degrees.

The high spatial resolution satellite imagery has not been accessible to
Kenyan scientists. A 20m ground resolution of SPOT imagery is the best so
far in vegetation mapping in Kenya. The availability of higher resolution to
the Kenyan scientists will definitely provide high quality mapping products
for vegetation and land use and cover mapping.
2.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks

➢ The development of remote sensing from satellite has not relegated

conventional aerial photography to a secondary position. In fact, it
remains a primary technique where it is necessary to resolve the detail
of ground conditions as in most forms of resource and environmental
planning. It is a long established technique for surveying and
mapping. Aerial photography has a very high resolution-its’ ability to
register small objects from hundreds of kilometers up space. Its
disadvantage its limited spectral range. Normally, it records reflected
light across the whole of the visible range, but with special film it can
also pick up a certain amount of infrared radiation (the so-called “near
infra-red”) at the wavelengths just outside the visible spectrum.
➢ The earth observation from above may follow the same line of
development like computer technology. When this trend is followed,
the coming decade will witness the birth of small dedicated earth
observation system, aimed at thematic and topographic mapping.
➢ It is not possible to list any satellite program as suitable for earth
observation for resource mapping, because the number of such
programs overwhelming and by the time you are through with course
many of them will be out of date.
➢ With the advancement in space technology, remote sensing will
accord scientists with indispensable information for resource
management.
➢ The modern remote sensing has significant advantages that in clued
improved vantage point, increased spatial resolution and geometric
fidelity, broadened spectral sensitive, and permanent records, among
others.
➢ Remote sensing concept was envisaged by Socrates in c.400BC, when
he predicted than man must rise above the clouds to the top of the
atmosphere in order to understand the environment in which he livers.
This was followed with the invention of photographic camera 1822.
➢ Other major historical developments of remote sensing included the
use of balloons kites and aircrafts, with the latter revolutionizing the
remote sensing industry.
 ➢ The earnest use of rockets and satellites as platform s for remote
sensing data is estimated to have begun between 1946 and 1950.
➢ In 1990s witnessed a worldwide trend of governments privatizing
many of the remote sensing services. Which of course has led to the
development of satellites whose spatial resolution is less than 1 meter.
However, many developing countries including Kenya have not
managed to access this high spatial resolution satellite imagery.

2.6 Review Questions

1. Trace the major developments in the history of remote sensing.

2. Outline the significance of remotely sensed data.
3. What are the benefits of establishing a regional satellite ground receiving
station in Kenya?
2.7 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 3.0 LECTURE THREE
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
3.1 Introduction

In this lesson, electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) and electromagnetic (EMR),

with properties of EMR related to wavelength broadly outlined. Emphasis is
given to the visible light, one of the smallest portions of the EMS. Also
discussed in the lesson is the interaction of energy with the matter, and uses of
remote sensors to collect radiation. In particular, the interaction of EMR with
the atmospheric constituents is extensively covered. The lesson is concluded
with a description of photographic films.

3.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of studying this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Define Electromagnetic Spectrum
b) Describe the visible spectrum
c) Describe the types of interaction between energy and matter
d) Discuss the effects of atmospheric constituents on radiation.
e) Describe two main types of photographic film.

3.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

3.3.1 Introduction to Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) a wavelength continuum of
electromagnetic radiation as shown in figure 3.0. Electromagnetic radiation
(EMR) the means by which electromagnetic energy is propagated in the
form of waves. EMR is a force field with electric and magnetic properties,
which can be generated or detected either naturally or with special
equipment. Visible light is EMR and constituents a very small portion of the
EMS, which also includes cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light,
____, infrared light, thermal infrared, microwaves (radar), television waves,
radio, and audio waves, in that order (figure 3.0). Properties of EMR related
to wavelength are:
➢ The shorter the wavelength the greater the energy,
➢ The shorter the wavelength, the greater the scatter and absorption, and
➢ The higher the temperature of an object the greater the total energy
emitted.
➢ The interaction of energy with matter is wavelength dependent.

Visible light falls in the mid-portion of the spectrum and is detectable by

most animals with their eyes. But it can also be detected with cameras and
other instruments. Generally, either special instruments or film are necessary
to detector or record the EMR in other portions of the spectrum, which most
animals cannot naturally see. However, some animals, notably certain
poisonous snakes can sense infrared thermal energy.

Figure 3.0 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

IMAGE
Naturally, the sun is the most obvious source of EMR in all wavelengths
with the greatest amount in visible range. In nuclear reactions and all the
bodies with temperature above absolute zero (0=-273C) do also generate
EMR. Further, man has learned to generate radiation artificially in almost all
regions of the spectrum. Therefore, in this way, terrestrial (ground) objects
constitute important source of radiation, although in considerably different
spectral composition and magnitude from that of the sun.

3.3.2 The Visible Spectrum

This is the most widely used band/region of the EMS.

This region is extremely small because the spectral sensitively of human eye
extends only between 0.4m and 0.7m (figure 3.0). Although it is tiny
portion of the EMS, the visible region does not only allow our eyes as
sensors, but do also let a variety of photographic imagery devices to record
the radiations.

The energy radiated through the visible light portion of the spectrum is
known as white light. It is a blend and can be physically separated by a
prism into discrete components, each with its own wavelength and color.
Color results from the interaction of white light with an object. More
specifically, the color of an object is produced by the absorption and
reflection of different wavelength in the visible spectrum. A combination of
various amounts of blue, green and red light can form any color in the
spectrum. These primary colors are defined by a continuum, which run from
0.4 to 0.7 microns. For example:

➢ The color blue ranges from 0.4 to 0.5m.

➢ The color green ranges from 0.5 to 0.6m.
➢ The color red ranges from 0.6 to 0.7m.

Thus the key to creating color pigments is to obtain materials that reflect the
desired wavelengths of the visible light. The parts of the spectrum that man
cannot see are at the extremes-UV “above” violet and near-IR “below” red.
IR means below.
The radiation adjoins the blue end of the visible of the EMS. Adjoining the
red end of the visible portion of the EMS is the infrared wave. At much
longer wavelengths in the range between 1mm to 1m is the microwave
portion of the EMS.

In remote sensing, we deal with visible light, ultraviolet, infrared and

microwave wavelengths of the EMS. (A wavelength is the distance between
two successive waves). Although an individual wavelength can be sensed,
the most common practice is to sense energy from a range wavelengths
referred to as a band. The wavelengths associated with a particular band
share similar band share similar characteristics: for example, all infrared
band/wavelengths travel are reflected and are absorbed in a similar fashion.
Therefore acquiring information from a band requires:

➢ Developing a sensor that “reads” or gathers information exclusively

from the band.
➢ Displaying the information in a form that can be interpreted.

3.3.3 Energy/Matter Interaction

When energy strikes an object, five types of interaction are possible (figure
3.1). The energy is:
a) Transmitted, energy passes through with a change in velocity as
determined by the index of refraction for the two media in question.

b) Absorbed, energy is given up to the object, generally in the form of

heat although other forms of energy such as light are possible.

c) Reflected, energy is returned unchanged with the angle of incidence

equal to the angle of reflection. Reflectance’s is the ration of reflected
energy to the incident energy on the body. The wavelength reflected
determines the color of an object.

d) Scattered, the energy undergoes random change of direction.

 e) Emitted, the energy is first absorbed and then re-radiated.

3.3.4 Sensors and The Spectrum

All remote sensors collect raw data in analog form and

transform the data into a more usable format. Figure 3.2 depicts the four
basic components of any remote sensors (system), which are:

➢ The collector, for example, lens and antennae.

➢ Detectors, for example, the photographic film.
➢ Signal processor, for example, the amplifier.
➢ Output, for example, the contact prints-photographs and strip charts.

Figure 3/1 Interactions of Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter.

IMAGE
3.3.5 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with the Atmospheric
Constituents

➢ The same laws guide interaction of EMR with the atmosphere as

EMR interaction with a target, that is, reflection, absorption,
scattering, or re-emission.
➢ The interaction of EMR and the atmosphere is wavelength dependent.
➢ Complete absorption takes place in the x-ray region because of the
interaction of the high-energy radiation and atmospheric matter.
➢ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is strongly-often completely absorbed by
atmospheric gases, mainly by nitrogen, oxygen, and ozone. The
breakdown of ozone layer (O) poses possibly serious consequences.

MISSING PAGE
ii) Mic Scattering exists when atmospheric particles diameter essentially
equals the wavelengths of the energy being sensed. Water vapor and dust
particles are major sources of Mic scattering.

iii) Non- Selective Scattering occurs when diameter of the scatter

causing particles are much larger than the energy wavelengths being
sensed. Water droplets, which commonly have diameters in the range of
5 to 100 microns, are major cause of non-selective scattering. They
scatter all the visible light and IR radiations about equally. In the visible
wavelengths, equal quantities of blue, green and red light are often
scattered indiscriminately, which results in fog and clouds appearing
white in color.

b) Absorption. Absorption results in the effective loss of energy to

atmospheric constituents. This normally involves absorption of energy at
given wavelengths (Figure 3.3) and thus resulting in certain wavelengths
of radiation being affected far more by absorption than by scattering.
Radiation absorption is particularly common with regard to infrared
radiation and energy wavelengths, which are shorter than visible energy.
The most efficient absorbers of solar radiations are water vapor, carbon
dioxide and ozone: because these gases tend to absorb EM energy in
specific wavelength bands, they strongly influence “where we look”
spectrally, when using any given image recording system. These
atmospheric regions through which energy of the desired wavelengths
can travel without significant absorption interference are commonly
referred to as atmospheric widows.

In other words, windows are places within the atmosphere where specific
wavelengths pass through virtually unimpeded. One of principal
windows for transmission of data is located between 0.4 and 0.7
micrometer, which is the visible part of the spectrum. The window at 1 to
3 microns is used to explore reflected IR energy. Another wavelength
used window is located between 8 and 14 microns. It is used to examine
emitted IR energy, which is proportion to the heat of an object. Other
lesser windows, which are not transparent to energy transmission, are
found scattered about the spectrum between the major windows.
 Figure 3.3 Some Portion of the Electromagnetic Spectrum with
Wavelength Absorption at the Maximum and Minimum.

IMAGE

Although the atmosphere is a barrier to data transmission in the shorter

wavelengths, its blocking effect does benefits man/woman kind. If the
shorter wavelengths, most living organisms would be adversely affected by
strong of UV, X-ray and gamma radiations.

3.4 Photographic Films

Films are usually made using several types of emulsions.

Emulsions are light substances such as silver chloride and bromide. They are
normally used for coating plates, or papers that are sensitive to different
wavelengths of the EMS, each with its own spectral sensitivity.

Two types of films are commonly used in remote sensing:

➢ Panchromatic, and
➢ Infrared film
3.4.1 Panchromatic film

This is a film that is sensitive to all color portions of the visible part of the
EMS, or simply all the wavelengths of the visible spectrum. However, most
air photographs are acquired by using Pan-minus blue film. Pan-minus blue
film refers to a panchromatic film exposed through green, yellow, orange
and red portions of the visible spectrum. In the process, the blue portion of
the EMS is left out because it is scattered more than the rest: thus blurring
distinct impressions on the photographic images.

Color aerial photography is primarily panchromatic in that the entire visible

spectrum is represented and the resulting photography has approximately the
same visible colors as it exists in nature.

3.4.2 Infrared film

This is a film that is sensitive to violet, blue and red light of the visible
spectrum in addition to infrared. Infrared color film is sensitive to green, red,
and near infrared wavelengths; that is, the film is particularly sensitive
within the EMS portion between 0.5m and 0.9m. A major advantage of
infrared photography is that fact that it penetrates haze better than
panchromatic photography.

Apart from ordinary infrared color photography, there is also color infrared
(CIR) sometimes referred to as camouflage detection. Unlike the ordinary
color infrared, which consists of three colored layers of blue, green and red,
the CIR also consists of three layers, but the blue sensitive layer is replaced
by near infrared layer so that during photo-processing, the true colors are
also replaced by others such as:

➢ Green is replaced by blue.

 ➢ Red is replaced by green.
➢ Infrared is replaced by red.

In such circumstances, vegetation that normally appears green will appear

red on the film. Unhealthy or disturbed vegetation will appear blue-green
(cyan). This constitutes the basis for camouflage detection property in the
CIR film on the principle of which it is commonly referred to as false color
photography, because colors in the final image do not correspond to the
natural colors.

False color photography was developed for military purposes to detect and
pierce the natural camouflage. During World War II, when CIR was
developed, targets camouflaged to appear green in forests could easily be
detected because disturbed vegetation could poorly reflect the infrared
energy. Thus objects that were painted green to look like vegetation would
normally have low infrared reflectance and appeared cyan on the film and
therefore easy to locate. For example, shades of cyan in an area of red
coloration normally meant a sign of human disturbance in the form of
military camps and equipment.

3.5 Summary

➢ The electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) is a wavelength continuum of

the electromagnetic radiation (EMR). The EMR is the means by
which electromagnetic energy is propagated in the form of waves.
➢ The EMS constitutes visible light, x-rays, comic rays, ultraviolet
radiation, television waves, microwaves (radar), infrared waves and
audio waves.
➢ While human and other animals’ eyes can detect the visible light, the
other portions of the EMS can only be sensed by use of special
sensors.
➢ The sun is the most obvious source of EMR, with a small portion
being generated by nuclear reactions and all other bodies with
temperatures above absolute zero.
 ➢ The visible light is the most widely used band of the EMS. Although
it is a tiny portion of EMS, the visible region not only permits our
eyes to sense but do also let a variety of photographic and imagery
devices to record vision.
➢ The visible light, ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation and
microwaves are the most important portions of the EMS used for
remote sensing.
➢ Transmission, absorption, scattering, reflection and emission are five
different types of interaction when energy strikes an object. The
atmospheric effects on radiation are mainly caused by scattering and
absorption.
➢ Three types of scattering: Mic and non-selective are recognized.
➢ Absorption of energy takes place at certain wavelengths and thus
resulting in some wavelengths of radiation affected far more by
absorption than scattering.
➢ Atmospheric windows are regions through which energy of the
desired wavelengths travel without significant interference.
➢ Panchromatic and infrared are two types of films commonly used in
remote sensing.

3.6 Review Questions

a) Draw the Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) and discuss the significance

of visible, infrared, microwave (radar) and ultraviolet portions of the
EMS in remote sensing.
b) Describe the interaction between the atmosphere and electromagnetic
radiation.
c) Explain why the sky looks blue and why the sunset and sunrise look
different.
d) Why do clouds and fog look white?
e) Why is it difficult to replicate the natural colors during photography?
f) Describe two main types of photographic films.
g) Explain the significance atmospheric windows in the EMS that are
known to affect the image recording systems.
3.7 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 4.0 LECTURE FOUR
INTERPRETATION AND SOURCE OF ERROR IN IMAGE
DETECTION
4.1 Introduction

This lesson describes the act of interpreting satellite imagery. It explains how
temperature differences, season and time of the day, and soil chemistry, among
other factors influence the detection and identification of target features on the
imagery. It is concluded with sources of error in image detection.

4.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Describe the factors that affect the detection and identification of
subject/background contrast of satellite imagery.
b) Determine the influence of attenuation, sensor lag, and foreshortening
among other sources of error on image detection.

4.3 Subject Background Contrast

Successful interpretation of satellite imagery has been made in many fields
of application. These include such diverse fields as determining rock type
and structure, locating geological faults, mapping soil type and soil moisture,
locating irrigation canal leaks, determining the thermal characteristics of
volcanoes, locating hot springs and geysers, studying evapo-transpiration
from vegetation, determining the extent of active forests fires, and locating
subsurface fires, among many others.

Human ability to detect and identify objects or conditions in air photographs

and satellite imagery depends on reflection differences between subjects and
their backgrounds. Many factors combine either to create or to reduce
contrast differences among subjects and their backgrounds. These include:

(a) Temperature Differences

Most scanning operations such as geological and soil mapping are
qualitative in nature in these cases. It is not usually necessary to know
absolute ground temperatures and emmisivities. But simply to study relative
differences in the radiant temperatures within a scene. However, some
scanning operations require quantitative data analysis in order to determine
absolute values of the phenomenon.

Many factors influence the selection of an optimum time or time for

acquiring the radiant data. Mission planning and imagery interpretation take
into consideration the atmospheric effect and temperature variations. For
instance, the effects of diurnal effects is shown in figure 4.0, which
illustrates the relative radiant temperatures of soils and rocks versus water
during a typical 24-hour period. It should be noted that:

➢ Just before dawn, the quasi-equilibrium condition is reached where

the slopes of the temperature curves for these materials are very small.
➢ After dawn, the equilibrium is upset and the material warm up to a
peak, that is, reached some time in the afternoon.
Figure 4.0 Generalized Diurnal Radiant Temperature Variations for
Soils and Rocks Versus Water

IMAGE

➢ Maximum scene contrast normally occurs at about this time and

cooling takes place thereafter.
➢ Temperature extreme, heating and cooling rates can often therefore
furnish significant information about the type and condition of an
object.
➢ Terrain features’ temperature is normally higher than water during the
day and lower than water during the night.

(b) Season and Time of Day

Some seasons are favorable for locating features on the ground. In the
northern hemisphere air photographs and satellite imagery for mapping
purposes are usually taken during winter months, after the leaves have
fallen. This is also the most suitable season for the study of stream patterns.
For gulley and stream course analysis. For the study of roads and trails and
for studies in which differentiation between coniferous and deciduous
vegetation is necessary. In the autumn, when many trees have brightly
colored leaves, identification of deciduous vegetation is frequently easier.

In springtime, it is most favorable season for locating springs, seeps-hanging

water table, all of which are marked by luxuriant vegetation. It has been
demonstrated that spring flowers often help to identify terrain containing
certain minerals and spring blossoms to identify trees. Similarly, summer
photography is beneficial in studies of aquatic, because the growth of
vegetation is usually greatest during the late summer period.

Minimum shadows are usually specified for mapping photography because

shadows, especially in forested areas may obscure ground information.
Mapping photography is normally taken between 10.00am and 2.00pm in
order to minimize shadows. If shadows are required, the photography is
either taken earlier or later in the day.

(c) Soil Chemistry, Soil Porosity and/or Soil Permeability, and the Depth to
the water table, indicated by vegetation height are of great significance to
the forester, the geologist and the agriculturist. Differences in plant height
are also significant in archaeological studies, in the study of water supply,
and in pollution control reconnaissance, because plant growth is accelerated
by high percentages of residual nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, all of
which may be present in the soil as a result of the deposit of human wastes,
thus marking the vicinity of septic drain fields or ancient human habitations.
Minor differences in the height of vegetation, relevant to the study of
wildlife and range conservation management, include evidence of excessive
grazing on watersheds.

(d) There are several other factors that may restrict or enhance
subject/background contrast. These include vibration and many little-
understood atmospheric conditions. It must be remembered that several
thousand meters of atmosphere separate aircraft and the ground below when
sensor images are being obtained. Scale is another consideration: thus with
the larger the scale, the greater the contrast, and vice-versa. Others are
spectral and spatial resolution.

4.4 Sources of Error in Image Detection

The following can be sources of error that can limit our ability to perform
proper analysis of satellite imagery:
(a) Attenuation
Attenuation is a decrease in the amount of radiation reaching the satellite
due to absorption and scattering by the intervening medium. Attenuation
increases with distance from the satellite position. This error is most
pronounced in the infrared bands where the primary absorbers are water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone.

(b) Background Contrast

When clouds or other phenomena have a radioactive that is close to that of
the underlying surface, the analyst may find it difficult to distinguish them
from the background. This source of error is widespread in radiometric
measurements from space. The primary technique to account for this error is
to sample the same scene in multiple spectral intervals.

(c) Contamination
This is caused by radiation reaching the sensor from beneath a cloud. This
problem is most significant with thin clouds such as cirrus. This can be
accounted for and detected by sensing in multiple channels.

(d) Displacement
It occurs as a result of the geometrical viewing-angle the projection of image
data on a two-dimensional plane for displaying an image. Figure 4.1 shows
how the top of a cloud is displaced to away from the satellite position. This
error can be corrected if the height of the cloud, the satellite position, and the
coordinate of the cloud are known. Data from high latitudes collected by
GOES satellites are, however, often difficulty to use because of this error.

Figure 4.1 Displacement due to Cloud Height

IMAGE
(e) Foreshortening
This is due to the effect of the earth’s curvature on the resolution of the
image. As the satellite scans the earth surface, pixels cover larger areas as
one moves from the nadir position. For GOES satellites, foreshortening
reduces the usefulness of the data beyond 60 degrees from the satellite nadir
point.

(f) Sensor Log

It produces an error in the radioactive phenomenon assigned to each pixel.
As the sensor moves along the scan line, it remembers the radiance it senses
for a few microseconds. a rough estimation is that the output of the sensor is
75% of the radiance from the current pixel, 20% from the previous pixel,
and 5% of the pixel before the previous one.

(g) Signal Interference

The satellite signal must be transmitted to the ground, and some cases as the
GOES satellites, it must be processed, sent back to the satellite and
retransmitted to earth stations. During this process, there ids a potential for
interference of the transmitted signal. Missing lines are easily detected and
can be corrected by a number of averaging schemes that assign values to
each pixel in the missing line based on the value of neighboring pixels.
4.5 Summary

➢ Remote sensing techniques can be applied in many fields such as

determining rock type and structure, location of geological faults,
mapping soil type and moisture, and determining the thermal
characteristics of volcanoes, among others.
➢ Human ability to detect and identify objects/conditions in photographs
and satellite imagery depend on reflection differences between objects
and their background.
➢ Temperature differences, season and time of the day, and soil chemistry,
among other factors combine to influence contrast differences between
subject and backgrounds.
➢ Attenuation, background contrasts, contamination, sensor lag,
foreshortening, displacement, etc are among the sources of error that
limit our ability to perform proper analysis of satellite imagery.
4.6 Review Questions

1. Describe the factors that affect the detection and identification of

subject/background contrast of satellite imagery.
2. What is the influence of attenuation, sensor lag, and foreshortening on
image detection?

4.7 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 5.0 LECTURE FIVE
APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN AGRICULTURE
5.1 Introduction

This lesson examines the major land use/cover categories that can be
differentiated by the existing satellite sensors. It also describes Air Point
Sampling (APS) as an excellent alternative data acquisition technique in tiny
African plots, with wide incidence of intercropping and highly varied calendar.

5.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of studying this learning, you should be able to:

Describe the use of remote sensing in land uses/covers.
Evaluate the potential air point sampling as alternative technique.

5.3 Remote Sensing in Land Uses and Covers

To evaluate fully the difference between general land resource and potential
and the current use status of the resource base, timely and accurate
information is needed on the land cover/use at the national level. The
resolution of existing satellite sensors available for civilian use is sufficient
to differentiate between major land cover/use categories.
Table 5.1 A Typical Land Cover/Use Definitions as Derived from LANDSAT
Agriculture Land use for the production of food and/or fiber
(a) Sugar: Major agricultural areas of land planted
predominantly to sugar cane interspersed with few other
major crops except improved pasture.
(b) Intensive agriculture: All the other major
agricultural areas predominantly (75% or more of the
land) used for field and tree crops usually associated
with prime agricultural areas.
(c) Marginal agriculture: Less intensive agricultural
areas of a predominantly subsistence nature with 25 to
74% of the land used improved pasture, range, trees and
open land in highly terrain and foothills usually
characterize it.
(d) Pasture: predominantly improved pasture used for
grazing.
Forest Land with predominant crown closure of 75% or more.
The trees can be either predominantly deciduous or
coniferous.
Rangeland Areas with predominant brush and grass vegetation
cover. Limited potential for grazing. Presence of
xerophytes common in the foothills. There are such as
limited rangelands that are areas with major limitations
for grazing caused either by steep slopes or heavy cover.
Urban and Manmade structures for residential, industrial,
Built-up commercial and transport related land uses in
contiguous areas of more than 1 square kilometer.
Wetlands Areas with hydrologic regime accommodating aquatic
or hydrologic vegetation. Excluded are areas under rice
production.
Barren/Open Areas with exposed soil and little or no vegetation
cover. Surface mining areas included in this category.
Water Inland water surfaces.
Cloud Cover Areas where cloud free satellite imagery could not be
obtained.
Source: Witter et al 1980

The resolution of many satellites poses severe limitations for some tropical
agricultural areas where small scale subsistence farming, intercropping and
relief-induced spectral variations make difficult to derive consistently
accurate land use/cover data. However, in many regions in the world
especially in Africa where comprehensive, multi-seasonal and timely
coverage is incomplete or non-existing, air point sampling provides an
excellent data acquisition alternative.

5.4 Air Point Sampling

Agricultural geography of African settlement is a complicated one because

on the aerial photography or satellite imagery. In addition, the analysis of
land covers is complicated by use of black and white photography together
with the relatively small scale. Another complication comes from the tiny
size of fields or plots, the wide incidence of intercropping and highly varied
calendar that reduce the effectiveness of more conventional aerial survey
methods.

Due to this complication, Ecosystems Limited (ESL) developed a technique

known as Aerial Point Sampling [APS], which quantifies land use patterns
within the context of regional planning for the African Smallholder Farming
System (Norton-Griffith, 1987). The APS was founded when it was realized
that conventional large format photography suffers from two main
drawbacks:

[a] Costs prohibit the use of scales, large enough to resolve the intricate
patterns of small holder land use, and
[b] The climatic “window” during which high altitude photography can be
carried out, especially in East Africa rarely coincides with the stage of
maximum crop differentiation, but usually coincides with the post-harvest
period.

APS overcomes these problems in two ways: Firstly, by flying high altitudes
between 120 and 400 m above the ground and under any weather conditions.
Secondly, the APS method uses large scale and sample color photography.
The APS method is a 3-level system of flight lines of primary units that
consists of vertical photography, geo-referencing the sample photographs
and ground truthing.
[i] Vertical photography involves taking vertical sample photographs on
high-speed color film (diapositive). Flying height and focal length of lens
are selected to give a nominal image scale of 1:7 000. However, the exact
height of the aircraft is recorded each time a photograph is taken so that the
exact scale can be calculated later. At this nominal scale, each photograph
covers about 4.2 hectares (pixel) and on average there is one sample
photograph for every 2.5 km2.

[ii] Geo-referencing photography is a stage at which each photograph is

treated as a point sample and their locations are identified. Every time a
photograph is taken, the distance along the flight line from the start point,
and the distance on the left or right of the track is recorded from the
navigation system (OMEGA/VLF). From these two parameters, it is possible
to plot the location of each sample photograph on a map overlay of 200-
300m2.

MISSING PAGE
5.5 Summary

➢ To fully evaluate the difference between general land resource potential

and the current land use status of the resource base, timely and accurate
information is needed on the land use/cover at the national level.
➢ The typical land use/cover categories that can be derived by the
LANDSAT are agriculture, forest, rangeland, urban and built areas,
wetlands, water, barren/open spaces, and cloud cover.
➢ Air Point Sampling (APS) is a technique that quantifies land use patterns
within the context of regional planning for the African smallholder
farming system. It overcomes drawbacks such as high costs and climatic
window, which hardly coincides with the maximum stage of crop
differentiation associated with conventional large format photography.
➢ The APS method is a three-level system of flight lines that consists of
vertical photography, geo-referencing and ground truthing.

5.6 Review Questions

Differentiate between Air Point Sampling and ground Truthing.

How important is Air Point Sampling in the acquisition of remote sensing data
for the African small-scale agriculture?
5.7 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 6.0 LECTURE SIX: APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
6.1 Introduction

This lesson examines the application of remote sensing in natural resource

management. Remote sensing use in vegetation, wildlife and water resource
studies is highlighted.

6.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of learning this lesson, you should be able to:

Explain the application of remote sensing in natural resource management
Describe the use of remote sensing technology in vegetation, wildlife and water
resource studies.

6.3 Introduction to Natural Resource Management

Tropical countries face conditions of increasing population and scarce

resources that call for the urgent need to develop comprehensive survey
methods for database with an allowance for regular updating. In many
aspects of local and national planning, aerial photography provides one way
of achieving this goal. In East Africa, there are some interesting examples of
aerial photography applications in different fields. In Kenya, for example,
color infrared air photographs have been used by the Kenya Soil Survey in
the inventory of soil associations in the country’s rangelands, while standard
and small camera photography has been widely used in wildlife studies.
Sequential air photography has also been used in studies of soil erosion.
Aerial photography has further been used in other areas such as the
estimation of standing biomass and in phonological mapping.

The significance of aerial photography in resource inventory, analysis and

management is illustrated here by a general description of its application in
vegetation, wildlife and water resource studies. Three case studies are
provided to show the application of aerial photography in the analysis of
physical features, vegetation characteristics and rural and urban land use.

6.4 Aerial Photography in Vegetation Studies

Aerial photographs have been used extensively for vegetation mapping

purposes particularly in the preparation of forests inventories. Interpretation
of air photographs is therefore an established technique in vegetation
mapping and analysis. Such interpretation is, however, based on an approach
that may be highly subjective being mainly centered on observed patterns
whereby one investigator interprets and classifies vegetation on the basis of
such elements as tone, colour, texture and pattern, that is observed on each
image. To avoid extreme generalization, accurate vegetation analysis from
aerial photography must always be complemented by ground data without
which wide error margins are bound to arise.

A suitable approach in aerial vegetation survey should involve systematic

integration of survey techniques whereby intensive stereoscopic image
interpretation is combined with detailed ground truthing sampling. An
accurate survey requires that number of procedures be adopted, beginning
with the assembly of photographs or photo mosaics followed by a systematic
stereoscopic photo interpretation. In later stages, transfer of photo
information into a base map can be made. By utilizing ground truth data,
some corrections will eventually be made on the original vegetation map due
to new findings, and confirmation from the field sampling exercise.

The application of aerial photography in vegetation analysis is mainly based

on spectral reflectance characteristics. The effects of plants’ physiological
and life-form changes on vegetation reflectance characteristics are important
with regard to vegetation photo analysis. An understanding of the spectral
response patterns of plant communities within different wavelengths during
different seasons is essential for effective application of aerial photography
in vegetation studies.

Outstanding examples of areas in which aerial photography is applicable to

vegetation analysis include the analysis of general stand characteristics:
species and cover type identification, pest impact analysis, phonological
studies and estimation of vegetation depletion rates.

6.4.1 Species Identification

Plant species identification on aerial photographs can easily be undertaken

through the process of elimination, whereby all species that are unlikely to
prevail in an area due to existing environmental conditions are initially
eliminated. When one is analyzing air photographs taken from the Kenyan
rangelands, for example, it is very unlikely that the vegetation observed
would include species that exist within the humid highlands such as bamboo
[Arundinaria alpina]. It is however; very likely that the vegetation may
consists of one of the many species of Acacia which are widespread in the
dry lands.

The second step in the species identification will then involve establishing
possible groups or formations of species that may occur in an area based on
the knowledge of common species association. The final stage will involve
the identification of specific pant species by making use of basic image
spectral characteristics from photographs of small vegetation stands. Any
two vegetation stands consisting of different plant species will manifest
different spectral characteristics as a result of canopy structure and other life
form characteristics. It must be realized that two stands of similar plant
species composition may exhibit different spectral characteristics due to
plant age status. In most cases, however, vegetation spectral reflectance
characteristics will normally depend upon the tree height, leaf structure,
shape, number and distribution.

The task species identification from aerial photographs will depend on the
number of factors: photo scale, quality of photographs, and the season when
photography was done. Seasonal changes in the appearance of trees
throughout the year may particularly enable discrimination of species that
are indistinguishable from photographs taken on single dates. In East Africa,
such a distinction can be made after the long rains when some species that
may have shed their leaves during dry spell turn green again.

Air photographs that are most suitable in the task of species identification
are panchromatic paper prints at a scale of between 1: 15 000 and 1:24 000.
Black and white infrared films can also be used for vegetation stands that are
characterized by high species diversity. Both colour and colour infrared
[CIR, False colour] photographs are also used with increasing frequency
particularly in small photo scales.

In Sudan, an inventory of forests and woodlands has been carried out for the
southern parts of the country using aerial survey. At the first stage, a vertical
monochrome photograph of the whole area was taken. Later, smaller units of
the area were photographed again using 35 m Ektachrome film and the
photographs examined at a six times enlargement. By using these
techniques, it was possible to identify up to 80% of tree species forming the
top canopy.

6.4.2 Other Vegetation Characteristics

Apart from species identification, other stand characteristics can also be

studied from aerial photographs. Common examples include stand coverage,
tree height and density, biomass estimation, stand canopy, and plant disease
infestation. These analyses are particularly vital in the quantitative analysis
of woodlands and forests.
Stand coverage can easily be estimated using photographs of known scales
through ordinary geographic techniques. Similarly, stand density can be
measured by estimating the percentage of crown cover in a given stand. In
forestry, a number of visual density grids have been developed to assist in
this process. These typically consist of squared or circular grids with black
dots to represent trees of varying percentage of crown density.

6.4.3 Density Estimator of Trees

Using ordinary statistical techniques such as regression analysis, the volume

of individual trees can normally de determined as a function of species and
other characteristics such as crown diameter and tree height.

Aerial photography has successfully been used in phonological studies.

Phonology is defined simply as a branch of science that studies periodic
phenomena in plants as a response to local oscillation in environmental
conditions. The detection of phonological events for specific vegetation
types is achieved by interpreting related spectral responses. Using such
responses, different phonological sequences may be established. A green
wave for example, may be recorded in colour photography during the time
maximum foliage development in plants. On the other hand, a brown wave
can be identified with vegetation stages such as plant maturation and fruition
or leaf coloration and abscission. Such green and brown waves can be useful
in rangeland studied as a way of monitoring forage availability and
development for sustainable range management.

Aerial photography has been extensively used to study tree damage as a

result of disease that emanate from pest infestation as well as other sources.
Biological tree damage is attributed to a variety of organisms such as
bacteria, fungi, viruses and insects. The damage caused by diseases from
these agents could be detected using aerial photography. The technique has
been widely used around the world to detect forest damages emanating from
such insects as budworm, beetle, moth, butterfly, weevil, and so forth. The
instance, exploration work was concluded to assess the damage by the recent
attack on Kenyan exotic Cypress forest plantations by aphids.
Aerial can also provide valuable information about shallow deposits of oil
hydrocarbons. Generally, two approaches can be adopted. One of these
involves the analysis of spectral data to detect parameters such as the
following; absence or reduced density of vegetation; location, identification
and distribution of specific indicator species; identification of morphological
and spectral characteristics and quantifying differences in vegetation zones.
The other involves a more complex process of developing a vegetation
potential model and comparison of the actual and potential vegetation to
detect the vegetation anomalies. This area of aerial photography application
is still young and largely developmental.

6.5 Wildlife Studies

Vegetation and landscape patterns affect the quality for wildlife. Within the
tropics there is an urgent need to develop quantitative methods to assess
wildlife habits that must be considered in land use management planning.
Aerial photography can provide the means for mapping vegetation cover
over large areas for wildlife habitat management. In most studies where
aerial photography has been applied, it has manifested great advantages in
terms of speed, convenience, economy and replicability.

The application of aerial photography in wildlife studies is probably most

common in the marking animal population censuses. Inventories of wildlife
populations are necessary for the planning of management programmes, and
formulation of exploitation regulations. In such censuses, a major problem
may arise from the fact that some animals may be concealed from view by
vegetation and/or other animals in a group. Animals that have been
photographed for censuses taking can, however, be counted under a low
power microscope. Recounting under high power magnification can make
checks on the accuracy of the counting techniques.

One area that has widely benefited from aerial photography in Kenya in
recent years is wildlife and livestock management. The department of
Remote Sensing and Resource Surveys (DRSRS) has been monitoring
spatio-temporal wildlife game and livestock population changes through
aerial surveys. As a state agency under the Ministry of Planning and
National Development, DRSRS was established in the 1970s and has
operated with financial and technical assistance fro Canada through the
Canadian International Development Agency [CIDA]. The major objectives
of DRSRS aerial survey section has been to establish a monitoring
progarmme to determine the seasonal abundance and distribution of
livestock and wildlife herbivores throughout the Kenya range lands and
training Kenyan personnel in the techniques of aerial and ground surveys.
During 1977, DRSRS conducted systematic aerial surveys of livestock and
wild herbivores throughout the rangelands that cover about 500,000 km2 of
the Kenyan land. The surveys were done from Cessna 185 aircraft equipped
with global navigation systems and radar altimeters at a flight height and
speed of 300 ft and 150 km/hr, respectively. Censuring was achieved from
strips of 112 meters wide along east-west transects spaced 10 km apart. The
exercise was repeated in 1978 beginning in south-east Kenya in January, and
thereafter moved to the north eastern regions and ending in the northern Rift
Valley in November. The survey took approximately eight months to
complete.

During the exercise, observers in each of the aircrafts made actual counts
and took photographs of both wild game and livestock from which
population estimates were corrected by viewing colored slides under the
microscope. In 1979, DRSRS also conducted aerial surveys over Meru
National park and Bisanodi National Reserve which together covered some
1 600km2. The aim of this aerial survey was to distinguish major habitat
types. The entire exercise was conducted from Cessna 185 and Partenavia
aircrafts with flight height of 300ft and mean survey speed of 150 km/hr.

Aerial photography has also been used in Kenya to carry out flamingo and
pelican sample censuses on Lakes Nakuru and Bogoria. This done using a
piper PJA 12 Cruiser aircraft. In this exercise, vertical aerial photographs
were taken from a height of 457 m above sea level with a Trikon F camera
fitted with 55 mm Nikkon lens mounted in the rear fuselage. The camera
was fitted with a F250 motor-back taking 250 exposure length 35 mm film
operated by a home made electrical timer, fitted with a light that enable the
pilot to get the aircraft wings level for photography. The photography of
flamingo flocks was done with about 30% forward overlap delimited. The
flamingoes were then counted under a binocular microscope. The greatest
problem in this exercise was to distinguish between the lesser and greater
flamingos [Phocniconaias minor and Phoenicopterus ruber, respectively].
The aerial photographs also did not allow a reliable distinction to be made
between white and pink-backed pelicans [Pelicanus onocrotalus and
Pelecanus refescens respectively].

6.6 Water Resource Studies

Although tropical countries have permanent water bodies, they continuously

face serious water supply and management problems. Management of water
resource must begin with the establishment of a hydrologic inventory and
surveillance systems. Aerial photography is capable of offering multi-
temporal data and substantial area coverage constitutes a well- suited tool for
providing input into a geographic information database for natural resource
management but more specifically for water management.

Apart from providing spatial information about the location and extent of
water bodies, aerial photography also indicates the structure of drainage
networks, and is capable also of providing details on geological lineament in
terms of location, extent, orientation, configuration and intensity. Such
details are vital in understanding the distribution of water resource in an
area.

Aerial survey can be used in a number of ways in the inventory of water

resources and related resource planning. Although the technique is
particularly suitable for the study of surface waters, it can also be in ground
water investigations whereby interference is made from prevailing
vegetation characteristics. A good example of this is the close association
between the existences of the yellow fever tree [Acacia xanthophloea] in
high water table areas. In this and other ways, aerial photography assumes
an important role in the planning of water development schemes and in
monitoring water use in irrigation schemes. Seasonal variations in surface
water flow at both short and long terms can also be studied efficiently
through multi-temporal or sequential analysis of air photographs.

Apart from studies of rivers and streams, aerial survey can provide an
accurate base for monitoring many of the dynamic aspects of lakes and large
man-made reservoirs. In Kenya, the constant changes of size and water
chemistry in Rift Valley Lakes such as Naivasha, Nakuru and Elementaita
can be observed from periodic air photos in the area. Unlike lake water level
fluctuations that are much more straightforward to discern from
photographs, application in water quality studies is based on spectral
characteristic changes in water as a result of variations of electrical
conductivity and water sanity. This variation causes the dielectric constant or
permittivity of the water, and hence the reflectivity and emissivity of water
surfaces to change. Such spectral characteristics can then be observed from
colour infrared photography.

The inference of water chemical conditions as a result of differences in

spectral characteristics is a very difficult task because it can easily be
confused with certain other characteristics of water bodies. Deep-water
bodies for instance might appear darker than shallow water basins while
sedimentation may also affect the colour or tone on air photographs. Water
bodies that are infested by aquatic weeds can also exhibit unique
photographic characteristics that may require some form of ground truthing.
In Kenyan lakes, the distribution and abundance of notorious weeds such as
Salvinia molesta and Eichorrnia crassipes provide yet another dimension in
which aerial photography can be used for the sustainable management of
aquatic ecosystems.

Air photography can forms a versatile tool in monitoring cover changes and
species structure within wetland ecosystems such as swamps, marshes, bogs,
flood plain and estuaries. In this way, colour infrared photography has been
affectively used as an aid in the mapping of wetland plants communities.
This kind of mapping is vital as a source of baseline information for long-
term monitoring of subtle changes in these very vital ecological systems.
More rapid changes such as the depletion of Cyprus papyrus swamps in and
around the Kenyan lakes by livestock and agricultural industries can also be
monitored. In this kind of studies, infrared colors and textures together with
life form information and ground reconnaissance data is used to identify
wetland vegetation types, sub types and species. Normally, an assignment of
several sets of colour and texture combinations is made for plant species
existing under certain substrate conditions. A general increase in vegetation
complexity is, for example, expected from saline to freshwater wetlands.
6.7 Summary

➢ The remote sensing technology is important in inventorying, monitoring,

analysis and management of vegetation, wildlife and water resources.
➢ The application of remote sensing in vegetation analysis is mainly based
on spectral reflectance characteristics. Outstanding example of areas in
which remote sensing is applicable to vegetation analysis include species
cover type identification depletion rates.
➢ The application remote sensing in wildlife studies is mostly in the
making of animal population census.
➢ In water resource management, aerial photography is not only used in
locating the extent of water bodies, but also the structure of drainage
networks. Remote sensing can also be used to monitor cover changes and
species structure within wetland ecosystems such as swamps, marshes,
bogs, floodplains and estuaries. Thus forming a vital source of baseline
information for long –term management of subtle changes in these vital
ecosystems.

6.8 Review Questions

a) Citing specific examples, evaluate the potential and challenges of remote

sensing for the study of weather forecasting in Kenya.
6.9 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
 7.0 LECTURE SEVEN
SATELLITE WEATHER AND CLIMATE FORECASTING
7.1 Introduction

This lesson deals with satellite weather and climate forecasting. It specifically
examines the role of NOAA, GOES and DMSP, and concludes the lesson with
weather forecasting in Kenya.

7.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Describe NOAA, GOES and DMSP.
b) Explain how weather forecasting is conducted in Kenya.

7.3 Weather and Climate Forecasting

Since 1960s, when the first meteorological satellites were launched,

mankind was provided with a vintage space opportunity to observe global
perspective of the environment. These satellites made it necessary to monitor
and predict weather and climate, and make accurate observations of the
current state of the atmosphere and the surface.
The satellites, mainly NOAA and GOES carry a wide range of metrological
sensors that enable them to have an advantage of global coverage at a very
high temporal resolution. In addition, they are useful in nature resource
applications, where frequent, large area mapping is required and fine details
are not necessary. Further, the advantage of large area coverage reduces the
volume of data to be processed for a particular application.

i) NOAA
This series of satellites is named after the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). The satellites’ orbit crosses nearly the north and
south poles, and hence normally referred to as near-polar satellites. They
orbit the earth with an inclination relative to the Equator of nearly 90. Their
orbit height varies between about 270 kms and 1600kms, and they are
usually sun-synchronous – meaning that they cross the Equator at the same
sun-time everyday. By having this type orbit, the satellite visits any
particular point above the earth at the same time, which is useful for the
comparative analysis of multi-temporal weather and climatic data.

ii) GOES
These are satellite sensing systems that are placed in a high orbit at
approximately 35,9000kms above the Equator. At this attitude, the speed of
the satellite can exactly match the speed of the earth’s rotation. That is, the
orbital plane of the satellite precesses 360 in 365 days. The precession of
the orbital plane at this rate keeps it always in the same orientation with
respect to the sun, day-by-day, and revolution-by-revolution. The fact of
remaining stationary means that they can achieve a high temporal resolution.
But the great height means that the spatial resolution is somewhat poor, and
therefore having a limited number of uses such as getting a broad view of
the weather, and transmission of telecommunications signals.

GOES normally image the earth’s surface between latitude 80N and 80S.
They are able to transmit the data on their whole viewable area every 30
minutes. NOAA shares this characteristic, and both have an average working
life expectancy of four years. Also note that all satellites have been designed
to have similar basic characteristics such as co-coordinated design approach
which permits the reports from the Data Collection Platforms (DCPS)
moving from one satellite coverage area to another to be received and
transmitted by any one of the satellites in the network. GOES’ greatest
contribution is, therefore, assisting in the retransmission of conventional
analogue pictures of weather and information that can be picked from DCPS
for retransmission to Meteorological Data Distribution Centers (MDDCs)
Worldwide.

iii) DMSP
According to Lillesand et al (1987) some countries administer their own
metrological satellite programmes called the Defense Metrological Satellite
Programmes (DMSP). Some of the data produced from the operational
satellite in this program are available to civilian users on an unclassified
basis. For instance, then U.S. Air force DMSP satellite carry a range of
meteorological sensors whose scanners onboard produce images in the 0.4 to
1.1m (visible and near-infra-red) band, and the 8 to 13m (thermal infra-
red) band.

The U.S. Air Force DMSP satellite has a unique capability of scanning
nighttime visible band imaging. This comes about through the ability to
“tune” the amplifiers of the system to obtain images under low illumination
conditions. Both the thermal and daytime visible images of the DMSP have
been used for such civilian applications as urban exient, auroral displays, oil
and gas fields and forests fires that have been detected with the low light
sensors.

7.4 Satellite Weather Forecasting in Kenya

Over the past few years, the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC)
Television Station has been displaying satellite images of Kenya, Africa and
other continents during weather forecasting programmes in real space and
time on a daily basis for public consumption. The images are in convenient
formats that have latitude and longitude grids with clearly marked coastal
lines. The displays usually involve remotely sensed metrological information
(e.g. cloud distribution) from the visible and infrared channel of the
European Space Agency (ESA) METEOSAT.
The French space and meteorological authorities that performed the
feasibility studies and the pre-development of the satellite system started the
METEOSAT programme. Later, there were consultation with the Western
European governments which saw the tasks of operations, processing,
archiving and extraction of meteorological parameters being taken over by
the ESA after 1978. By mid-1983, plenipotentriaries of several European
meteorological services had signed an agreement, the EUMETSAT
convention which created a METEOSAT operational system; and came into
effect in November 23,1983.

The METEOSAT system comprises the satellite itself and the ground system
of which the main components are the Data Acquisition, Telemetry and
Tracking Stations (DATTs) and the METEOSAT ground computer systems
(MGCS) all located in Darmstadt, Germany.

The raw data (pre-processed data) acquired by the satellite is geometrically

corrected at the receiving station, Darmstadt to appear as if they had been
taken by a perfect radiometer on-board of an ideally stable spacecraft. This
is accomplished by satellite operator or users equipped with a computer-
linked receiving station. The data detected by the sensors is then digitized
and processed on the ground in order to extract qualitative information.

Some of the important meteorological parameters collected by the

METEOSAT system include cloud coverage, cloud motion vectors, cloud
top heights, sea surface temperatures, upper tropospheric humidity and
vertical soundings. In most cases, these products are automatically
processed, and when ready for submission to human quality control, the
information is either produced as a computer print-outs or telexed or
telefaxed, or transmitted back to the satellite or Data Collection Platforms
(DCPs), from where it can be retransmitted to the Meteorological Data
Distribution Centers (MDDCs) that are accessible to the users community
through ordinary telecommunication satellite.

The Dagoretti Meteorological station in Kenya is one the MDDCs in Africa.

The station receives the METEOSAT geometrically corrected information
from Darmstadt through the International Telecommunication satellite
(INTELSAT) off the Indian Ocean via another INTELSAT station on
Mt.Longonot as shown in the Figure 7.1

In conclusion, the main role of METOSAT can be summarized as follows:

(a) Generation of satellite images showing distribution of clouds and water
vapor in the globe in every 30 minutes;
(b) Extraction of meteorological parameters from the original data;
(c) Dissemination programmes which include;
i Processed METEOSAT images,
ii Relay of conventional meteorological charts as
conventional analogue transmission picture.
iii Maps of cloud top heights, extracted from image data, also
as pictures,
iv Administrative messages sent, in image format as
conventional analogue transmission picture, and
v Retransmission of conventional analogue pictures with
image broadcasts via INTELSAT, or relaying of
information data from DATA collection platforms (DCPs)
at remote sites to the actual users.

7.5 Summary

➢ NOAA is an acronym for National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration.
➢ NOAA ‘s orbit crosses nearly the north and south poles, and hence
normally referred to as near polar-orbiting satellites.
➢ GOES are remote sensing systems placed in high orbits at approximately
35900km above the Equator.
➢ The remotely sensed meteorological data use by the Kenyan government
is obtained from European Space Agency (ESA).
➢ The METEOSAT comprises the satellite itself and the ground systems of
which the main components are the data acquisition, telemetry, and
tackling stations.
➢ The role of METEOSAT includes generation of satellite images,
extraction of meteorological parameters, and dissemination of
meteorological information.
7.6 Review Questions

a) Citing specific examples, evaluate the potential of Satellite Remote

Sensing for the study of weather forecasting.
b) Provide a detailed account of weather forecasting that may be shown on
the Kenya televisions during weather forecasting.
c) Show the extent to which the following concepts can be differentiated:
➢ Aerial photography and Remote Sensing
➢ Air Point sampling and Reference data.
➢ Polar-orbiting satellite and Geostationary satellite.
d) Give a detailed account of the LANDSAT systems as an Earth Resource
Satellite.
e) Examine the relevance of remotely sensed data for environmental and
natural hazard monitoring.
f) Either, show how you will employ the principle characteristics of Air
photo Interpretation in identifying different types of stages of crop
development in African traditional rural areas.
Or, Discuss how you will employ air photo Interpretation principle
characteristics to identify and classify major land uses in the
neighborhood of an urban slum settlement.
g) Discuss, how you would use Aerial Photography and Remote Sensing for
the planning of a new settlement area in the Sahelian region of Africa.
7.7 Further Reading

B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A look at Remote Sensing; Department of

Trade and Industry, London: Moore and Mathers.
Carter.J.D. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and Other Materials;
London: Macanta Ltd.
Cracknell.A.and L.Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing; London:
Taylor and Francis.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment; Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Janza, J.F; blue, H.M. and Johnson (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing;
American Society of Photogrammetry, Virginia: Falls Church.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation; New York: John Willey & Sons Inc.
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D.McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography:
Introduction to Remote Sensing, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. New York: Hills Wang.
Thomas, L.F. (1987): Classification of Remotely Sensed Images, Bristol:
Adam Hilger.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation;
San Francisco: Freeman & Co.
Figure7.1 Transmission of Meteorological Information to Dagoretti
Meteorological Data Distribution Center in Kenya from European
space Agency (ESA) METEOSAT

IMAGE
 8.0 LECTURE EIGHT
INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
(GIS)
8.1 Introduction

In this lesson, the definition of GIS is provided and the ways in which GIS
technology’s impact on the society are presented. Also discussed is the way in
which GIS has developed, tracing the relevant influences in other information
systems that are concerned with the presentation of geographic data.

8.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Define Geographic Information Systems.
b) Describe the significance
c) Describe the questions GIS can answer
d) Trace the major developments in the history Geographic Information
Systems.

8.3 Defining Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

One of the most general definitions developed by consensus among 30

specialists is:
 “GIS is a system of hardware, soft ware, data, people,
organizations and institutional arrangements for collecting,
storing, analyzing and disseminating information about areas of
the earth” (Ducker and Kjerner 1989, pp.7-8).

Accordingly, GIS is an organized activity by which people or any

information management system which can:

➢ “Measure aspects of geographical phenomena and processes,

➢ Represent these measurements, usually in the form of a computer
database to emphasize spatial themes, entities and relationships,
➢ Operate upon these representations to produce more measurements
and to discover new relationships by integrating disparate sources, and
➢ Transform these representations to conform to other frameworks of
entities and relationships.
➢ Retrieve information based on its spatial location,
➢ Identify locations within a targeted environment which meet specific
criteria,
➢ Analyze the related data spatially as an aid to making decisions about
that environment.
➢ Facilitate selecting and passing data to application-specific analytical
models capable of assessing the impact of alternatives on the chosen
environment,
➢ Display the selected environment both graphically and numerically
either before or after analysis” (Hrisman 1996; Francis Hanigan
1988).

However, the most common understanding of GIS is tools (Hrisman 1996,

pp.5) that have been designed to be effective and efficient for a certain range
of purposes within a social and historical context to serve changing needs.
These tools allow for the processing of spatial data into information tied
explicitly to and used to make decisions about some portion of the earth
(Demers 1997). The term GIS is now and again becoming hybridized and
modified to intellectual, cultural, economic, and even political objectives as
shown in table 8.0 below:
Table 8.0 Examples of synonymous terms for geographic information
system and the source or motivation behind their derivation*
Terminology Source
Geographic Information System Unites States Terminology
Geographic Information System European Terminology
Geomatique Canadian Terminology
Georelational Information Systems Technology-based Terminology
Natural Resource Information Disciplined-based Terminology
Systems
Geoscience or geological Disciplined-based Terminology
Information System
Spatial Information System Non-geographic derivatives
Spatial data analysis System Terminology based on what the
system does.
* The table confirms that GIS is becoming extremely elastic resulting in
an increasingly confusing jargon due to new definitions that constantly
creep into both the scientist and popular literate.

8.4 Significance of GIS

One of the strongest and most successful application areas for GIS has been
in Addressing problems of the environment. Virtually all resources
management agencies now have some form of GIS program and associated
policies. However, this pattern gives no impression of the diversity of GIS
applications within agencies. The following provides a categorization of
different types of applications within the broad area of problem solving:

1. GIS is a powerful tool for handling spatial data. Large quantities are
maintained and retrieved at a greater speed, lower costs per unit when
computer-based systems are used. The ability to manipulate the spatial data
and corresponding attributes, and integrate different types of data in a single
analysis and at a high-speed are not matched by any manual methods.

2. The analysis of complex, multiple spatial and non-spatial datasets in an

integrated manner forms major part of a GIS capabilities. These spatial
analysis capabilities of GIS, enable geo-referenced information to be created
and used in a completely different context which had been seen anywhere
before.

3. GIS frequently allows geographic entities to have multiple attributes,

usually including capabilities for storing and handling relationships between
entities that also include the capabilities of digital cartography in its input
and output subsystems. Of particular importance is the manner in which
digital cartography and GIS handle notions of continuous variations.
Cartographically, such continuous variation are represented in the form of
map features, typically color contour lines and irregularly spaced spot
heights, and digital cartography that provides capabilities for processing
these as line and point objects.

In practice, however, many applications of GIS technology turn out to be

little more than digital cartography. The map is a very persuasive forms of
data display, and computer-drawn map carriers the authority of a powerful
technology.

4. There are so many ways of representing geographic variation and such

diversity in data structures between GIS products and databases include
substantial facilities for input and output of data in different formats. Other
useful processing functions include the ability to extract information in user-
defined window, scale and projection change including knowledge of such
coordinate system as UTM (Universal Transverse Mereator) and SPC (State
Plane Coordinates); and capabilities for re-sampling. All these give GIS as a
manner of data, particularly if data must come from diverse sources in
mutually inconsistent formats.

5. Some of the greatest interest in the use of GIS for problem solving has
come from those who would apply the technology to translate the results of
modeling into policy. Post-processing is essential if the results of a spatially
distributed model are to be used for policy development. Results are often
aggregated by administrative units, or brought into consistency with social
and economic data for comparison and correlation. Finally, increasing use is
being made of the paradigm of spatial decision support, in which technology
is made available directly to decision makers for scenario development,
rather than being confined to use by analysis.
Although the GIS as a system for handling geographical information come
in many different forms:
➢ It may not necessarily be a solution to all problems. It thus requires
considerable thought for successful implementation.
➢ There is no clearly agreed definition of when a computer system is or
is not a GIS: it is possible to identify the key characteristics, which
distinguish these systems from others.
➢ Many GIS contain user-friendly map editing and formatting
subsystems, and allow the user with little cartographic training to
make a convincing product quickly and efficiently. But cartographers
have accumulated centuries of knowledge and experience about the
effective visual communication of geographic information, and GIS
may be doing its users a disservice if it encourages them to ignore this
(Buttenfield and Mackaness 1991).

8.5 Questions GIS can Answer

GIS has been described in two ways:

➢ Through formal definitions, and

➢ Through its ability to carry out spatial operations by linking data sets
together. However GIS is distinguished by the types of questions it is
able to answer that include:

(a) What is at specified Location? This is the first of these questions that
seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. The location can be
described in many ways for instance, using name place, postcode, or
geographically referred coordinates such as (longitudes, latitudes), or (x, y)
coordinates.

(b) Are certain Conditions Satisfied? This is the second question, which is an
inverse of the first question, and requires spatial data to its answer. Here the
questions is not asking what exists at a given location, but rather wants to
find the locations where certain conditions are satisfied such as all the un-
vegetated areas of at least 2000 square meters within 100 meters of a road
and with soils suitable for supporting buildings.

(c) What are the Trends? This questions combines the above first two
questions and seek to find the differences within an area over time such as
land use or elevation on agricultural productivity.

(d) What Spatial Patterns Exists? This question is asked to determine the
anomalies that may exist or the phenomena that have a most recurrence in
the area under study. An important example is a question that may ask
whether landslides are occurring mostly near streams, or is there any land
use that does not fit the pattern at the present location?

(e) What if there is change? The what if questions are asked in order to
determine what happens is a new phenomena such as a road is added to a
network, or a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply.
Answering this type of questions require both geographic and other types of
information, as well as specific models.

8.6 The Development of Geographic Information Systems

The use of the term Geographic (or Geographical) information system

(GIS) dates back to mid-1960s (Goodchild 1993), where it seems to have
originated in two quite different contexts. In Canada, it was devised to refer
to the use of mainframe computer and associated peripherals (notably a
scanner) to manage the mapped information being collected for the
Canadian Land Inventory, and to process it to computer estimates of the area
of land available for certain types of uses. A rigorous analysis was used to
show that the computer was the only cost-effective means of producing the
fast numbers of measurements of area required by the project, even with the
primitive and expensive nature of digital technology at the time, because
manual measurement of area remains an inaccurate and labour-intensive
task. Much of the proposed analysis was concerned with measuring areas
simultaneously on two maps, to answer questions like:
“How much area is class 1 agricultural land and not currently used for
agriculture?”

The ability to overlay two or more maps for analysis (in this case a map of
soil capability for agriculture with a map of land use) provided the impetus
for GIS development, because it had been so cumbersome of land.

Almost the same time, researchers in the United States were struggling with
the problems of accessing many different types of data required by large-
scale transportation models then in vogue, and conceived of a GIS as a
system capable of extracting appropriate data from a large stores, making
them available for analysis, and presenting the results in map form (Coppock
and Rhind 1991). Such models combined information on places of
employment and transportation routes, and required access to data in a
variety of formats.

Almost 40 years later, these same arguments are still among the most
frequently heard justifications for the use of GIS, particularly in
geographical modeling and policy development. It is now seen as a general-
purpose technology for handling geographic data in digital form, and
satisfying the following specific needs, among others:

➢ The ability to pre-process data from large stores into form suitable for
analysis including such operations as reformatting, change of
projection, re-sampling, and generalization.
➢ Direct support for analysis and modeling such that forms of analysis,
calibration of models, forecasting, and prediction are all handled
through instruction to the GIS.
➢ Post-processing of results including such operations as reformatting,
tabulation, report generation, and mapping.

In all of these operations, and typical GIS user now expects to be able to
define requirements and interact with the system through a “user-friendly”
intuitive interface that makes use of such contemporary concepts as a
graphic icons and desk metaphors (Mark and Gould 1991).

GIS has evolved dramatically since the early days of mainframe computing,
particularly in the past 22 to 25 years, its first commercial success came in
the early 1980s, primarily in resource management, but now there is a large
software market in local government, utility companies and a host of
activities that use geographic data or manage geographically distributed
facilities.
The development of GIS can be viewed in relation to two other important
areas of geographic information handling by computer, namely:

a) Computer-Assisted Cartography (CAC), and

b) Remote Sensing and Image Processing.

8.6.1 Computer systems

It is assumed that the students taking this unit, AGE 400 have basic ideas of
the way in which computer work, and it thus safe move to the next section.
However, for beginners in computer systems, it is strongly urged to seek a
fuller introduction to the development and role of computers in geography
and planning in many textbooks such as Exploring Geographic Information
Systems by Chrisman 1997, pp.3 Geographic-Information Systems by
Martin 1996,pp.9-13).

8.6.2 Computer-Assisted Cartography (CAC)

Computer-Assisted Cartography (CAC) is an umbrella term used to cover a

variety of specialized systems for map and plan creation using a computer.
In other words, it is the use of many complex operations of computer in
which conventional cartography is performed, using a coded data
representation to rapidly reproduce the conventional product in a more
flexible way. One such specialized system is Computer-Aided Design
(CAD), which is widely used in architectural and engineering design
environments, and which when applied to the production of maps, is known
as Computer-Aided Mapping (CAM). Within CAM lies the related aspects
of automated cartography, a term generally used for the production of
conventional topographic maps by automated means, and the more to Rhind
(1977) CAC covers all aspects of map making using computer assistance.
The CAC has led to the development of vector GIS, in which spatial
coordinate storage and high resolution graphics have played an important
role.

Monmonier (1982) regards automation as an important step in the evolution

of cartography, which he portrays as a line of development stretching back
to the earliest recorded maps, and which includes the invention of printing in
the 15th century. It was noted that the way in which ‘softcopy’ map images
have placed paper maps in many applications, outline potential
developments that points towards the integrated geographic information
system. Moellering (1980) classified the new computer representations of
maps as ‘virtual maps’ that offered more flexibility than the traditional paper
map, which he termed ‘real maps.’ The new virtual maps had only an
ephemeral existence on the computer screen and would avoid large numbers
of paper copies.

Rhind (1977) observes that few geographers or professional cartographers

were involved in the earliest attempts at drawing maps with computers.
Initial developm3ents came from applications in geology, geophysics and
environment sciences. Although there were suggestions for the use of
computer for such cartographic tasks as map sheet layout, name placement
and the reading of tabular data such as population registers, the early
developments generally represented very low quality cartography. They
were designed to produce output on standard line printers, using text
characters to provide variations in shade density as shown in the figure 8.0
below. The most famous of these early programs was SYMAP (Synagraphic
MAPping system), developed at the Harvard Computer Laboratory. SYMAP
and LINMAP (LINE printer MAPping), a program written to display the
results of the 1966 UK census of population was seen as representing the
first generation of widely used computer mapping systems with the apparent
influence of hardware capabilities. SYMAP could produce maps for areas
with constant values or interpole surfaces between data points to produce
shaded color maps for spatially continuous variables, but the line-printer
orientation meant maps were limited in resolution and individual data cells
could not be represented by square symbols.
 Figure 8.0 An Example of Line-Printer Map Output

*******************Oooooooooooooooooooooo1111111111111111
****************Ooooooooooooooooooooooooo111111111111111111
***************Oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo11111111111
**********************Oooooooooooooooooooooooooo11111111111
******************************Oooooooooooooooooo111111111111
*******************Oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo11111111111
*****************************Oooooooooooooooooooooooo111111
**********************************Ooooooooo1111111111111111

An advance was the use of coordinate-based information, and the used of

pen plotters such as in the NORMAP package developed in Sweden. This
produced maps on either plotter or printer, and much care was given to the
methods of map construction, in this case with data based mainly on points.
For Nordbeck and Rystedt (1972), the technique used for the presentation of
the finished map formed an important part of this process but even more
important are the methods used for processing the original information and
for actual construction of the map.

The use of coordinate data and plotter output was the starting point for the
use of automated cartography. As the capacity of hardware to store and
retrieve digital map data began to increase the advantages of storing data in
this form became more apparent. For example a geographic database that
was revised continuously would be available on demand for the production
of new editions without recompilation. Generalization and feature-coding
algorithms allowed issues of projection and symbology that separated from
the actual task of data storage: thus the real map ceasing to be the main data
store and becoming a merely a way of presenting selected information for
the customer’s requirements from the comprehensive cartographic database
held in the computer. It became possible to preview the appearance and
design of a new product itself was much faster once data were entered into
the computer.

Morrison (1980) outlines a three-stage model for the adoption of automation,

suggesting that technological change has been an almost constant feature of
cartography. The three stages identified were as follows:
 ➢ The early 1960s: rapid technical development, but a reluctance to use
the new methods and the fear of the unknown new technology;
➢ Late 1960s and 1970s: acceptance of CAC, replication of existing
cartography with computer assistance;
➢ 1980 onwards; new cartographic products, expanded potentials and
full implementation.

According to Martin (1996) various contributes to the slow take –up of CAC
which included:

a) High initial costs of entering the field with initial installation

disappointing and thus discouraging other map-producing agencies
from taking the first step;
b) The need to make heavy investments in hardware and software in an
environment where both were evolving rapidly;
c) Transformation of enormous quantities of existing paper maps into
digital format, with the latest developments requiring surveying
instruments that record all measurements digitally for direct input to
digital mapping systems.
d) Related to (c) above is lack of implementation of efficient mass
digitizing procedures, which although conceptually simple has proven
difficult to achieve.

8.6.3 Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Mapping (CAM)

Contemporary CAD and CAM systems provide the capacity to store a

number of thematic overlays of information (e.g., roads, water features,
contours, etc.), each of which may be associated with a particular
symbology. Some specialized CAD software contains sophisticated editing
and three-dimensional modeling functions, while modern CAM systems are
more concerned with the ability to vary projection and symbolization of
output maps. However, neither have strongly developed attribute data
handling capabilities and generally store information as series of feature-
coded points and lines without any associated topological information or
area-building ability. The ‘attribute data’ is here referred to as the non-
location characteristics of a particular geographic object such as the
population of a zone or the name of a street.

8.6.3 Image Processing

RS may perhaps be traced back to the earliest aerial photography. However,

massive growth has only been experienced in the last forty years with the
arrival of satellite sensing systems that are returning enormous quantities of
continuously sensed digital data. The next technology of importance to GIS
development has been that of remote sensing (RS) and the activity of image
processing (IP) of remotely sensed data. The use of data from satellite and
airborne sensors for the monitoring and management is also increasingly
referred to as earth observation. Satellite RS is the largest single source of
digital spatial data, and has therefore been a significant factor in the
development of mechanism for fast and efficient processing of these data.
The orientation here has been towards raster (image-based) systems and the
entire field has only been made possible by the development of automated
systems, which are able to cope with the volumes of data involved. In raster
systems, the map is in the form of a grid, each cell of value relating to that
region.

IP systems have been developed to handle satellite-sensing systems that are

returning enormous quantities of continuously sensed digital data. There is
an increasing range of ‘integrated’ IP/GIS systems such as ERDAS and
IDRIS that contain a range of function for image interpretation and
manipulation together with more general-purpose raster GIS abilities. The
raw data received from the satellite sensors require constantly radiometric
and geometric correction before any attempt can be made at image
interpretation, and a number of strategies exist for the interpretation
operation itself. Image data consist of a matrix of digital number (DN) for
each band, each cell (pixel) of which represents the value recorded for the
corresponding area on the ground.

Usually, there is need to remove known distortions resulting from the

curvature of the earth and suppress the effects of atmospheric scattering and
satellite wobble. The values recorded may be affected by the skylight and
haze and, over large areas differential degrees of the shade and sunlight.
Radiometric restoration and correction costs of the adjustments of the output
of each detector to a linear response to radiance. Geometric correction, on
the other hand involves changing the location of lines of pixels in the image
and complete re-sampling with reference to ground control points of known
locations in order to georeference the image data. Stretching of the
distribution of values in each band to utilize the whole DN (8-bit) density
range, usually in a linear fashion enhances images.

Once the image data has been ‘cleaned’ the major task remaining is one of
image classification. If RS data are to be interpreted with existing GIS or
digital map data, it is necessary to interpret the DN values and to combine
and classify the image bands according to some recognizable classification
scheme.

8.6.5 Contemporary GIS

These definitions all emphasize the historical development of the GIS as a

combination of Computer Aided Design (CAD0 and Digital Cartography
handling capabilities integrated with database software. Although these
definitions may help:
a) GIS as a system for handling geographical information come in many
different forms and, may not necessarily be a solution to all problems.
It will thus require considerable thought for successful
implementation.
b) It must also be stated that there is no clearly agreed definition of when
computer system is or is not a GIS: it is possible to identify the key
characteristics, which distinguish these systems from others.
8.7 Summary

➢ GIS is a system of hardware, software, data, people, organization and

institutional arrangements for collecting, analyzing, storing, and
disseminating information about areas of the earth.
➢ The significance of GIS is seen in the categorization of five different
types of applications within the broad areas of problem solving:
i a powerful tool for handling large quantities of spatial data,
ii analysis of complex, multi-spatial and non-spatial datasets in
an integrated manner,
iii ability to allow geographic entities to have multiple attributes
such as storing and handling relationships between entities,
iv ability to input and output of data in different formats, and
v modeling.
➢ The term geographic information system (GIS) dates back to mid
1960s.
➢ The development of GIS can be viewed in relation to computer aided
cartography (CAC), remote sensing (RS), and image processing (IP)
of geographic information using a computer.
➢ CAC is an umbrella term used to cover a variety of specialized
systems for map and plan creation using a computer.
➢ Computer aided design (CAD) and Computer aided mapping (CAM)
system provide the capacity to store a number of thematic overlays of
information (e.g. roads, water feature, contours, etc) each of which
may be associated with a particular symbology.
➢ Remote sensing is the largest single source of digital spatial data.
8.5 Review Questions

a) Define GIS.
b) Trace the major historical developments of Geographical Information
System (GIS).
c) Differentiate between GIS and CAC.
d) Describe the significance of geographic information system.
e) Describe the questions that must be answered by a GIS.

8.6 Further Reading

Bracken. L and C. Webster (1990): Information Technology in Geography and

Planning Including Principles of GIS, London: Routledge.
Burrough, P.A. (1986): Principles of Geographical Information Systems for
Land Resource Assessment, Monographs on soil surveys 12,
Oxford: University Press.
Huxhold, W.E. and G.A. Levinson (1995): Managing Geographic Information
System projects, New York: Oxford University Press.
Maguire, D.J. and M.F. Goodchild (1994): GIS; Principles and Applications,
London: Longman.
Martin, D. (1996): Geographic Information Systems: Socio-Economic
Applications, London: Routledge.
Rhind, O. and J. Raper (2001): “GIS: Time for Re-think.” In GeoEurope, NO.
10, Issue 5: pp 47-48.
 9.0 LECTURE NINE
GIS COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONALITY

9.1 Introduction

Lesson nine examines the basic components of GIS. It also deals with GIS
software programs used for analysis of geographic information, with some
explanations on differences between GIS software programs. The lesson is
concluded with GIS functionality.

9.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of studying and reading this lesson, you should be able to:
Describe the basic components of GIS.
Describe GIS software programmes.
Explain GIS functionality.

9.3 GIS Components

Geographic Information Systems consists of four basic components (figure

9.0). These components are described here below as follows:
9.3.1 Collection, Input and Correction

(a) Collection

These data can be collected through image processing and interpretation;

field mapping and monitoring; laboratory analysis; and collection of existing
data.

(b) Input and Correction

The data input components converts data from their existing format into one
that can be used by the GIS in a process called digitization. Geo-referenced
data are commonly provided as paper maps, tables of attributes, and
electronic files of maps, air photographs and satellite imagery.

The data to input in a GIS are mainly of two types: spatial data and
associated attributes of non-spatial data. The spatial data represent the
geographic location of the represented ‘objects’: points, lines and areas that
are used to represent geographical______________as roads,lakes, rivers etc.
the non-spatial attribute data provide descriptive information like the name
of a street, the hydrologic composition of water lake etc.
Figure 9.0 A Typical Model of GIS as Components

INPUT

COLLECTION, INPUT, AND

CORRECTION

STORAGE AND
RETRIEVAL

DATABASE
MANAGEMENT
MANIPULATION AND SYSTEM
ANALYSIS

OUTPUT AND REPORTING

OUTPUT
There are four types of data entry systems commonly used in Geographic
Information Systems:

i Keyboard
ii Manual Digitizing
iii Scanning
iv Existing Digital Files.

9.3.2 Storage and Retrieval (Management)

Mechanisms include the control of physical storage of data in memory, disk

or tape, and mechanism for retrieval to serve the needs of other three
components. Storage and retrieval entails a database, which is a collection of
information about things and their relationships to each other. The objective
of a D-base is to relate facts and situations that were previously separated.
The creation of a D-base in which different kinds of data are combined by:

➢ Ensuring that all data layers have the same dimensions and coordinate
systems,
➢ Designing a useful D-base structure for the tabular data, and
➢ Establishing links between map and tabular data.

Note

The data management part of GIS is comparable to other D-bases and therefore
an exchange of data files mainly of non-spatial data is usually possible.
9.3.3 Manipulation and Analysis

Represents the whole spectrum of techniques available for the

transformation of the digital model by mathematical means. These are the
core elements of a GIS, and the feature that distinguish GIS from Computer
Assisted Cartography (CAC). A library of data-processing algorithms is
available for the transformation of spatial data, and the results of this
manipulations may be added to the digital database and incorporated in new
visual maps. Using these techniques it is possible to deliberately change the
characteristics of the data representation in order to meet theoretical
requirements. It is equally possible to mishandle or unintentionally distort
the digital map at this stage.

Manipulation and analysis allow the efficient use of large volumes of data in
planning and decision making by providing a rapid method for evaluation of
past and potential developments in relation to management measures and
decisions. For example, the use of the following models does assist in the
management of data in Geographic Information System:

➢ Aggregation: permits combination of detailed map categories in order

to create new detailed categories;
➢ Buffering: creates a zone of specified width around one or more
features, for example, an area within 100m of a lake;
➢ Network analysis: permits such determinations as finding the shortest
path through a street network, determining stream flow in a basin, or
finding the optimum location of a fire station;
➢ Inter-visibility operations: use elevation data to permit viewshed
mapping of what terrain features can be seen from a specified
location.
9.3.4 Output and Reporting

This is a procedure by which information from the GIS is presented in a

form suitable to the users. It involves the export of data from the system in
computer- or human-readable form. Data are output in one of the 3 formats:
hardcopy, softcopy or electronic file

Hardcopy outputs are permanent means of display. The information is

provided on paper, photographic films or similar materials. Softcopy output
is the format as viewed on the computer monitor. They are used to allow
operator have interactions and preview the data before the output.

9.4 GIS Software

Currently, there are several software programs in the market for analyzing
geographic information. The programs available for PC/Microcomputers and
other types of computers include EASI/PACE®, ERDAS (v), IDRIS®,
ILWIS (rv), MIPS (rv), PAMAP (rv), ARC/INFO (rv), PMAP®, SPANS
(v), TERRITORY (v) and TOPOLOGIC (rv), among others

The differences between the above GIS programs can be summarized as

follows:

➢ Hardware type and requirements

PC-DOS is the most common operating system with a few GIS using OS2 or
the Macintosh operating systems. All the above programs have intensive
digitizing capabilities: with some programs working on a hardware
configuration with two monitors, while others use one for text and menus
and menus and another one for maps. Currently, many GIS experts are
working towards the development of a GIS system with a single screen of
very high-resolution monitors in the Windows.

➢ Data structure

Although many analytical systems can handle and process vector in a limited
way by making a provision for vector-to-raster conversions, few systems can
process quadtree data structure because they do no have extensive image
processing capabilities. All the systems mentioned above are two-
dimensional, and the three-dimension systems such as LYNX, and
Intergraph are, however, not available for PC’s

➢ Internal database

Only a few programs possess an internal database management system, and

those without, rely on external Database Management Systems (DBMS).
These programs have a provision for table import/export and to or from
some of the most common systems.

➢ Image processing facilities

Some programs are hybrid GIS and image processing programs such as
IDRISI or ILWIS, whereas others such as ERDAS, EASI/PACE and
ARC/INFO are mainly image processing programs.

➢ Command language

The use of command language with macros and batch files is indispensable
for those applications that require complex modeling or many repetitive
manipulations. However, many programs lack this option.

➢ Menu-user interface

Practically, all programs have a menu-user interface with some making use
of Windows for displays. Some programs such as IDRIS and ILWIS are
designed with academic environment such as teaching tools, and thus
making them very suitable to use.
➢ Price

Prices for PC-based GIS range from a few hundred dollars to tens of
thousands. When purchasing a GIS program, it is important for the user to
give priority to design of tasks it can perform but not costs.

9.5 GIS Functions

The heart of GIS is formed by the analytical capabilities of the system.

Although data input is in general the most time consuming part, it is data
analysis that forms the most important element of GIS. The analytical
function employs the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to
provide answers to the questions in the real world.

The objective of data analysis is to transform data in5to information in order

to satisfy the requirements of decision making at all levels of details. An
important use of the analysis is the possibility of predicting the occurrence
of activities in one location or point in time.

The range of analytical procedures can be subdivided into four basic

categories:

9.5.1 Retrieval, reclassification and measurement operations

(a) Retrieval

Data retrieval involves selective search, manipulation and output of spatial

and/or attribute data. Retrieval operations can be subdivided into the
following groups:
➢ To find out what exists at a particular location. in GIS, programs exist
that permit reading of the contents of maps and related attribute tables for
a specified (x,y) coordinate in vector or in a pixel (rater data).
➢ To retrieve spatial data such as points, lines, polygons or mapping units
in a raster figure that may answer the question: where is it? For example,
such as : where is the forest?
➢ To retrieve information using conditional, logical and arithmetic
operations.

(b) Reclassification

Reclassification involves the re-assignment of thematic values to categories

of an existing map. It is also called renumbering. Typical examples of
reclassification are:
➢ A soil map can be changed to include rate of infiltration; or
➢ An elevation map reclassified to show contours intervals of 50m.

It is important to recognize that use of any formulae works well when there
are few units for reclassifying maps.

(c) Measurement Operations

This operation involves the measurement of distance between points, lengths

of lines, area, perimeter of polygons and determination of volumes and
counting. Some examples of measurement operations are:
➢ The distance between two traffic cycles,
➢ The total acreage of wetlands in a watershed,
➢ Total length of first order streams in a catchment, and
➢ Counting of numbers of first order streams in a river basin.

Most of the above-mentioned operations such as computation of the area, or

perimeter of the polygon, or length of lines are automatically performed. For
other operations, special programs are required. One such example is ILWIS
program that calculates distances in meter from pixels in a map with a value
of 0 (source).

9.5.2 Overlay Operations

Overlay Operations involve the combination of two or more maps according

to BOOLEAN conditions (e.g. if A is greater than B and A is less than C)
and may result in the delineation of new boundaries. In such cases, it is
therefore essential that the spatial and attribute data are correct
representation of the real-word phenomena. An example would be the
overlay of an enterprise zone on to a base of census wards. This would be
appropriate to determine the ward composition of the zone, but it may not
allow an accurate estimate of the population falling within it, as may not be
exact coincidence of the boundaries. Thus the operation is only appropriate
if the intended interpretation of the data is meaningful.

9.5.2 Neighborhood Characterization or Operations

Neighborhood Characterization involves ascribing values to a location

according to the characteristic of surrounding region. Such operations may
involve both summary and mean measures of a variable, and include
smoothing and enhancement filters. These techniques are directly analogous
to contextual image-classification techniques to be found in image-
processing systems.

Using these operations, the characteristics of an area surrounding a specified

location are evaluated. As these operations are generally applied to the data
in raster format, the surrounding (neighborhood) is defined as the eight-
raster cells surrounding the central cell.

The neighborhood operations are subdivided into three important functions:

(a) Retrieval functions that use the values of its neighbors to calculate
values for a specified pixel. This is done by moving small calculation
window of 3 by 3 cells, or 5 by 5 cells over the map, and shows the
calculated results in the central pixel.

The retrieval can be executed both on scalar data (e.g., class 1, class 2,), or
on nominal (e.g., lithological type) data. On the scalar level, properties such
as average, standard deviation, total, range, majority, and
maximum/minimum can be calculated. For nominal and ordinal data, all the
statistics can be computed except mean, standard deviation and total, which
have no meaning except when the pixels represent geological units.

(b) Interpolation functions, which estimate unknown values at sampled

sites using known values of existing observations at neighboring locations.
In other words, it is an operation on which values are predicted for locations
without observations based on the known observations of neighboring
pixels. There are quite a number of interpolation methods such as
polinomian regression, Fourier series, weighted means, Thiessen polygons,
and kriging, whose applications differ from cases to case.

(C) Topographic functions, which compute values that describe the

topography at specific locations using local terrain information. Some of the
values that can be obtained using the operation include digital elevation
models such as slope angle, direction, convexity, hillshading, automatic
catchment delineation, drainage patterns, and slope length computation.

Neighborhood operations working on topographic input data can also be

used for the so-called dynamic modeling: calculating groundwater flow, the
turnout distance of debris flow, the area occurred by lavaflow, etc. the
models are found among the existing finite element models that have been
implemented in GIS.
9.5.4 Connectivity Operations

Connectivity and Distance measurement _______________ both simple

measures of inter-point distance and more complex
operations_____________ the construction of zones increasing transport
cost away from specified_______________ include sophisticated
networking functions tied to geographical database connectivity operations
include, e.g. view-shed analysis that involves the computation of inter-
visibility between locations in the database. In other words, the use of these
operations permits the characterization of spatial units that are connected.

This group of operation can be subdivided into:

➢ Contiguity functions: these are functions that connect areas that share
common characteristics such as badlands as may be affected by gullies.
In very general terms, these types of functions are applied in order to
identify or retrieve areas with specific size and characteristics.
➢ Proximity functions: connects areas with same distance in absolute
distance, time and cost to a given point, line or area.
➢ Network functions: using lines to connect areas that form a set of
interconnected features through which resources move from one location
to another. Note that a network is formed by a series of interconnected
areas or lines that form a certain feature such as road network, or river
system via which resources can be transported. The network functions
are important in three major ways: (a) prediction of the capability of the
network, for example, discharge modeling along a stream network; (b)
calculation of optimal route, for example, the shortest way to afire
outbreak from fire-brigade tracks; and (c) identification of resources, for
example, the division of a functional region such as a city into zones with
a defined sizes for planning of first aid centers for which the supply of
ambulances can take place within a specified period of time.
➢ Spread function: these are a mixture of proximity and network functions,
which are used to evaluate phenomena that are accumulating, or
dispersing with distance from a certain source. For example, the spread
 of groundwater pollution from a point source or the accumulation of
water behind a dam.
➢ Seek functions: usually using lines to connect areas that form an optimum
pathway according to specified rules. A good example of this is the
determination of water pathway flow, which known to flow only to
lowest neighboring points.

9.5.5 Modeling

Basically, a GIS consists of static models or description of the past or

existing situations. Manipulations of data by various functions facilities the
understanding of relationships and constraints but does not add any new
information. On the basis of the distribution of spatial elements and
characteristics, predictions can be made about processes and impacts such as
soil erosion, flooding, and anthropogenic influences. Consequently, its
capability to evaluate present conditions together with changes resulting
from different interventions and management measures that provide a
convenient tool for decision-making.

Therefore, GIS is a flexible and powerful tool for the storage and analysis of
data on impact monitoring. This range of applications is even wider by
combining dynamic simulation models that have no-spatial attributes.
9.6 Summary

➢ The four basic components of GIS are (a) collection, input and
correction, (b) storage and retrieval, (c) manipulation and
analysis, and output and reporting.
➢ There are several software programs for analyzing geographic
information, with differences in these programs including
hardware type and requirements, data structure, internal
database, image processing facilities, menu-user interface, and
command language.
➢ The most important functions of GIS are divided into (a)
retrieval, reclassification and measurement, (b) overlay
operations, (c) neighborhood characterization, (d) connectivity
operations, and (e) modeling.

9.7 Key New Terms

1. Quadtree: this is when a data structure subdivides any given

space into 4 quadrants and continues to subdivide each quadrant
in a similar way until they are uniform or the basic resolution of
the data is reached. It is mostly used to compress raster data.
2. Topology: these are relationships in spatial terms between
connected or adjacent geographical entities. It is used to apply
intelligence to data held in the vector data model.
9.8 Review Questions

a) What are the components of GIS?

b) Describe the functions of GIS

9.9 Further Reading

Bracken. L and C. Webster (1990): Information Technology in Geography and

Planning Including Principles of GIS, London: Routledge.
Burrough, P.A. (1986): Principles of Geographical Information Systems for
Land Resource Assessment, Monographs on soil surveys 12,
Oxford: University Press.
Huxhold, W.E. and G.A. Levinson (1995): Managing Geographic Information
System projects, New York: Oxford University Press.
Maguire, D.J. and M.F. Goodchild (1994): GIS; Principles and Applications,
London: Longman.
Martin, D. (1996): Geographic Information Systems: Socio-Economic
Applications, London: Routledge.
Rhind, O. and J. Raper (2001): “GIS: Time for Re-think.” In GeoEurope, NO.
10, Issue 5: pp 47-48.
 10.0 LECTURE TEN
SPATIAL DATA MODELS
10.1 Introduction

This lesson describes how complex reality can be signified using spatial data
models. It explains the four spatial elements: point, line, area and surface are
used for the simplification of reality. It also describes raster, vector and object-
based models that have considerable influence on the functionality of the GIS.
The lesson is concluded with the description of GIS data structure.

10.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of studying this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Define spatial data model.
b) Explain sources of environmental data for spatial data models.
c) Describe the raster, vector and object-based models.
d) Describe GIS data structure.

10.3 Spatial Data

Spatial data is information, which is linked to a specific location, for

example, the population of a town or the occupant of an address. The term
geocoding is used to describe the process of setting up data for a GIS that
link information to a allocation. For a GIS, within a particular data set there
must exist an element that specifies its location. Ideally this would be a map
coordinate, but it can also be a postcode or street address. The element
within the data that identifies the location is known as its geocode.

Data set can be divided into those about people, socioeconomic and these
concerning the environment.

(a) Socioeconomic data is widely available, often from national and local
government and is usually the products of populations surveys and censuses.
These data is also used by a number of commercial vendors who combine
census information with other data sets to produce neighborhood profiles
classifying particular areas for marketing purposes. This ability to recognize
particular markets based on geographical datasets is known as
Geodemographics and is one of the fastest growing areas within GIS.

(b) Environmental data are related to collection and analysis of

information about the environment, and these data were the driving forces
behind the development of GIS and continues to be important area of GIS
application. Environmental data sets often tend to be large and require
considerable management.

Sources of environmental data include:

➢ Existing topographic maps,
➢ Thematic maps, specifying geological aspects, soils, etc.
➢ Remote sensing. Sources of remote sensing data for GIS applications
in various environmental aspects include; aerial photographs,
LANDSAT, SPOT, NOAA, METEOSAT and ground based weather
radar. Databases resulting from the joint use of several distributed
information maps are able to support a series of applications in
different fields of environmental management and social-economy.
Users select pertinent information for the different purposes.

Environmental data often includes boundaries between vegetation types, for

example, which are fuzzy, i.e., a simple line does not define them.
Conversely, socioeconomic data is usually related to administrative
boundaries, which are sharp if artificial.
10.4 Spatial Data Models

A data model is a generalized user-defined view of data representing the real

world. It is used because reality is too complex for even the most
sophisticated GIS software to represent. In order to represent reality in a
spatial database, a simplification of reality is created. This simplification is
known as a spatial data model. In a spatial data model, reality is simplified
into four spatial entities or elements, which can be used to represent the real
world. These four spatial entities are:

➢ The point
➢ The line
➢ The area, and
➢ The surface.

In a telecommunications GIS application, for example, a point may represent

the location of a junction box; a line might represent a section of a cable; an
area may represent a building; and surface may represent the land surface
through which cables are laid (Ed. Parsons). Other commonly encountered
examples of each of the spatial entities are given in figure 10.1. Distance (or
length) is the fundamental geographic dimension, and spatial entities may be
classified according to the number of length dimensions they possess: zero
for (x, y) point, one for line, two for an area and three for surface.

Figure 10.0 Examples of Spatial Entities

Entities Point Line Area Surface
Class
Dimension 0 1 2 3
Examples Fence post Road section Land parcels Physical
terrain
+ Post
Plot
oot
Attributes are then attached to these spatial entities, for example, the type of
cable, the address of the building and the height of any particular point. The
linking of spatial entities with attributes is one of the key concepts of GIS.

Spatial entities and their attributes are stored using a number of spatial data
models by specific GIS software, and it is therefore important to understand
the characteristics of each since the data model used has considerable
influence of the functionality of the GIS. The spatial models are:

a) The Raster Model, and

b) The Vector Model

10.4.1 The Raster Model

The raster data model is the simpler of the two and is based on the division
of reality into regular grid of identically shaped cells. In other words, the
data is presented by subdividing the space regularly into cells: the location
of geographic entities or phenomena is defined by row and column position
of the cells they occupy. The area that each cell represents defines the spatial
resolution available. Given that positions are defined by the cell row and cell
column numbers the position of a geographic feature is only recorded to the
nearest cell.

In the raster approach, the space is populated by a large number or regularly

distributed cells, with each cell assigned a single value, which represents the
attribute for the area of the cell. In a soil data soil data set, for example, a
cell may have a value 001, which may represent clay soil. The area that each
cell represents varies from a few meters to kilometers and is known as the
resolution of the grid. The higher the resolution of the grid, the more cells
are required to represent a given area.
10.4.2 The Vector model

Cartesian coordinates, commonly used to represent linear features, represent

geographical objects in the model. Each feature is represented by a series of
coordinates which define its shape and which can have linked information.
In other words, the vector data model is similar in its operation to joining the
dots in the books we all used as kids. An object’s shape is represented by
dots, which are located where the shape of the object changes. Straight lines
join the dots. In the vector data model the dots are known as vertices. A
straight line known as a segment or are joins each vertex. Where segments
join, the vertex is called a node. A series of segments that return to the same
node form an area or polygon.

The vector data model appears to be similar to the data structure used by
Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems and simple computer drawing
packages. The GIS vector data model is slightly more complex at each
vertex, segment, node and polygon I uniquely identified and the
relationships between them are stored in the database.

The relationships between the elements of a vector data model, in terms of

relative location and connections are known as Topology. Topology gives
the vector data model a level of ‘intelligence’, which means that the GIS can
recognize which segments are joined to each other, and identify those
polygons that are adjacent to one another.

The vector data model is best suited to representing linear features such as
cable networks, and the relationships between areas. The main drawback of
the vector model is when datasets are combined and analyzed, as a much
higher level of processing is required.

In additions to these two main data models, a third, the object-based model
exists and has become increasingly popular. This represents the world I the
form of objects the user would recognize, i.e. on a highway; it would
represent the whole highway and not the individual segments that go to
make it up. This has a number of advantages since the model is less abstract
and easier to understand. However, the processing requirements are high.

10.4.3 GIS Data Structure

Data structure is a logical arrangement of spatial data in a format suitable

for the user and user system to manage. For one to use a raster or vector data
model it is important to make a decision which model may be better suited
to the application. However, the choice of data structure to be used for any
application is often an arbitrary decision, since GIS software will generally
support one particular model as fully as another. Whichever model and
structure one may choose, of course, one requires time to convert the data
into a format that can be used by the GIS. Converting data into digital format
is a labor-intensive activity, and on average accounts for up to 80% of the
total system cost.

Central to any data capture plan is a through internal data audit. This helps to
determine the size, scope and cost of the task ahead. Data capture is also an
opportunity to improve the quality of the data by incorporating new
information with the old.

10.4.4 Scanning or Table Digitizing

Scanning is a data capture technique that digitizes information from paper

or film hard copy into digital raster data. The process is rapid, but the
resulting raster data set only has color, grey scale or black and white
attributes associated with it. In effect, the result of scanning is a raster
images lack the intelligence needed for vector-based GIS. Far degree of
operator expertise is also required and compression techniques (typically
run-length encoding) will need to be applied to keep the files to a
manageable size.

On the other hand, table digitizing also known as vectorisation are the two
common methods of converting data. On the other hand, vectroisation can be
applied automatically or interactively to produce intelligent vector files.

Vectorisation has the advantage of employing inexpensive digitizing

equipment. However, operator training is needed to obtain good results.
Conversely the procedure is laborious, time-consuming and hence costly.

10.5 Summary

➢ Spatial data is described as information, which is linked to a specific

location, for example, the population of a town or the occupant of an
address.
➢ This ability to recognize particular markets based on geographical
datasets is known as Geodemographics.
➢ Sources of environmental data for GIS models include existing
topographic maps, thematic maps, and remote sensing.
➢ A data model is generalized user-defined view of data representing the
real world.
➢ In a spatial data model, reality is simplified into four spatial entities or
elements, which can be used to represent the real world. These four
spatial entities are the point, the line, the area, and the surface.
➢ The spatial entities and their attributes are stored using a number of
spatial data models by specific GIS software. The models that are known
to have considerable influence of the functionality of the GIS are raster
and vector.
➢ Data structure is a logical arrangement of spatial data in a format suitable
for the user and user system to manage.
10.6 Key Terms

Attributes: this is an item of text, a numeric value or an image that is

characteristic of a particular spatial entity.

Coordinate: are numbers representing the position of a point relative to an

origin. Cartesian coordinates express the location in two or three dimensions
as the perpendicular distances from two or three orthogonal axes.

Data Model: it is generalized user-defined view of data representing the real

world.

Digitizing: this is the conversion of existing maps from an analogue form

(paper) into digital information, usually in the form of Cartesian coordinates.
This may be via a digitizing table with a hand-held cursor, or via a scanner.

Network: it is a model representing the interconnected elements through

which some form of resources can be transmitted or will flow. In GIS this is
represented as series of nodes connected by segments, which has attributes
representing flow characteristics, e.g. a road or pipeline network.

Point: this is a spatial entity that represents the simplest geographical

element; represented in the vector model as a single (x, y) coordinate, and in
the raster model as a single cell.

Polygon: is representation of an enclosed region defined by a segment or a

series of segments that make up its boundary. Polygons may have attributes
describing the region they represent such as the population of a census ward.

Raster: it is a data structure composed of a grid cells. Group of cells

represent geographical features, the value in each cell represents the attribute
of the feature.
Scanning: it is data capture technique that digitizes information from paper
or film hard copy into digital raster data.

Segment: this is one of the basic spatial entities, and a basis for spatial
models. It is formed from a set of ordered coordinates (vertices) that
represent the shape of a geographical object. A segment begins and ends in a
node.

10.7 Review Questions

a) What is the spatial data model?

b) Demonstrate how the four elements, or spatial entities can be used to
represent the real world.
c) Describe the three spatial data models that have considerable influence
on the functionality of the GIS.
d) Differentiate between scanning and table digitizing.
e) Define a data structure.

10.8 Further Reading

Antenucci J.C., Brown K., Croswell, P.L and M.J. (1991): Geographic
Information Systems: A Guide to Technology; New York:
Chapman Hall 301 pp.
Blackmore. M. (1983): Generalization and error in Spatial Databases.
Proc. Auto-Cart, 6pp 313-322.
Bracken. I. And Webster, C. (1990): Information Technology in
Geography and Planning Including Principles of GIS.
London: Routledge.
Burrough P.A. (1986): Principles of Geographic Information Systems for
Land Resource assessment, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clark, M.J (1998): Putting Water in its Place: Perspectives on GIS in
Hydrology and Water Management: Hydrological Processes
12,823-834.
De Roo A.P.J. Hazelhoff, I and Burrough P.A. (1989): Soil Erosion
Modeling Using ANSWERS and Geographic Information
System; Earth Surface Processes Landif, 14,517-532.
Goodchild, M.F. (1980): The Effects of Generalization in Geographic Data
Encoding. In: Freeman, H. and Pieroni, G. (eds) Maps data
processing, New York: Academic press, Pp 191-205.
Goodchild, M.F, Parks, B.and Staeyart L. (1993): Environmental
Modeling with GIS; New York: Oxford University Press.
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 11.0 LECTURE ELEVEN
APPLICATIONS OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

11.1 Introduction

This lesson examines the need for GIS applications in resource management:
resource mapping, risk identification, prediction, modeling and forecasting,
among others. It also describes the opportunities and constraints a GIS may
have in it use for support of public policy decisions regarding natural resource
use such as land, water, forests, fish and wildlife.

11.2 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

a) Evaluate the need for GIS applications in resource management.
b) Describe the opportunities and constraints a GIS has in is use for support
of public policy decisions regarding natural resource use such as land,
water, forests, fish and wildlife.

11.3 General Applications

A GIS application involves interdisplinary studies in social-economic and

environmental sciences and its strength lies in its capability to combine
independent datasets. The GIS technique deals with themes that integrate
geographical information. Environment databases for land registration and
comprehensive topographic data for every country have been emphasized in
Europe. In Canada, for example, emphasis has been put on forests access
with timber harvesting potential. In Asia, especially, China and Japan,
monitoring and modeling of environmental changes have been of great
interest.

Nearly in all places, there are large amounts of data in space and
governments can use it to plan, zone, assess property and land records,
public safety, management of forested, agricultural and coastal lands.
Further, a GIS can support daily activities by automated mapping and
facilitation of management of electricity supply, telecommunications and
sewer management. In demography, a GIS is used to target market analysis
and facility siting, among other uses in research. Since all these diverse
applications are carried out using similar software and techniques, a GIS is a
general purpose tool that may be used to integrate data from various sources
to determine resource availability, plan ecological aspects, transport, urban
and landscape development, among other uses.

Potential GIS end users include resource and environmental planners, land
drainage engineers and hydrologists. They all need informed decisions in
their areas of specialization and need GIS systems that are easy to use, that
can perform spatial analyses and modeling, support common data formats
and can be able to produce quality outputs. The output leads to policy
formulation in many areas such as water resource; conservation plans; and
this can influence politicians and stakeholders who need information on an
easier, assimilative and understanding ways. This helps in the management
and visualization of geo-referenced data. Different applications however call
for different requirements on a GIS. Some of the applications are
summarized here in figure 11.0
11.3.1 Environmental planning and Management

Environmental decision-making requires a large number of variables from

nearly all disciplines. The environmental information is inherently spatial in
nature and all variables observed are considered to be a function of space: be
it physical transport of contaminants, extent of health or economic risks
associated with remedial activities. A GIS plays an important role in
environmental information management by offering spatial data analysis and
management capability in the application of Environmental Decision
Support Systems (EDSS) as management tools.

An EDSS is a computer-based system supporting human decision makers in

environmental management arena. They focus on particular class particular
class of problems designed to support a particular category of decision
makers. It often integrates monitoring data, providing a coherent view of
these data and enhancing human comprehension of them.
Figure 11.0 Some Applications of Geographical Information Systems

Planning
Planning Public safety Public Highway and
works transportation

GIS

Parks and recreation Telecommuni

cation
Resource

Environmental
protection Electricity
Impact
assessment
Economic
development
Land use Water and
planning wastewater
Health and human
services

Permits and licensing

Through the use of modeling and simulation, the EDSS support the analysis
of candidate decision alternatives, and help evaluation of the uncertainty of
problem at hand. In other words, GIS provide a general platform for
analyzing spatial data while EDDS provide analytical procedures target
specific problems. GIS such as Geographic Resource Analysis Support
Systems (GRASS), which is GIS modeling product of the US corps of
Engineers supports EDSS by facilitation data compatibility with other
common GIS’s.

The GIS allow for real time presentation of development process have a way
of dealing with environmental problems in a systematic way, solving
complexity through multi-disciplinary work and can optimize decision
choices based on all involved features. Indeed, environmental issues are
among the most important challenges facing decision makers and the
dynamics of the earth systems imply that all environmental systems are
dynamically and spatically inter-related and impact in one location have
effects on the others. For most environmental modeling projects, a GIS is
seen as a convenient and well-structured database for handling large
quantities of spatial data needed. Whereas GIS databases contain
information on location, spatial distribution and spatial relationships,
environmental models work on mass and energy transfer and the two can be
integrated using dynamics and continuity. The environmental processes on
the earth’s surface need to be modeled for purposes of environmental
protection of air quality and water quality.

Erosion Models have been interface with GIS using Universal Soil Loss
equation in Illinois, USA by adopting vector-grid approach. The drainage
basins used illustrated a full integration of topographic analysis within a
GIS. This provided an environment for effective evaluation of various
approaches to erosion and deposition risk assessment for landscape scale
applications. Furthermore, modeling soil loss rates in the Ethiopian
Highlands has integrated the use of Remote Sensing Data in a GIS. It led to
the production of thematic maps that emphasized the spatial impact of
different soil erosion factors and showed the expected soil loss in an area in
the central Rift Valley of the Ethiopian Highlands. Assessment of mean soil
loss rates was derived by overlaying all surveyed spatial erosion factors
which included; rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, land cover, and slope
factors in an Arc/Info computer program. Remote Sensing and GIS have
also been used to assess the spatial distribution of potential erosion factors in
the Kenya’s Tana River Basin. To do this, coverage or erosivity, erodibility
and slope classes were overlain and classes of erosion susceptibility derived.
The digital process involved in this work was performed using Arc/Info and
IDRISI. The results gave an indication of erosion hazard within the drainage
basin.

A GIS also plays an important role in an Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA) of various resources. US Federal Water Pollution Control Acts have
used GIS methods for riparian water quality buffer generation. Using
generally available data sets, the riparian GIS method determines buffer
width in terms of local physical conditions and expected effectiveness in the
generation of riparian environmental buffer in the USA. Further, it has been
used in mapping risks of nitrate leaching in soils and soil erosion in
Denmark by employing Arc/Info. It was also used to pinpoint agricultural
areas where erosion could pose a hazard to a nearby aquatic environment.
On the East Coast of England, GIS was employed to assess climate change
with associated flood risk. The study used the Arc/Info package to assess the
implications of sea level rise and hence determine the coastal vulnerability to
flooding. as a first step, a GIS based risk assessment model was developed.
Vulnerability was then modeled as being a function of these main coastal
processes; tidal and storm surge activities, sea level rise and isostatic
adjustment.

11.3.2 Hydrology and Water Resources

The dynamic nature of hydrologic processes and the wide scope of many
hydrologic studies result in some of the most demanding requirements of
GIS. The requirements include continuous presentation of terrain, land and
stream-based characteristics and their relationships, land use, and soils. The
information must be stored and accessible in a format that does not limit
choice of models nor distort the underlying model assumptions as well as be
flexible to cater for different area sizes. Applications of GIS to solutions of
hydrological problems, therefore require spatial data presentation
capabilities of linking the GIS systems to process based models offering
levels of complying. Applications in hydrology are extremely varied. The
hydrological processes are presented in distributed models and spatial
resolutions of water resources infrastructure can be used to handle
interrelationships and management. The spatial resolution helps in the GIS
framework and the structure of the database that supports the GIS will
influence the applications. With the increasing availability of high resolution
Digital Elevation Models (DEM), the most widespread application of GIS in
hydrology is the identification of drainage pathways and runoff contributing
areas based on topographic form and their coupling with hydrolologic
models. The key models within GIS applications include those investigating
the impacts of precipitation patterns and vegetation and topography on water
yield; impacts of forest harvesting on peak stream flow and the estimation of
catchment scale soil erosion and sediment yield. GIS applications go beyond
local and catchment scales to regional scales.

For example, a GIS methodology has been applied for monitoring water
level on three East African Rift Valley lakes (Nakuru, Naivasha and
Elementaita) with the primary objective of creating a GIS database, which
could then be used to implement a hydrological model to accurately predict
the lake level changes. To generate the GIS database, the study divided the
lake catchments into a series of land reference units (LRU’s) with each unit
having a unique set of parameters defining their area, slope and
permeability. These layers of grid data were overlaid with rainfall and actual
evaporation within the LRU’s on monthly basis over the study period. This
GIS overlay of multiple layers of grid data gave the outputs of spatial data
integration and analysis as a series of tables which could be interfaced
directly with the hydrological model. The model receives files from the GIS
that are then processed to obtain lake level for each month with possibility of
output table of each LRU’s monthly water flow.

Some further examples of GIS applications include the modeling of slope

stability and landslide activity at both site and regional scales, assessment of
non-point source ground water contamination and assessment of factors
controlling coastal sediments. A GIS attractively provides a framework for
integrating data from disparate sources. Raster data from remotely sensed
and fine DEM grids, vector data derived from contemporary and historical
map and air photograph sources and point data from hydrological and
ecological monitoring networks are some of the examples that utilize the
power of the GIS to integrate, manipulate and improve visualization. By
using distributed physically based models, GIS can play an important role to
support management and help in decisions and operations in basin agencies.
A GIS for hydrology must further be able to provide all information required
to trace and predict the movement of a drop of water from time it reaches the
earth’s surface along its course into and through a stream system. A GIS can
be used to effectively study the spatial distribution of basin characteristics
and their influence on runoff generation by utilizing certain procedures that
integrate the physically based hydrological models with a GIS. A number of
such models exist that can be used with a GIS an example of which is the
TOP hydrologic model whose operation is based on analysis of topography
of a catchment which also accounts for differences in soils and vegetation
characteristics. The GIS that is useful in integrating with this model is the
GRASS. The integration provides better understanding of hill slope runoff
production within a catchment and the influence of soil variability on runoff
generation including geomorphologic characteristic and their impacts on
catchment response.

A GIS modeling by incorporating pre-processing of data into a form

suitable for analysis in terms of scale, coordinate system, data structure, etc;
direct modeling tasks such as calibration and prediction; and post processing
of data through reformatting, tabulation, mapping and report generation. One
relevant application of such linkages is: vulnerability or hazard assessment
through summed influences. Generally, a GIS for hydrological purposes
need to have capability of dealing with both raster and vector data. Such a
GIS should also be able to store, manipulate and display geomorphologic
data related to basic landscape domain to afford appropriate set of
operational tools oriented to solve hydrological problems. In flood forecasts
for example, topographic information, digital distributed maps of soil type,
land use/cover and soil moisture are required.

Currently, most detailed information available for catchment modeling is

terrain information in the form of distributed elevation data, requiring that
the catchments should be modeled using DEM’S. Using GIS techniques,
several products can be calculated from a DEM that are useful for soil
erosion modeling and most important are slope gradient, aspect or local
drainage direction and contributing upstream area. Some models can be
coupled to GIS using conversion programs or user interfaces. To couple the
models and the GIS, the output maps of a GIS are converted to the specific
input format needed by the model. Examples of erosion models that have
been linked to a GIS are the Area Non-point Source Watershed
Environmental Response Simulation (ANSWERS) model and Limburg Soil
Erosion Model (LISEM). The latter model simulates runoff and erosion in
catchments during and immediately after single rainfall event. The model
useful for scientific planning and conservation purposes as it incorporates
the main hydrological processes of rainfall, interception, surface storage,
infiltration, percolation, overland flow, channel flow, detachment by rainfall,
and detachment by overland flow and transport capacity. The distributed
parameter model is used to model surface runoff and erosion. The catchment
to be modeled is assumed to be composed of square elements with values of
key variables defined for each element.

11.3.3 Settlement, Urban Planning and Urban Growth Modeling

A GIS is also applied in social sciences, such as human geography,

economics, planning and sociology. A good example of this is the research
on impact of GIS on local government in Britain. A combination of methods
was used to assess the extent of the take-up of GIS facilities and explore its
Impacts on administration practices. The extent of take-up was evaluated by
a comprehensive telephone survey of all local authorities while the impacts
of introduction of GIS were explored in the context of case studies of
selected authorities with at least two years of GIS experience. Results
indicate that the level of take-up varied with local authority, function, size
and location.
North West Water Authority in Britain has employed GIS to connect user
community, schedulers, planners, project managers, and customer service
personnel. This allows for operations, development and maintenance.
Concurrent users are connected and large records and database operation
used for successful implementation. A large percentage of the information is
tied to geography including location of customers, infrastructure
management and operations. Locations must be built into planning, design,
operation and maintenance through the use of GIS.

In insurance services, natural hazard management benefits from high-

resolution data on risky areas supplied by GIS applications. The UK
Ordinance Survey, for example, provides accurate digital data for GIS
parameterization in the identification of flood prone zones. Flooding and
erosion are major problems in many areas where they cause damage to
property. The prediction of peak flows, source areas, soil erosion and
deposition amounts are necessary for solving the settlement risks problem.

One aspect of urban planning is urban drainage. Although urban drainage

models are well established and adequate, there is a problem with
acquisition, manipulation and storage of data. The combination of remote
sensing and GIS technologies allow for a solution. General purpose GIS are
applicable in urban planning and the application involves generation of maps
and inventories, a link with simulation models and geographic presentation
of results. A digital map and its accompanying database is one of the final
products. The GIS allows environmental data from disparate sources to be
geo-referenced and related missing or discontinuous data values to be
interpolated and many different combinations and resolutions of geographic
data to be explored.

GIS tools have been applied to integrate and summarize existing data sets
and to transform multiple data layers into new information by modeling
farmland dynamics and land degradation on the Sahelian landscapes using
remotely sensed data and socio-economic data. Dynamics of landscape
patterns need to be characterized and quantified in meaningful ways before
ecological impacts of changes of landscapes can be understood. Landslides
can deliver substantial volumes of sediment to river channel with adverse
effects to water quality and fish habitat. In planning land use, it is important
to consider risks posed by landslides and account for its effects. This is
especially true of groundwater recharge areas where timber harvesting is
done, as is the case in the Pacific Northwest.

11.3.4 GIS Applications in Urban Modeling

Information about urban areas is required at a variety of spatial and temporal

scales. This is frequently required in connection with land use change
especially in respect with urban growth in terms of height and volume of
individual buildings required by various authorities. Whereas this
information can be derived from existing paper maps, these become soon
outdated due to the rapidly changing urban environment. Detailed ground
surveys provide information, but are labour intensive, time consuming and
can only be carried out less frequently. Remote sensing is a third source of
information on urban areas and when integrated with other data, important
information for GIS modeling can be generated. The GIS strength is the
power of being able to combine independent data sets, multidisplinary and
easily resolving problems that could otherwise be tedious. An interactive
stereo digitizing system allows three-dimensional structure of urban areas to
be determined from stereo pairs of digital remotely sensed images.
Importing data generated using this system together with the original image
data into an existing GIS package provides tools for visualizing urban
environments and also permits more meaningful interpretation of existing
two dimensional data sets, by distinguishing between buildings on the basis
of differences in height and architectural style.

Enhancements in the spatial resolving power of satellite sensor offer great

possibilities for inferring land use and land use change in and around urban
areas by examining the spatial mixture of spectrally distinct land cover types
in the resultant multi-spectral images. Incorporating three-dimensional
spatial data into existing GIS packages improves their utility considerably
allowing for data query, analysis and scene visualization. The potential
applications include inter-visibility for telecommunications planning, scene
visualization for landscape architecture and urban design studies and
Environmental Impact Assessment. Natural hazards can be modeled using
simple overlay operations with GIS techniques. Identification of the spatial
extent of these hazards present a necessary step in the process of
environmental assessment, definition of control strategies and design of
sanitation measures. The outputs of such modeling are hazard maps that can
be used as a basis for land use planning in urban areas. The local authorities
and other developers of urban areas are potential users of the commercial
GIS. Urban land capability mapping caters for the wide range of erosion and
instability problems that may be encountered from developments
incorporating a wide range of urban land uses. Urban land capability
investigations is based on information on physical data associated with
climatic data, social-economic information which can be imported into
existing GIS packages so that information such as slope, potential hazard
and land-use suitably can be determined and displayed in response to a point
and click query. At micro-scale, GIS operations can collect data over
smaller urban areas especially extracting three dimensional models of
building. Both for dynamic visualization of urban scenes and to provide
three dimensional data sets for inputs into existing GIS packages.
Availability of accurate detailed information on the height, shape and
volume of individual buildings within urban areas allows additional analysis
including telecommunications, urban drainage design and Environmental
Impact Assessment. The data extracted from plan details on elevation from
stereoscopic remotely sensed images are incorporated into a digital mapping
GIS package, which allows for heights of buildings above the underling
terrain to be integrated. Many systems, however, are unable to cope with two
points that differ in terms of height, but the same X, Y location.

Urban growth (expansion) encroaches areas that may be under agriculture,

forestry, grassland and so on. Expansion into these areas has significant
relationships with other factors such as slope, terrain, soil, climate, drainage
surface hydrology and socio-economic aspects such as population. These
factors determine the susceptibility of these peripheries to invasion by urban
growth, and their potential to remain intact. The strong dependence of urban
expansion on all the factors means that it should be possible to map potential
distribution of urban areas.

An understanding of these factors and mapping of their distribution is

important in urban capability assessment. Hannan and Hicks have developed
an urban land capability classification to cater for the wide range of erosion
and instability problems that may be encountered from developments
incorporating a wide range of urban land uses; a classification that could be
applied flexibly to different levels of urban development.

The data processing is to interrelate the various variables on common base to

identify the spatial distribution of various urban capability classes within the
boundaries and around areas of urban of urban expansion. GIS vector format
makes it possible to directly refer or retrieve geographic conditions and the
possible effects on changes due to urban expansion. GIS operations for all
the data sets considered are expected to come up with a composite output
map showing potential hazards that affect urban land use.

Applications of GIS to urban growth modeling have received great attention

in recent years. A number of researchers have developed computer based
technologies especially graphics-based and mathematical models for cities
including applications of fractal geometry and cellular automata to urban
structure as evidenced in the works of Michael Batty. Most of his works are
concerned with urban studies and planning involving the development of
computer models and computer graphics in land use and transport planning,
the spatial analysis of urban form, geographic information systems
technology, impact of information technology on cities, and formal methods
of decision making in policy analysis. Benefits from his works is published
works in urban modeling in which algorithms, calibrations, predictions and
microcomputer graphics on design and creative modeling factual cities by
way of geometry of form and function and other methods of studies and
planning and design to the development of models is quite profound. Models
of urban shape and form can be achieved using fractal geometry,
information infrastructure and its impact on cities, urban information
systems in developing countries, and the development of spatial analysis and
models within GIS are some of the recent works that have potential
applications. Animation of urban growth in different regions may be
achieved using variety of data sources accessible in different media.

Most of the objectives for urban growth research include the study of
changing landscapes or metropolitan areas. A new housing sub-division or a
new shopping center are examples of a city undergoing change. A change is
measured when the geographic extent of urban growth is compared. Urban
growth models can be applied by community in economic development
decisions and communications using appropriate GIS technologies and
policy and community services networks as has been attempted by the Urban
Growth and Land use (UGLE) modeling research that presents scenes over
different year, 1935,1951,1973,1991 and the possibility of using the trends
to give a scene for 2050. Here the changes have been measured by
comparing the geographic extent of urbanization through time. Human
induced land transformations may also be characterized by temporally
analyzing the conversion of land cover to land use. The evolution of an
urban area can be anticipated when modeling and predicting future urban
growth patterns to understand the impact that the change has on region’s
natural resources, economy and people. In order to investigate how humans
are altering the landscape, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are
currently studying the anthropogenic impacts on the Western environment
under urban dynamics and Global Change research program and results on
land use use trends, land transformations, urbanizations etc. would be
presented on quarterly reports. Those will reveal foreseeable scenarios for
urban growth for planning purposes based on initial growth predictions.
Growth projections for entire metropolitan areas can then be calibrated with
possible modifications made to allow for expenditure commensurate with
urban growth factors that are input to the models.

The modeling of interactions between urban activities and infrastructure

renewal and other economic activities are based on historic data. Apart from
transport modeling, modeling of ozone in some urban areas such as Chicago
are also critical. The urban land use allocation model (ULAM) makes use of
modeling software and related planning and engineering activities for traffic
modeling with urban land use concerns. Such Urban planning models have
been used in Florida for projecting urban development patterns. They
integrate land use probabilistic modeling of variability and uncertainties in
urban air toxic emission using pollution modeling on urban, regional and
global scales.

11.4 Constraints and Opportunities for GIS Application

11.4.1 Constraints

A GIS has many advantages in its use for support of public policy decisions
regarding natural resource use such as land, water, forests, fish and wildlife.
A number of limitations however exist in its applications. These includes:
limited user awareness, poor co-ordination among users, data quality and
propagation of error during analysis, costs and poor spatial coverage data,
limited capacity and generalizations for heterogeneous areas due to a scale
problem resulting from lack of all the information.

Most GIS systems portray sophisticated data processing with limited

analytical capabilities. In particular, they fail to take cognition of the
imprecision of many categories of spatially referenced data handled so
mechanically. Most spatial information systems assume real world
phenomena to be modeled by discrete entities such as points, lines,
polygons, etc which are deemed to have exact attributes.
For most processes, remote sensing is used along with data from other
sources such as digitized maps of soils, geology, and elevation etc. the
technique or merging information from different sources into one system has
to be carried out with care using same coordinate system. Usually, a GIS
does not offer information on equal size pixel, thus merging of different
information gives rise to severe errors. One practical example is in
hydrological modeling where water stored in the soil is relevant and this
depends on soil type and land use. Data from land use may be obtained from
land use classification derived from LANDSAT imagery while soil types
may be derived from digitized maps. Maximum soil storage from each pixel
is then determined on the basis of merged remote sensed data and map
information. Layers of diverse origins and with diverse degrees of accuracy
cause problems due to lack of consideration of the reliability of each source
in addition to possibility of unreliable rules for combining the information.

Outputs from such GIS applications depict no indication of how reliable the
classifications are and inference about the real world situation must be
treated with caution since exactly correct GIS output is not possible. There is
a certain amount of generalization involved. Generalizations for
heterogeneous areas result from scale problem for lack of all information.
Such generalization effects are compounded when one looks at more than
one feature simultaneously. There are errors associated with generalization
in both raster and vector systems. These are: area and point estimation and a
creation of spurious polygons, geo-coding errors and altered quality by
decreasing location and attribute accuracy which affect completeness and
consistency within the data.

In research, generalization of spatial data is considered deliberately induced,

such that if scale of map is decreased, there is less physical space to
represent the geographic features of a region and as the process continues,
such feature become exaggerated in a smaller scale. As the features ‘fight’
for presentation in a reduced map space, some features will be eliminated
and those remaining may further simplified, smoothed, displaced,
aggregated or enhanced. In some of the extreme cases the map losses its
geometric properties. The main reasons for generalization in a GIS are:

(i) To create a level of details appropriate for the scale of

display or analysis.
(ii) To permit analysis of data at multiple level of resolution
and
 (iii) To minimize the data storage and input/output operations.

Generalization facilities available within a GIS allows the selection of

generalization algorithms (instructions) that minimizes selected
generalization effects and therefore optimize the process from the point of
view of the user making him/her aware of what is happening with the data.
GIS tools such as overlays used along with models depict significant
incompatibilities preventing true integration since most GIS mange static
and discrete data, while environmental models deal with dynamic and
continuous phenomena. In natural world entities, there are no real sharp
class boundaries. For example, uses of logical operations of overlays in the
exact measurements of attributes of continuous classes propagate error in the
data generation in soil characteristics climatic and vegetation types, among
others.

The problem of data quality related to resolution database useful for a range
of many applications such as flood insurance is lacking. The challenge is for
technology, to be able to present distributed data in the right resolution for
respective purposes. Creating a viable GIS application from routinely
available spatial data can result in data error and user misconception.

11.5 Opportunities of GIS

There is a tendency towards a GIS software being integrated to mathematical

models and coupling of GIS with efficient databank. There will be a shift
from specific application models to spatial decision support and expert
systems to ensure top management have access to relevant information on a
day-to-day basis. Identification and development of critical management
indicators is therefore necessary.

Expert systems need to be developed which help the user in the decisions on
which software to be used and for what purpose. With the development of
new space systems, we will have at our disposal new types of remotely
sensed data that will require more complex GIS hardware and software.
With the continued threat of environmental decline, more research on
computer simulation models describing processes in each environmental
compartment; air, water and soil will be required precisely. Databases,
models, and expert systems can be combined to achieve practical solutions
for environmental problems. This could be achieved through delegating sub-
task to simple models or procedures and allowing nested expert system
(expert systems that contain rules that call for other expert systems).

GIS’s have improved in recent years due to direct research activities, user
involvement and vendor cooperation. This initiative increases user
awareness of spatial thinking and also a multi-media approach. Multi-media
is necessary because of unavailability of critical materials in convenient
formats importable into software packages for data to be assimilated into a
GIS to produce maps with sites having features of interest.

Aerial photographs, satellite imagery and technical reports are examples of

multi-media documents for which systems providing structured, exploratory
and explanatory navigation will be required to assist planning and
management through ‘best links’. With such systems, users could have their
questions answered interactively. A GIS could be used to integrate the range
of relevant data sets for producing supporting maps and statistics with no
more restrictions to operations offered by database management systems.
GIS will be expected to be more open to users’ demands of better interaction
and versatile customization. Integrated information and decision support
systems brings together large volumes of background data and interactively
distill from it decision-relevant information. A GIS is one of the key
technologies, others being workstations, networking, databases, interactive
graphics, modeling, optimization and expert systems. The development of
algorithms for automated acquisition of remotely sensed information holds
promising perspectives for wider applications in future.

Capability of handling time-variant data within a single system which allows

spatial data to vary with time and user interactive flexibility need to be
incorporated to model and GIS in future. Fast on-line data management,
inserting, updating retrieval in real time, while allowing for visual effects of
choice of model structure has potential for the future. Generally, an urban
capability map can be developed from an assessment of an interaction
between landforms, soils, land-cover, and hydrological feature. Various
classes based on physical limitations to urban land-use will then be defined
using raster format, defined by row and column position of cells occupied.
11.6 Summary

➢ A GIS application involves interdisplinary studies in social-economic

and environmental sciences and its strength lies in its capability to
combine independent datasets.
➢ The GIS technique deals with themes that integrate geographical and
non-geographical information.
➢ GIS handles large amounts of data in space, and many institutions can
use it to plan, zone, assess property and land records, public safety,
management of forested, agricultural and coastal lands, among others.
➢ Since all these diverse applications are carried out using similar
software and techniques, a GIS is a general purpose tool that may be
used to integrate data from various sources to determine resource
availability, plan ecological aspects, transport, urban and landscape
development, among other uses.
➢ Although a GIS can have many opportunities in its use, it has also a
number of limitations in its applications that include limited user
awareness, poor co-ordination among users, data quality and
propagation of error during analysis, costs and poor spatial coverage
data, limited capacity and generalization for heterogeneous areas due
to a scale problem resulting from lack of all the information.

11.7 Review Questions

a) Describe any organization that may be using GIS, and how the
organization is benefiting from the technology.
b) What are the opportunities and constraint of a GIS?
11.8 Further Reading

Antenucci J.C., Brown K., Croswell, P.L and M.J. (1991): Geographic
Information Systems: A Guide to Technology; New York:
Chapman Hall 301 pp.
Blackmore. M. (1983): Generalization and error in Spatial Databases.
Proc. Auto-Cart, 6pp 313-322.

Bracken. I. And Webster, C. (1990): Information Technology in

Geography and Planning Including Principles of GIS.
London: Routledge.
Burrough P.A. (1986): Principles of Geographic Information Systems for
Land Resource assessment, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Clark, M.J (1998): Putting Water in its Place: Perspectives on GIS in
Hydrology and Water Management: Hydrological Processes
12,823-834.
De Roo A.P.J. Hazelhoff, I and Burrough P.A. (1989): Soil Erosion
Modeling Using ANSWERS and Geographic Information
System; Earth Surface Processes Landif, 14,517-532.
Goodchild, M.F. (1980): The Effects of Generalization in Geographic Data
Encoding. In: Freeman, H. and Pieroni, G. (eds) Maps data
processing, New York: Academic press, Pp 191-205.
Goodchild, M.F, Parks, B.and Staeyart L. (1993): Environmental
Modeling with GIS; New York: Oxford University Press.
Heuvelink, G.B.and Burrough, P. (1993): Error Propagation in
Cartographic Modeling Using Boolean Logic and Continuous
Classification. In: International Journal of Geographic
Information Systems. Vol. 7 No.3 Taylor and Francis Ltd.
London Pp 231-247.
Maidement, D.R (1993): GIS and Hydrologic Modeling. In Environmental
modeling with GIS. (Eds.E.M. Goodchild, B.Parks & Staeyart,
L.; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Marble, D.F. and Amundson S.E. (1988): Microcomputer Based Geographic
 Information System and their Role in Urban and Regional
Planning. In Environment Planning, 15:305-324.
Masser, I and Campebell H. (1996): The Impact of GIS on Local
Government in Great Britain. In: Geographic Information
Handling- Research and Applications. Ed Paul M. Mather.
London: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Muller, J.C. (1991): Generalization of Spatial databases. In: Maguire, D.J,
Goodchild, M.F. and Klind, D.W. (eds), Geographic
Information Systems: Principles and Applications. Harlow:
Longman, pp457-475.

Reusing, M, Schneider, T and Ammer, U. (2000): Modeling Soil Loss Rates

in the Ethiopian Highlands by Integration of High Resolution
mom-02/d2 Stereo-Data in a GIS, In : International Journal
of Remote Sensing vol 21 No.9. Taylor and Francis Ltd.
London.Pp 1885-1896.
Thurner, T, Jones, A.B. and Brown D. (2000): A GIS based Coastal
Management System for Climate Change associated flood risk
assessment on the East Coast of England. In: International
Journal of Geographic Information Science, Ed. Fischer P.
Miller, H. and Lees. Vol.14 No.3. Taylor and Francis Ltd. Pp
265-282.
Viex, B.E. (1991): Geographical Information Systems and Non-Point
Source Water Quality and Quantity Modeling; Hydrological
Processes, 5 101, 101-113.
Xiang, W. (1993): A GIS Method for Riparian Water quality Buffer
Generation. In: International Journal of Geographic
Information Systems VOL.7 No.1 Ed.J.T.Coppck and
K.C.Clarke. Taylor and Francis Publishers, London. Pp57-70.