UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE:

Forms and Functions of the Eng. Clause

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Forms and Functions of the English Clause has been exclusively written by
experts in the discipline to update your general knowledge of English
Language in order to equip you with the basic tool required for your
professional work as a basic school teacher and administrator.

This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been structured to
reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus,
each session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance
learner, however, you are expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a
maximum of five hours on each session.

To help you do this effectively, a study guide has been particularly designed to
show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly
schedules are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and
examinations.

Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.

Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you
may find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course
tutor during your face-to-face meetings.

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Dr. Samuel Kwesi Nkansah

Dr. Isaac N. Mwinlaaru
Mr. Ebenezer Agbaglo

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

received from colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who
contributed in diverse ways toward the production of this particular course
book merit more than mere acknowledgement for two main reasons. First, they
worked beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and providing constant
support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task
was very high. Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this
particular course book was so short that their exceptional commitment and
dedication were the major factors that contributed to its accomplishment.

It is in the foregoing context that the names of Dr. Samuel Kwesi Nkansah,
Dr. Isaac N. Mwinlaaru and Mr. Ebenezer Agbaglo of the University of Cape
Coast, who wrote and edited the content of this course book for CoDEUCC,
will ever remain in the annals of the College. This special remembrance also
applies to those who assisted me in the final editing of the document.

I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, the

Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Dora Edu-Buandoh and all the staff of the
University’s Administration without whose diverse support this course book
would not have been completed.

Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially

Mrs. Christina Hesse and the Production Team for formatting the scripts.

Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the
good comments must be shared among those named above.

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
ii
 First publication in 2021 by UCC Press

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE

COAST (CoDE UCC), 2021

First Publications, 2021

All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

Cover page illustrated by Enoch Mbroh

 SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

UNIT OBJECTIVES

SESSION OBJECTIVES

DO AN ACTIVITY

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

REFER TO

READ OR LOOK AT

SUMMARY

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION(S)

ASSIGNMENT

viii CoDEUCC/ Bachelor of Education (JHS)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... i

Acknowledgement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Table of Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings ... ... . ... ... viii

UNIT 1: THE CLAUSES … … … … … … 1

Session 1: The Clause and the Sentence Distinguished … 3
1.1 Distinguishing the clause and the sentence … 3
Session 2: The English Clause Type System … … … 7
2.1 Clause Types … … … … … 7
Session 3: The Declarative Clause … … … … 11
3.1 What is a Declarative Clause … … … 11
3.2 Grammatical Features of the Declarative Clause 12
Session 4: The Interrogative Clause … … … … 15
4.1 What is an Interrogative Clause … … 15
4.2 Features of the Interrogative Clause … … 16
Session 5: The Imperative Clause … … … … 19
5.1 What is an Imperative Clause … … … 19
5.2 Grammatical Features of the Imperative Clause 19
Session 6: The Exclamative Clause … … … … 23
6.1 What is an Exclamative Clause … … 23
6.2 Features of the Exclamative Clause … … 24

UNIT 2: THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS … … … 29

Session 1: The Subject and Predicator … … … … 29

1.1 The Subject … … … … … 29
1.2 The Predicator … … … … … 33
Session 2: The Direct Object … … … … … 35
2.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the
Direct Object … … … … 35
2.2 Realisations of the Direct Object … … 36

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) iii

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 3: The Indirect Object … … … … … 39

3.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the
Indirect Object … … … … 39
3.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object … … 40
Session4: The Prepositional Complement … … … 47
4.1 Semantic and syntactic features of the prepositional
Complement … … … … … 47
4.2 Types of verb + Preposition Ccombinations … 48
4.3 Realisations of the Prepositional Complement 49
Session 5: The Subject and Object Complements … … 51
5.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Subject
Complement … … … … … 51
5.2 Realisations of the Subject Complement
Adjective as Subject Complement … … 52
5.3 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Object
Complement … … … … … 53
5.4 Realisations of the Object Complement … 54
Session 6: The Adjunct … … … … … 55
6.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features … … 55
6.2 Main Types of Adjuncts … … … 56

UNIT 3: THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES … 61

Session 1: Defining the Clause … … … … 61
Session 2: Clause Types: Finite, Non-Finite and Verbless Clauses 65
2.1 Structural Types of Clauses … … … 65
Session 3: The Finite Clause … … … … … 69
3.1 Features of the Finite Clause … … … 69
Session 4: The Non-Finite Clause I: The Infinitives … … 73
4.1 Description of the Non-finite Clause … … 73
4.2 Classes of the Non-finite Clause … … 73
Session 5: The Non-Finite Clause II: The Participles … … 77
5.1 Features of the -ing Participle Non-finite Clause 77
5.2 Features of the -ed/en Participle Non-finite Clause 78
5.3 Some Structural Deficiencies of the
Non-finite Clauses … … … 79

iv CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 4 THE NOMINAL CLAUSES … … … 87

Session 1: The Noun, The Noun Phrase And The Nominal Clause 87
1.1 The Noun … … … … … 87
1.2 The Noun Phrase … … … … 88
1.3 The Nominal Clause … … … … 88
Session 2: The That Finite Nominal Clause … … … 91
2.1 The Structure of the That Nominal Clause … 91
2.2 Difference between the That Nominal Clause
and the Relative Clause introduced by that … 92
2.3 Functions of the That Nominal Clause … 93
2.4 Other things to note about that – clause … 95
Session 3: The Nominal Interrogative Finite Clauses … … 97
3.2 The Yes-No Interrogative Clause … … 100
Session 4: The Nominal Relative Clause … … … 103
4.1 Features of the Nominal Relative Clause … 103
4.2 Functions of the Nominal Relative Clause … 105
Session 5: The Infinitive Non-Finite Nominal Clauses … … 109
5.1 To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clause … 109
5.2 The Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause … … 109
Session 6: The Participial and Verbless Nominal Clauses … 113
6.1 The Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause 113
6.2 The Verbless Clause … … … … 115

UNIT 5: RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES … 121

Session1: Relative Clauses-An Introduction … … … 121
1.1 What are Relative Clauses … … …` 121
1.2 Relative Pronouns … … … … 122
1.3 The Function of Relative Clauses … 122
Session 2: Factors That Determine the Choice of Relative
Pronouns I: The Antecedent … … … 125
2.1 The Choice of Relative Pronouns … … 125
2.2 Human Antecedent … … … … 126
2.3 Human Antecedent … … … … 127
Session 3: Factors that Determine the Choice of the Relative
Pronoun II: Function of the Relative Clause in the
Sentence … … … … … … 129
3.1 Defining or Restrictive Relative Clause … 129
3.2 Features of the Defining/Restrictive Clause … 130
3.3 Non-Defining or Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses 131

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.4 Features of the Non-Defining Relative Clause 131

3.5 Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses 132
3.6 Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative
Clauses … … … … … 132
Session 4: Factors That Determine The Choice Of The Relative
Pronoun III: The Function of the Relative Pronoun 135
4.1 Relative Pronouns can function as Noun Phrases 135
Session 5: Sentence Relative Clauses … … … … 139
5.1 Sentential Antecedent … … … … 139
5.2 An Obligatory Comma Separates the Sentential
Antecedent … … … … … 140
5.3 Sentential Antecedents Select “which’ Only … 140
5.4 The Function of the Relative Clause … … 141
Session 6: Adjectival Clauses … … … … … 143
6.1 Adjectival Clauses … … … … 143
6.2 Adjectival and Relative Clauses … … 143

UNIT 6 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES … … … … 149

Session 1: Adverbial Clauses of Time and Place … … 149
1.1 The Adverbial Clause … … … … 149
1.2 Adverbial Clause of Time … … … 150
1.3 Conjunctions that Introduce Time Clauses … 151
1.4 Observation on the time indicators in the … 151
1.5 Adverbial Clauses of Place … … … 152
1.6 Differences between Adverbial and Adjectival
1.7 Clauses Introduced by “when” and “where” … 152
Session 2: Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result … … 157
2.1 A Purpose Adverbial Clause … … … 157
2.2 Non-finite Purpose Clauses … … … 159
2.3 Adverbial Clauses of Result … … … 159
2.4 Subordinate Conjunctions in Result Clauses … 160
2.5 “So that” can Introduce Both Purpose and
Result Clauses … … … 160
2.6 Is it possible to switch the order in the
Result clause? … … … … 160

vi CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Session 3: Conditional Clauses I: Open and Hypothetical

Conditions 163
3.1 Meaning of Conditional Clauses … … 163
3.2 Open Condition … … … … 164
3.3 Verb Patterns in Open Condition … … 164
3.4 Conjunctions used in Conditional Sentences … 165
3.5 The Hypothetical Condition … … … 166
3.6 “Be” in Hypothetical Condition … … 166
3.7 The Verb Patterns in Hypothetical Condition 167
Session 4: Conditional Clauses II: Unfulfilled Condition … 169
4.1 Unfulfilled Condition … … … … 169
` 4.2 Unfulfilled Conditional Clauses make Past Time
Reference … … … … … 170
4.3 Hypothetical and Unfulfilled Conditions
Compared … … … … … 170
4.4 Structural Differences between the Conditional
Clauses … … … 172
Session 5: Adverbial Clauses of Reason, Comparison, Concession
And Manner … … … … … … 175
5.1 Reason Clauses … … … … 175
5.2 Reason and Purpose Clauses should be
Distinguished … … … … … 176
5.3 Clauses of Comparison … … … 176
5.4 Comparative Phrases … … … … 177
5.5 Clauses of Concession … … … 178
5.6 Adverbial Clauses of Manner … … … 179
Session 6: A Summary of Adverbial Clauses … … … 181
6.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses … … … 181
6.2 Adverbial, Relative and Adjectival Clauses … 184
6.3 Adverbial Clauses and Nominal Clauses … 185
6.4 “That” in Nominal, Relative and Adverbial
Clauses … … … … … 186

References … … … … … … … … 189

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) vii

 THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE FOR THE
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copyright holder.
THE CLAUSES
UNIT 1

UNIT 1: THE CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Clause and the Sentence Distinguished
Session 2: The English Clause Type System
Session 3: The Declarative Clause
Session 4: The Interrogative Clause
Session 5: The Imperative Clause
Session 6: The Exclamative Clause

Dear Student, welcome to Unit 1 of this module. In this

unit, we will be learning about the clause in the English
Language. We will be looking at what a clause is and the various clause types
based on the syntactic properties.
As part of our studies, we will be doing some exercises and we will be looking
at a lot of examples.

Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
1. define the clause according;
2. distinguish a clause from a sentence;
3. identify the types of main clauses – declarative, interrogative,
imperative and exclamatory;
4. describe each type of main clause appropriately based on the
syntactic properties that characterize them; and
5. construct your own examples of the types of the main clause based
on identifiable properties.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 1
 THE CLAUSES
UNIT 1

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

2 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSES
UNIT 1
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE

DISTINGUISHED

Dear Student, you are welcome to one important element in

grammar – the clause. Have you ever heard of it? Is there
any difference between a clause and a sentence? In this session, we shall try to
define the clause according to types.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) explain the clause and a sentence; and
(c) distinguish a clause from a sentence.

Now read on…

1.1 Distinguishing the clause and the sentence

The sentence is normally considered to be the largest unit of grammar.
Potentially, a sentence must include at least one main clause. What does this
mean? It means that a clause is not the same as a sentence. Let us look at the
following constructions:
i. The students are clever.
ii. When I came home, you were not around.
iii. If you have the time
What do you observe from the structures above?
a. Yes, in i, we have a structure that contains a subject and a predicate.
Can you identify the subject and predicate in i? Yes, they are “The
students” and “are clever” respectively. We can refer to this
structure as a clause. Note that it exists independently and does not
need any other structure for its meaning. Such clauses are known as
independent clauses. Independent clauses are characterized in terms
of a small set of internal elements known as clausal elements:
subject, verb, object, complement and adjunct (SVOCA). A
clausal analysis of i will give us S [The students] +V[are]
+C[clever]. For a detailed discussion of the clausal elements, refer
to Unit 2.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 3
 UNIT 1 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE
SESSION 1 DISTINGUISHED

b. In ii, however, we have a structure that contains two clauses,

“When I came home” and “you were not around”. One of them is
dependent while the other is not. Can you tell which one is
dependent and which one is not? Yes, “When I came home” is the
dependent clause because it depends on the independent or main
clause, “you were not around”, for meaning. We can refer to the
structure in ii as a sentence.

c. The structure in iii is distinct in the sense that although it has a

subject and a predicate, it does not contain any complete idea. We
refer to this structure as a dependent clause. Later in this module,
we will examine the details of dependent clauses, sometimes
referred to as subordinate clauses.

A clause is different from a sentence in the sense that while clauses are
characterized in terms of the clausal elements (SVOCA), a sentence is
characterized in terms of how many clauses it contains. Note that a sentence
that contains only one clause can be referred to as a clause, but not all clauses
can be referred to as a sentence. Let us look at some more examples below:
i. Power corrupts.
ii. You are doing well.
iii. If you are going to be around
iv. When they went to the MPs house, they met no one there.
Can you categorize the above structures into clauses and sentences? Of course,
i, ii, and iii are clauses, while i, ii, and iv are sentences. Observe that iii can
only be a clause (dependent), but not a sentence.

In this session, what has been said so far is to introduce you

to clauses and it differs technically from a sentence. While
clauses are characterized by their clausal elements, sentences are characterized
by how many clauses they contain. We have also found that there are two basic
types of clauses: dependent and independent clauses. There are different
structural types and in the subsequent sessions, we shall examine them. Since
there are different types of clauses, we shall examine each one in subsequent
sessions to know more about them.

4 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSES
UNIT 1
SESSION 1

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
Identify the clauses in the following structures. Where necessary, tell
which one is a main clause.
1. They met online before the face-to-face session.
2. If we are not careful, we are going to lose the contract.
3. When you go to Oboadaka, you will find the stone box.
4. Online sessions have been very exciting.
5. Because the rains came early this year, everybody thought it was going
to be a very fruitful farming year.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 5
 UNIT 1 THE CLAUSE AND THE SENTENCE
SESSION 1 DISTINGUISHED

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

6 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: THE ENGLISH CLAUSE TYPE SYSTEM

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 2 of Unit 1. In

the last session, we explained what a clause is and how it
differs from the sentence. We did this by paying attention to the composition
of the sentence. We mentioned that a sentence potentially consists of at least a
clause. We also saw that clauses divide into types: main and dependent. In this
session, we shall pay attention to this type system of the English clause.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) explain the clause type system in English;
(b) identify the four major clause types; and
(b) illustrate each type appropriately.

Now read on…

2.1 Clause Types

The term, “clause type”, is used to refer to the range of grammatical and
syntactic strategies for reorganizing the default clause type in the English
language. In some grammars, the type system has been applied to sentences.
This gives us declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative
sentences and exclamatory sentences. However, there is evidence that it is
basically to the clause, not the sentence, that the system of type applies.
Indeed, subordinate clauses, which are themselves not sentences, also lend
themselves to this type system in English. We can appropriately, therefore,
refer to clause types and not sentence types. Although the system applies to
both subordinate and main clauses, the focus will be on main clauses.

2.1.1 The main clause

Main clauses are independent clause types that can convey meaning on their
own without depending on any other clause. An independent clause is not a
part of any larger clause. Can you pick out the main clauses in the following
examples?
i. Start preparing your land.
ii. When the rains start
iii. We expected a good game.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 7
 UNIT 1 THE ENGLISH CLAUSE TYPE SYSTEM
SESSION 2

iv. When is the match starting?

v. What a day it has been!
Well done! Apart from example ii “when the rains start”, the rest of the
examples are main clauses. Now consider the meaning of the clauses carefully.
Which ones will you pick as having a complete thought? Of course, once again
examples i, iii, iv and v contain what is referred to as a complete thought or
idea. Here are some more examples of the main clause.
i. Who invented the cell phone?
ii. We are friends of the orphanage.
iii. Come with your modules next time.
iv. How wonderfully she speaks of her friend.
v. The men are always working.

Four basic ‘type’ categories apply to the main clauses of English. This ‘type’
categorization is based on some grammatical or syntactic properties. These are
declarative clause, interrogative clause, imperative clause, and exclamative
clause. Have you come across these clause types? Can you identify the type of
the clause we have in the examples above? Yes, this is
i. Who invented the cell phone? [interrogative]
ii. We are friends of the orphanage. [declarative]
iii. Come with your modules next time. [imperative]
iv. How wonderfully she speaks of her friend. [exclamative]
v. The men are always working. [declarative]

Clause type is a grammatical system in the sense that no clause can belong to
more than one of the categories: they are mutually exclusive. An interrogative
clause, for instance, is an interrogative clause, and an imperative clause is
imperative exclusively. This implies that the respective grammatical features
of the clauses are key in distinguishing the main clause types. Can you tell the
clause type in the following examples?
i. The clause is an interesting unit in the study of grammar.
ii. Is there anything I can do for you?
iii. Be strong and courageous.
iv. Clause type is a grammatical system.
v. Do you understand?

8 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 2

Great! Here it is; we have

i. declarative
ii. interrogative
iii. imperative
iv. declarative and
v. interrogative

Remember we have said that any particular instance of a clause type will be
exclusively one clause type or the other, but not two or more simultaneously.
For instance, you cannot have one to be both interrogative and, at the same
time, imperative.

In this session, we have explained the concept of ‘type’ and

why it should appropriately apply to clauses and not
sentences. We have identified four main types of clauses: declarative,
interrogative, imperative and exclamative. We also mentioned that the clause
types are mutually exclusive. This means that any particular instance of an
interrogative clause is so called by virtue of its grammatical features which
will not be entirely the same as an exclamative, for instance.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.2
Pick out all the main clauses from the extract below and assign them
their respective clause type status.

Managers often find it difficult not to pass judgment on subordinates

automatically. Conscious effort is sometimes needed to avoid this defense-
provoking behavior. Senders should pay careful attention to objectivity in
communications. One should avoid the common tendency to formulate a reply
while the other person is speaking, instead of concentrating on trying to listen
to what the speaker is actually saying

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 9
 UNIT 1 THE ENGLISH CLAUSE TYPE SYSTEM
SESSION 2

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

10 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE UNIT 1
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: THE DECLARATIVE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to the third session of the

unit. In the previous session, we identified two types of the
clause. Do you remember them? They are the main and dependent clauses.
We particularly discussed that the main clause type, which is the focus of this
unit, divides into four different types based on some grammatical or, if you
like, syntactic features they consistently exhibit. In this session, we shall study
the declarative clause type more closely.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) explain a declarative clause;
(b) identify its formal and grammatical properties; and
(c) construct some declarative clause types.

Now read on…

3.1 What is a Declarative Clause?

The declarative clause is a clause whose syntactic configuration displays a
subject-verb (S-V) order. Declarative clauses are formally marked by a full
stop at the end of the clause. Before we look at some examples, let us explain
the term syntactic configuration. By syntactic configuration, we mean related
to syntax. Syntax is the way English arranges or orders words to form larger
units such as the clause or the sentence. A syntactic configuration in this
context simply means the arrangement of clausal elements such as the subject,
verb etc. in the clause. In the declarative clause, such ordering has the subject
preceding the verb (Subject + Verb). Now, let us look at some examples:
i. The students are proud of their performance.
ii. The university has a police station and a hospital.
iii. Grammar is an interesting area of language studies.
iv. Birds sing.
v. A hospital and a police station at one place means a lot.
What observation can you make about i-v above? Do you see that each of the
clauses in i-v above ends in a full stop? Yes, full stops mark the end of all
declarative clauses. Can you pick out all the subjects of the clauses in i-v
above? Try it. Do you have
CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 11
 UNIT 1 THE DECLARATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 3

i. “The students”?
ii. “The university”?
iii. “Grammar”?
iv. “Birds”?
v. “A hospital and a police station at one place”?

You have done well. Observe also that the position of these subjects is before
the verb. In other words, the subjects precede the verbs in the clauses above.
Can you identify all the verbs? Yes, they are “are”, “has”, “is”, “sings” and
“means” in i, ii, iii, iv, and v respectively.

Construct three declarative clauses and identify the respective subjects and
verbs. What can you say about the subjects and verbs you have used? Here are
some more examples. The subjects have been underlined and the verbs are in
bold.
i. George drew his seat near the door.
ii. Stowe ended the novel with Uncle Tom’s death.
iii. Legree represents the ultimate brutalization that slavery permits.
iv. What we know is just a fraction of the unknown.
v. Whoever introduced distance education to Ghana has been a
blessing.

Have you paid attention to the subjects in iv and v? What realizes the subject
in the declarative clause can be significantly expanded from a word to a whole
subordinate clause. Now, let’s pay attention to some other significant features
of the declarative clause.

3.2 Grammatical Features of the Declarative Clause

a. In the declarative clause, the subject is present and generally precedes
the verb. Each example we have seen displays this feature of the clause.
Let us look at a few more examples:
i. Everybody loves Saturday nights.
ii. Consistently, they made it impossible for us to meet the
president.
iii. Kwame knows every corner of this town.
iv. They always complain about your food.

12 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE UNIT 1
SESSION 3

b. The verb of the declarative clause is always finite. A finite verb is a

form of the verb that indicates tense. It tells whether the action in the
verb is present or past. In the examples below, the finite verbs are in
bold:
i. It shows we are not ready
ii. History repeats itself.
iii. They appeared on the scene.
iv. They were on the show last night.

c. The presence of a finite verb means that the subject and verb in the
declarative clause mark agreement (subject-verb agreement).
Generally, a singular subject agrees with a singular verb. In the
examples below, subjects have been underlined and verbs are in bold.
i. It shows we are not ready. [singular subject, singular verb]
ii. History repeats itself. [singular subject, singular verb]
iii. They are ready. [plural subject, plural verb]
iv. The students understand themselves. [plural subject, plural
verb]

d. A declarative clause can be affirmative or negative.

i. I am coming. [affirmative]
ii. I am not coming. [negative]

e. They are considered the default sentence types. They are the “default”
type of the main clauses. This means that a clause is declarative if it
lacks the special syntactic and grammatical properties that define the
other types. For instance, syntactic modifications of the declarative
clause in i below results in the other main clause types.
i. He is nice. [declarative]
ii. Is he nice? [interrogative]
iii. How nice he is! [exclamative]
iv. Be nice. [imperative]

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 13
 UNIT 1 THE DECLARATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 3

In this session, we looked at the grammatical features of a

declarative clause. We have said that in the declarative clause,
there is the presence of a subject which precedes the verb. We also said the
verb in the declarative clause is always finite and shows number agreement
with the subject. Again, we have mentioned that the declarative clause can in
the affirmative or negative and that it is a default clause type.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.3

Construct four declarative structures and identify two features each of the four
you have provided.

14 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: THE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to the fourth session of Unit 1.

In the previous session, we looked at the definition and features
of the declarative clause. Do you remember what we said a declarative clause
is? What are some of its features? In this session, we shall study the
interrogative clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) explain the interrogative clause;
(b) identify its grammatical properties; and
(c) construct some interrogative clause types.

Now read on…

4.1 What is an Interrogative Clause?

An interrogative is a clause type that is identified by two different structural
clues: a subject-verb inversion and a fronted wh word. In addition, rising
intonation (in speech) and a question mark (in writing) are supplementary,
non-grammatical markers of the interrogative clause. There are two main
subclasses of the interrogative clause: yes/no-interrogatives and wh-
interrogatives.

Here are some examples:

i. Do you remember me?
ii. Have they started recruiting?
iii. Is that your car over there?
iv. Which way did he go?
v. What do you want from me?
vi. How can I help you?

Can you group the interrogatives above under yes/no-interrogative

and wh-interrogative? Yes, you will observe that the first three
examples (i-iii) have a special syntactic organization. Those clauses in i-iii are
known as yes/no-interrogatives or closed interrogatives or polar interrogatives.
They are so called because the range of answers available for such

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 15
 UNIT 1 THE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 4

interrogatives is from yes to no. They are referred to as closed interrogatives

because the available responses to such questions are limited (closed).

Do you see any similarities with examples iv-vi? Yes, they all have a wh-word
introducing them. This subclass derives its name from the words they are
introduced with. We call them wh-interrogatives. They are also called open or
non-polar interrogatives. They are so called because the range of possible
answers to such questions are limitlessly open.

Provide answers to the following interrogatives. Compare your answers with

your colleague’s.
i. What is your greatest fear?
ii. Where were you last night?
iii. Who were you with last night?
iv. Have you travelled outside Ghana before?
v. Do you know that five Ayew brothers have played for the Senior
National Team within the past two decades?
vi. Is Oboadaka on the map of Ghana?

4.2 Features of the Interrogative Clause

Interrogative clauses are marked by some grammatical and syntactic properties,
which set them apart from other clauses in the main clause family.

a. Interrogatives are marked by subject-auxiliary inversion. In both closed and

open interrogative, this is a common feature.

b. They are always tensed. This means that the operator in the closed
interrogative and the verb in the wh-interrogative indicates the time, either
past or present, described by the lexical verb.

c. The wh-interrogative is usually marked by fronting of the wh-word. This

means that generally, the wh word begins the interrogative clause.

d. Interrogatives, in writing, are marked by a question mark. In speech, this

feature is marked by a rising intonation.

16 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 4

In this session, we introduced the interrogative clause. We

observed the interrogative clause comes in two main types,
which we identified as yes/no- and wh-interrogatives. We also identified some
grammatical properties that are consistent with this clause type. In the next
session, we shall consider yet another clause type: the imperative clause.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.4
Identify the infinitive clauses in the following sentences.
1. Classify the following interrogatives into either yes/no or wh-
interrogative.
i. Will you be here for the next meeting?
ii. Do I have an option?
iii. How do I know my ginger is ready for harvest?
iv. Have you tried talking to a counsellor?
v. Why didn’t you tell me earlier?
vi. Can’t you give him an excuse?

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 17
 UNIT 1 THE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 4

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

18 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: THE IMPERATIVE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 5 of the unit. I

hope you enjoyed the previous session and did the exercise
well. That is good. You remember we mentioned four classes of the
independent clause. Can you mention them? We examined the first two
classes – the declarative and interrogative. In this session, we shall discuss the
imperative.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) explain an imperative clause;
(b) identify its formal and grammatical properties; and
(c) construct some imperative clause types.

Now read on…

5.1 What is an Imperative Clause?

Imperative clauses consist of a base form of the verb alone without auxiliaries.
They begin with the base form of the verb and usually take the second person
(you) for subject. This clause type is normally interpreted as giving out orders
or directives. Let us look at some examples:
i. Give me freedom.
ii. Allow me some additional time.
iii. Watch him closely.
iv. Be careful.

5.2 Grammatical Features of the Imperative Clause

a. Imperative clauses usually do not have a subject.

i. Make yourself comfortable.
ii. Pass your notes forward.
iii. Don’t mind them.
iv. Remember me when we are no more together.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 19
 UNIT 1 THE IMPERATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 5

b. The second person pronoun “you” may be added as subject.

i. You make me an offer.
ii. You sit first.
iii. You do as I say.
c. Occasionally, a third person subject can be introduced.
i. Somebody make me an offer.
ii. Those in the front row sit down.
iii. Somebody receive your breakthrough.
iv. Those at the back pass your papers forward.

d. First and third person pronouns may be introduced as subject

with the help of “let”.
i. Let us go now.
ii. Let us not tell him.
iii. Don’t let us talk about that here.
iv. Let me think about myself.
v. Let nobody move.

e. The imperative verb lacks tense distinction. The verb is almost

always in the plain or base form.
i. Do your homework.
ii. Invite me to your house one of these days.
iii. Congratulate her.
iv. Read the following passage carefully.

f. Imperatives require the introduction of “do” in the negative

even where the first verb is “be”.
i. Do not be greedy.
ii. Do not go anywhere.
iii. Do not get me angry.

In this session, we examined the details of the imperative

clause. We said the imperative clause consists of a base
form of the verb without auxiliaries. We have identified as part of its features
that their subjects, usually “you”, are omissible. We also mentioned that in the
negative form, an imperative clause requires a “do” insertion.

20 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 5

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.5
Construct five imperative clauses and write out any features you
may identify with them.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 21
 UNIT 1 THE IMPERATIVE CLAUSE
SESSION 5

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

22 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: THE EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to the last session of Unit l.

Do you remember what you studied in the previous session?
You are right. We studied imperative clauses. What did we say about them?
Remember we said this clause type has a verb which is always in the base
form. We also said the subject of the imperative clause is always hidden and,
generally, understood to be “you”. In this session, we shall examine another
clause type: the exclamative.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) explain an exclamative clause;
(b) identify its grammatical properties; and
(c) construct some exclamative clause types.

Now read on…

6.1 What is an Exclamative Clause?

An exclamative clause is a clause that expresses feelings of happiness,
surprise, delight, pain, anger, confusion, love, admiration, or any other
boisterous emotions. According to Downing and Locke (2006), the
exclamative clause grammaticalises the expression of emotion. Here are some
examples:
i. What a happy day it was!
ii. What a description that was!
iii. What an embarrassment that was!
iv. How amazing she appears on stage!
v. How hard she works!
vi. How cleverly he speaks!

What observations can you make from the examples above? Good! One group
of examples (i, i, and iii) are introduced by “what” while iv, v and vi are
introduced by “how”. We refer to these wh-words as exclamative words. Do
you remember any clause type that has a similar ordering? Yes, the wh-
interrogative clause. Can you tell the difference? Of course, the wh-word in the
interrogative represents a missing information while in the exclamative clause,
it represents or carries the degree or quality of the emotion associated with the
CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 23
 THE EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6

event or state described. Again, the wh-word in the exclamative is a determiner

while it is a pronoun in the interrogative.

6.2 Features of the Exclamative Clause

Exclamative clauses are distinguished from other clause types by some
consistent formal, grammatical and syntactic features.
a. Exclamative clauses are introduced by wh-elements: “what” and
“how”.

b. When it is introduced by “how”, it is followed by either an

adjective/adjective phrase or an adverb/adverb phrase.
i. How angry I was!
ii. How beautiful you look in that!
iii. How melodiously she sings!
iv. How fast it runs!

c. When it is introduced by “what”, it is followed by a noun or a noun

phrase.
i. What a friend we have in Jesus!
ii. What nonsense he spews!
iii. What a great move that was!
iv. What a little man he has become!

d. Generally, the exclamative clause has subject-verb order.

i. What a friend we have in Jesus!
ii. How mysterious the stone box looks.

In this session, we examined the exclamative clause. We

said it is the clause type that helps us to grammaticalize our
emotions of happiness, love, anger, delight and what have you. It involves
fronting of the wh-words, “what” and “how”, and in writing, it usually ends
with an exclamation mark. Thus, exclamative clauses convey a statement with
overlay of emotion or attitudinal attachment to such statements.

24 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.6
Restore the appropriate punctuation for the following clauses.

a. How we hated it
b. How did you manage it
c. How amazing did she look
d. How amazing she looked
e. How interesting was it
f. How interesting it was
g. What nonsense that was
h. What nonsense are you talking about

Assignment Questions
1. What do declarative clauses have in common with exclamative clauses?
2. How different is an interrogative from an exclamative?

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 25
 THE EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear;
• difficult topics if any.

26 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2

UNIT 2: THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Subject and Predicator
Session 2: The Direct Object
Session 3: The Indirect Object
Session 4: The Prepositional Complement
Session 5: The Subject and Object Complements
Session 6: The Adjunct

Welcome to Unit 2. In this unit, we shall look at the units

that make up a clause. They are called clausal units, and
they include the Subject, Predicator, Direct Object, Indirect Object,
Prepositional Complement, Subject Complement, Object Complement and
Adjunct.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. describe the clausal elements;
2. identify the semantic and syntactic features; and
3. illustrate their realisations.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 27
 THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

28 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
 UNIT 2
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR

Dear Student, you are welcome to another important topic in

your course. In this session, we will focus on the Subject and
Predicator as clausal elements. We will look at their semantic features and
syntactic realisations.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) explain the semantic features of the Subject;
(b) identify the linguistic realisations of the Subject;
(c) identify the semantic characteristics of the Predicator; and
(d) illustrate the realisations of the Predicator.

Now read on…

1.1 The Subject

1.1.1 Semantic and cognitive features of the subject

The Subject is that functional category of the clause of which something is
predicated. This means that the subject represents who or what the clausal
message is primarily about. In basic clauses of ‘doing’, the subject aligns with
the semantic function of Agent, that is, the one who performs the action.
However, the subject can represent other participant roles. The following
examples illustrate some of the possible roles aligned with the subject:
1. Jones kicked the ball into the net. (Agent )
2. The ball was kicked into the net. (Affected in a passive clause)
3. Tom saw a snake near the river. (Experiencer in a mental process)
4. The secretary has been given some chocolates. (Recipient in a passive
clause)

Can you construct sentences containing each of the above semantic

roles? Good!

1.1.2 Syntactic features of the subject

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 UNIT 2 THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR
SESSION 1

The Subject has some syntactic features. Syntactically, in English, the Subject
must be present in declarative and interrogative clauses, but it is not required in
the imperative. However, when two or more conjoined clauses have the same
Subject, all the subjects, except the first one, are ellipted.
1. a. He came in, he sat down and he took out a cigarette (three conjoined
clauses with the same subject)
b. He came in, sat down and took out a cigarette (ellipsis of the other
two subjects)
The Subject is that element which is picked up in a question tag and referred to
anaphorically by a pronoun. Anaphorical reference means making backward
reference.
1. Your brother is a ski instructor, isn’t he?
In this example, “he” makes anaphorical reference to “Your brother”. I hope
you get it? Let us consider another example:
2. Susie won’t mind waiting a moment, will she?
In this example too, the pronoun, “she”, makes anaphorical reference to the
Subject, “Susie”.

The Subject is placed before the finite verb in declarative clauses, and in wh-
questions where the wh-element is Subject, as in the examples below:
1. Unfortunately, everyone left early.
2. Who came in late last night?

It is placed after the finite operator (the first element of the verb phrase) in
yes/no questions and in wh-questions in which the wh-element is not Subject:
1. Are you pleased with the result?
2. Did everyone leave early?
3. What film did you see last night? (What film is Object)
4. When did Sylvia get back? (When is Adjunct)

The pronominal forms “I”, “he”, “she”, “we” and “they are used to realise
Subject function, in contrast to the objective forms “me”, “him”, “her”, “us”
and “them”, which are used for Objects. However, “you” and “it” are used as
Subject and Object. Possessive forms may stand as Subject:
1. I am a teacher.
2. They were here last week.
3. Yours was rather difficult to read.
4. Jennifer’s got lost in the post.

30 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
 UNIT 2
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS SESSION 1

Subject agree with verbs in terms of concord. This means that whenever there
is a plural Subject, the verb must be plural and also when there is a singular
Subject, the verb must be singular. Concord is manifested only in those verb
forms that show inflectional contrast:
1. The librarian/he/she has checked the book.

2. The librarians/I/you/we/they have checked the book.

3. Where is my credit card?

4. Where are my credit cards?

When a collective noun is used as Subject, the verb chosen can be singular or
plural, depending on how the speaker perceives the collective noun. When the
noun is perceived as a whole, the verb is usually singular, and when it is
considered as a number of members, the verb is plural:
1. The committee is sitting late. (seen as a whole)
2. The committee have decided to award extra grants. (seen as a number
of members)

Subjects determine number, person and gender concord with the Subject
Complement, and of reflexive pronouns:
1. Jean and Bill are my friends.

2. She cut herself on a piece of broken glass.

3. Why don’t you give yourself a treat?

Can you construct sentences to illustrate these syntactic features of the

Subject? Very Good.

1.1.3 Realisations of the Subject

Nouns and noun phrases: Basically, the Subject function is realised by nouns
and noun phrases.
1. Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain. (Noun)
2. The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known.
(Noun phrase)

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 UNIT 2 THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR
SESSION 1

Dummy it: This is a non-referential or semantically empty use of the pronoun

“it”. It is used in expressions of time, weather and distance. Consider the
following examples:
1. It is nearly three o’clock.

2. It is raining.

3. It is six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona.

Unstressed there: This also functions as Subject in clauses. However, unlike

normal Subjects, it cannot be replaced by a pronoun. In expressions containing
the unstressed “there”, the verb usually agrees with the noun following it,
rather than the unstressed there. Because of this, unstressed there can be
regarded as a Subject ‘place-holder’, rather than a full Subject. Examples are
given below:
1. There was only one fine day last week, wasn’t there?
2. There were only two fine days last week, weren’t there?

Prepositional phrase (PP) and Adverbial phrase (AP): There are cases
where prepositional and adverbial phrases perform the Subject function. They
usually specify meanings of time or place.
1. Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place)
2. Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time)
3. By plane costs more than by train. (PP of means)
4. Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic. (AP of place)

Finite clauses: The finite clauses include the that-clause, wh-interrogative

clause or nominal relative clauses. They are illustrated in the following
examples, where they all realise the Subject element.

1. That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause)

2. Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-
interrogative)
3. What he said shocked me. (nominal relative clause)

Non-finite clauses: Non-finite clauses that can function as Subject include the
to-infinitive, which can be introduced by a wh-word; -ing clauses; and the bare
infinitive clause. The ‘bare’ infinitive clause is marginally used:

32 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
 UNIT 2
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS SESSION 1

1. To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)

2. Where to leave the dog is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause)
3. Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (-ing clause)
4. Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause)

Anticipatory it (extraposed Subject): There are cases that actual Subjects are
too long, such that they need to be pushed towards the end of the clause. In
such cases, their position is taken by the anticipatory “it”. In the examples
below, the actual Subjects are italicized, with the anticipatory “it” underlined:
1. It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test.
2. It was impossible for everyone to escape.

1.2 The Predicator

The Predicator is the verb or verb phrase. It is present in all major clause types,
including the imperative clause. It is the Predicator that determine the
remaining structure of the clause, by virtue of being intransitive, transitive or
copular. The Predicator may constitute the whole of the predicate, as in The
plane landed, or part of it, as in The plane landed on the runway. The
Predicator function is realised by both finite (e.g. waits) and non-finite
(waiting) lexical and primary verbs.
Semantically, the Predicator may represent any of the following:
• doing: with verbs such as make, catch, go;
• experiencing: with mental verbs verbs of perception (e.g. see), cognition
(know), affectivity (like) and desideration (hope); and
• being: with verbs such as be, belong and seem.

In this session, we looked at the Subject and Predicate. We

discussed the semantic and syntactic features of the Subject,
as well as the linguistic structures that can realise the Subject function. We also
discussed the semantic and syntactic features of the Predicator.

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.1

Identify the Subject and Predicator in each of the following sentences. What
structures realise them?
1. I met the hunter.

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 UNIT 2 THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR
SESSION 1

2. The people decided to ask for help.

3. The pupils praised their teacher.

4. The net was sold to the best fishermen.

5. The drivers knew that it was wrong to drink.

34 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: THE DIRECT OBJECT

Dear Student, you are welcome to the second session of unit

2. In the previous session, we looked at the subject and
predicator. Do you remember the semantic and syntactic features of the
subject? Mention them. In the present session, we will continue our discussion
by focusing on the Direct Object.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the Direct Object; and
(b) identify the realisations of the Direct Object.

Now read on…

2.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Direct Object

Another important part of the clause is the Direct Object. It occurs only in
transitive clauses with transitive verbs such as hit, buy, send, kill and slap. It is
placed immediately after the predicator or verb phrase,
1. I have sent the invitations.
However, the Direct Object follows an Indirect Object, if there is one:
1. I have sent everyone an invitation.
In this example, “an invitation” is the Direct Object and it follows “everyone”,
the Indirect Object.
It can generally be ‘promoted’ to become subject in a corresponding passive
clause:
1. I have sent the invitations (Direct Object)
2. The invitations have been sent. (Subject in passive voice)
Semantically, a prototypical Direct Object occurs in a high-transitivity
situation, that is, in a process of ‘doing’ in which the referent’s state or location
is affected in some way.
However, the Direct Object is associated with a wide variety of semantic roles,
some of which are illustrated in the following examples:
1. He headed the ball into the net. (Affected)
2. The burglars used an acetylene lamp to break open the safe.
(Instrument)

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 UNIT 2 THE DIRECT OBJECT
SESSION 2

3. I felt a sudden pain in my arm. (Phenomenon: i.e. that which is

experienced)
4. He gave the door a push. (Range: i.e. the nominalised extension of the
verb)
5. He swam the Channel. (Affected locative)

2.2 Realisations of the Direct Object

Pronouns, nouns, and noun phrase:
1. I don’t understand it. (Pronoun)
2. I bought oranges. (Noun)
3. Have you read that new novel I lent you? (Noun phrase)
Anticipatory it: The semantically empty pronoun “it” is necessary as an
‘anticipatory Direct Object’ in structures where the Direct Object is realised by
a finite or non-finite clause:
1. I find it strange that she refuses to come.
2. She might consider it insulting for you to leave now
3. You must find it flattering having so many fans.
Prepositional Phrase (PP): Prepositional phrases of time or place can
marginally realise Direct Object:
1. I would prefer before noon for a meeting. (PP of time)
2. Don’t choose by a swamp for a picnic. (PP of place)
Finite clause: The three types of finite clause found at subject can also
function as a less prototypical Direct Object: nominal that-clauses, wh-
interrogative clause, and nominal relative clause.
1. They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause)
2. No-one knows where he lives. (wh-interrogative clause)
3. You can eat whatever you like. (nominal relative clause)
Non-finite clauses: Non-finite clauses, particularly, infinitive clauses with or
without to, and -ing clauses, can function as subject.
1. Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. (to-infinitive)
2. Many Londoners prefer travelling by train. (-ing nominal)
They occur with an explicit subject of their own; otherwise, the implicit subject
is the same as that of the main clause
(i) to-infinitive clause:
1. The villagers want to leave immediately. (implicit subject [they])
2. The villagers want the soldiers to leave immediately. (explicit subject the
soldiers)

36 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 2

(ii) -ing clause:

1. Do you mind waiting a few minutes? (with implicit subject)
2. Do you mind me/my waiting a few minutes? (with explicit subject in
objective or possessive case)

In this session, we have discussed the Direct Object. You

remember we identified some semantic and syntactic
features of the Direct Object. Can you mention them? Good. In the next
session, we will look at another type of object: the Indirect Object.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.2
Identify the Direct Object in each of the following sentences:

1. The lady demanded that we help them.

2. I wanted to know her name.
3. The boy slapped his girlfriend.
4. I enjoy eating fried rice.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 37
 UNIT 2 THE DIRECT OBJECT
SESSION 2

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

38 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: THE INDIRECT OBJECT

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your

unit. I hope you enjoyed the second session on the Direct
Object. Form one sentence with a Direct Object. That is good. In this session,
we shall examine another type of object: the Indirect Object.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the Indirect Object;
(b) construct some sentences with Indirect Objects; and
(c) state the realisations of Indirect Objects.

Now read on…

3.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Indirect Object

The Indirect Object occurs only with ditransitive verbs. Such verbs take two
objects. They include give, send, buy. The Indirect Object occurs between the
verb and the Direct Object: I sent them a fax. It is typically realised by a noun
or noun phrase, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause. As a pronoun, it is in
the objective case.

The Indirect Object is associated with two semantic roles, Recipient (the one
who receives the goods or information), and the Beneficiary or ‘intended
recipient’. Both Recipient and Beneficary Indirect Object have an optional
prepositional paraphrase, which functions as a Prepositional Object. For the
Recipient, the preposition is “to”, and for the Beneficiary, it is “for”. The
prepositional form is often used to bring the Indirect Object into focus,
particularly when it is longer than the Direct Object:
1. The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man. (Recipient)
2. She lent a few CDs to her next-door neighbour. (Recipient)
3. He is teaching maths to the first-year students. (Recipient)
4. I’ll buy drinks for you all. (Beneficiary)
5. He got the tickets for us all. (Beneficiary)
6. She left a note for her husband. (Beneficiary)

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 UNIT 2 THE INDIRECT OBJECT
SESSION 3

The Indirect Object can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the
grammaticality of the clause:
1. The doctor gave oxygen.
2. He doesn’t like lending his CDs.
3. Sammy Karanja is teaching maths.
4. I’ll buy the drinks.
5. He got the tickets.
6. She left a note.

Can you construct similar sentences? Try it and compare your answers
with your colleague’s.

3.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object

Both Recipient and Beneficiary Indirect Objects are typically realised by
pronouns, nouns and noun phrases, as well as prepositional phrases and -ing
clauses.
1. The clerk handed him the envelope. (Pronoun)
2. Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (Noun phrase)
3. Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (Prepositional phrase) .

1. I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing clause)

In this session, we studied the Indirect Object. We noted

that it normally occurs with a verb that requires two objects.
We added that it normally occurs between the verb and the Direct object. We
also identiofied some realisations of the Indirect object. Can you mention
them? Very good.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.2
Write five sentences that contain indirect objects

40 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 4

SESSION4: THE PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your

unit. I hope you enjoyed the previous session. Which
clausal elements have you studied so far? In this session, we will focus on the
Prepositional Complement.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the Prepositional Complement;
(b) explain the features of the Prepositional Complement; and
(c) identify the realisations of Prepositional Complements.

Now read on…

4.1 Semantic and syntactic features of the prepositional

complement
A Prepositional Complement is an Object mediated by a preposition. It is also
called the Oblique Object or Prepositional Object. Examples are given below:
1. John looked after my cat.
2. You can rely on Jane in an emergency.
3. The other kids all laughed at Amy when she got her face dirty.

Look at the examples above? What is common to them? Yes, the noun or noun
phrase underlined immediately follows a preposition (“after”, “in” and “at”,
respectively). In these cases, without the preposition, the clause or sentence
would either be ungrammatical (*look my cat, *count Jane, *laughed Amy).
Also, the preposition can’t be replaced by another preposition without
changing the meaning. Let’s replace the preposition in the sentence “John
looked after my cat”, with the prepositions, “for” and “at”:
1. John looked for my cat.
2. John looked at my cat.

What do you observe? Are the meanings the same? Good.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 47
 UNIT 2 THE PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
SESSION 4

4.2 Types of verb + Preposition Combinations

Prepositional Complements are realised with certain verbs that come with
prepositions: Can you mention some of them? Ideally, such verbs can be
classified into three types:
Type A (look + after)

In this combination, both the preposition and the verb form one semantic unit.
This means that the combined verb and preposition has a meaning which is
different from the meanings of the individual words. For example, ‘look after’
has nothing to do with looking, nor with the usual meaning of ‘after’in relation
to space or time. Other verbs of this type are exemplified here:
1. I came across some old photos (find)
2. How did you come by that job (obtain)
3. Sandy has come into a fortune (inherit)
4. She takes after her mother (resemble)
5. We took to each other at once (like)
6. I’ve gone off yogurt (lose the liking for)

Type B (rely + on)

This type represents idiomatic structures whose meaning is sometimes, though
not always, transparent. Verbs in this group include “account for” (explain),
“refer to”, “tamper with” (interfere with). They are not used without their
specific preposition:
1. How do you account for the lack of interest in the European elections?
2. Someone has been tampering with the scanner.

Can you construct more sentences with verbs in this category? Very
good.

Type C (laugh + at)

In this category, the verb + preposition represents a special use, usually with a
distinctive meaning, of a verb which otherwise can function without the
preposition. For example, the verb “laugh” normally goes with the preposition
“at” but it can be used without the preposition, as in Everyone laughed. Other
verbs include “look (at)”, “believe (in)”, “count (on)”, “hear (of)”, “wait (for)”,
“hope (for)”.

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UNIT 2
SESSION 4

4.3 Realisations of the Prepositional Complement

Nouns and noun phrases are the typical realisations of the Prepositional
Complements, but nominal clauses and non-finite -ing clauses also occur:
1. He almost ran over a rabbit on a country road last night. (Noun phrase)
2. I strongly object to what you are insinuating. (Nominal relative clause)
3. He believes in getting things done as quickly as possible. (-ing clause)

In this session, we studied the Prepositional Complement.

We studied its features as well as how verbs combine with
prepositions to allow for preposition complementation. We ended the
discussion with the realisations of the Prepositional Complement.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.4
(a) Construct five sentences containing prepositional
complements.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 49
 UNIT 2 THE PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
SESSION 4

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics if any.

50 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT

COMPLEMENTS

Dear Student, you are welcome to session five of Unit 2. In

this session, we will discuss the Subject Complement and the
Object Complement. We will focus on their semantic and syntactic
characteristics as well as their realisations.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the features of the Subject Complement;
(b) discuss the realisations of the Subject Complement;
(c) explain the syntactic and semantic features of the Object
Complement; and
(c) illustrate the realisations of the Object Complement.

Now read on…

5.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Subject

Complement
The Subject Complement is realised in a clause that has a copular verb. The
most typical copular verb is “be”.
1. She is a student.
2. It appears interesting.
3. She became a tennis champion at a very early age.
4. Feel free to ask questions!

The Subject Complement does not represent a new participant. It rather

completes the meaning of the clause by adding information about the subject.
As well as “be” and “seem”, a wide range of verbs can be used to link the
Subject to its Complement. These add meanings of transition (“become”,
“get”, “go”, “grow”, “turn”) and of perception (“sound”, “smell”, “look”). The
constituent following such verbs will be considered Subject Complement if the
verb can be replaced by “be” and can’t stand alone, without a change of
meaning:

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 UNIT 2 THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT
SESSION 5 COMPLEMENTS

1. I know it sounds stupid, but . . . That looks nice.

(= is stupid) (= is nice)
There is, typically, number agreement between the Subject and its
Complement, and gender agreement with a reflexive pronoun as Complement,
as in Janet isn’t herself today. There are, however, several common exceptions
to number agreement:
1. Joan and Lionel make a good couple.
2. My neighbour’s cats are a nuisance/a joy.
3. Are these socks wool? No, they’re cotton.
4. The twins are the same height.

Subject Complements of the type “a good couple” in “Joan and Lionel make a
good couple” are explicable on semantic grounds, couple being inherently
plural in meaning. Semantic criteria may also be invoked to explain the use of
“a nuisance/a joy” in Example 2 above, since abstractions such as these are
equally applicable to singular or plural subjects. A third type, exemplified by
expressions such as “wool”, “cotton”, “rather an odd colour”, “the same
height/length/shape”, etc., can all be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase
with “of” (of wool, of rather an odd colour, of the same height, etc.).

5.2 Realisations of the Subject Complement

Adjective as Subject Complement
1. He is good.
2. This is beautiful.

Adjective phrase as Subject Complement

1. That is very wonderful.
2. That is so important.

Noun phrase as Subject Complement

1. She is twenty-two years old.
2. Sam is a very lucky man.

Finite clause as Subject Complement

1. Ken’s belief is that things can’t get any worse.
2. He has become what he always wanted to be.

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UNIT 2
SESSION 5

Non-Finite clause as Subject Complement

3. My advice is to withdraw.
4. The best plan is for you to go by train.
5. What I don’t enjoy is standing in queues.
6. What most people prefer is others doing/for others to do the work.
7. The only thing I did was tell him to go away.

Can you identify the specific types of finite and non-finite clauses in the
examples above? Good.

5.3 Syntactic and Semantic Features of the Object

Complement
The Object Complement is used to complete the meaning of a clause when
verbs such as “find”, “make” and “appoint” are used. They help us to identify
some features or characteristics of the Direct Object. The Object Complement
is normally placed immediately after the direct object. Let us consider the
examples below:
1. You are making me angry.
2. You aren’t going to like me angry.
As the examples above show, in each case, the Object Complement “angry”
encodes some characteristics of “me”, which is the direct object.

Typically, the Object Complement must agree with the object in terms of
number, as in “Circumstances have made the brothers enemies”, where “the
brothers”, which is the direct object, agrees with “enemies”. However, there
are exceptions to this, especially in expressions of size, shape, colour, height,
etc., as in “You haven’t made the sleeves the same length”. Here, “the same
length”, which is the Object Complement, does not agree with “the sleeves”,
which is the direct object.

The Object Complement can characterise the direct object by a qualitative

attribute or by a substantive attribute expressing the name or status of the
object referent.
1. Police found the suspects unwilling to cooperate. (qualitative)
2. They have elected Ken captain of the golf club. (substantive)

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 UNIT 2 THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT
SESSION 5 COMPLEMENTS

5.4 Realisations of the Object Complement

1. A sleeping pill will rapidly make you drowsy. (Adjective)
2. His friends consider him a genius. (Noun phrase)
3. Dye your hair whatever colour you like. (Nominal relative clause)
4. The authorities had the demonstrators placed under house arrest.

Object Complements realised by noun phrases are sometimes introduced by

the prepositions “as” or “for”. Some verbs require this; with others such as
“consider”, it is optional:
1. Party members regard him as the best candidate.
2. Do you take me for a complete idiot?

The focus of this session has been on the Subject Complement

and Object Complement. In all, we discussed their semantic and
syntactic characteristics as well as their realisations. Can you state and
exemplify the realisations of the subject and object complements?

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.5
(a) Mention any two semantic features of the Subject
Complement.
(b) Identify any three linguistic realisations of the Subject Complement.
(c) Describe the Object Complement.
(d) Mention any three structures that can function as Object Complement.

54 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: THE ADJUNCT

Dear Student, you are welcome to the last session of this

unit. I hope you have been enjoying the sessions within the
unit. Which of the sessions do you consider most enjoyable? Are you sure?
It is difficult for me to identify one. Now, let us examine the Adjunct.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) describe other structures with nominal functions;
(b) construct some structures that should have nominal functions; and
(c) identify such structures in sentences.

Now read on…

6.1 Syntactic and Semantic Features

Unlike the other clausal elements, it is common to find a number of Adjuncts
in a single clause. The following illustration has five circumstantial Adjuncts,
which in this clause are all optional: they can be omitted without affecting the
grammaticality of the clause. Each of the underlined items is an Adjunct: “If at
all possible I’ll see you tomorrow after the show with Pete and Susan outside
the main entrance”.

Also, many Adjuncts are characterized by their flexibility as regards position.

This means that Adjuncts are mobile in the clause structure—their position can
be changed without rendering the clause ungrammatical. Let us consider the
following sentences:
1. Hastily, she hid the letter.
2. She hastily hid the letter.
3. She hid the letter hastily.

Semantically, Adjuncts represent circumstances, specifications and comments

of many different types which are attendant on the verb or the whole clause. A
further characteristic of Adjuncts is the tendency of different types of meanings
to be expressed by different Adjuncts in a single clause: “Surprisingly (stance),
she almost (degree) forgot to set the alarm clock last night (time)”.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 55
 THE ADJUNCT
UNIT 2
SESSION 6

6.2 Main Types of Adjuncts

There are three main types of adjuncts: Circumstantial Adjuncts, Stance
Adjuncts and Connective Adjuncts.

6.2.1 Circumstantial Adjuncts

Adjuncts that fall within this category provide information about the action or
state described by the verb. They answer questions such as where? when?
how? and why? Let’s consider the following examples:
1. Tom bought a new car last month. (when)
2. They met in the market. (where)
3. He did it so well. (how).

Circumstantial Adjuncts are realised by a wide variety of units:

1. She called me yesterday. (Adverb)
2. She called me too late. (Adverb phrase)
3. She called me from the office. (Prepositional phrase)
4. She called me this morning. (noun phrase)
5. She called me while I was out. (Finite adverbial clause)
6. She called to tell me the news. (to-infinitive clause)
7. She called me, using her mobile. (-ing clause)
8. She called me, scared out of her wits. (-ed participial clause)
9. Afraid to leave the house, she called me. (verbless clause)

6.2.2 Stance Adjuncts

Stance Adjunct encode the speaker’s attitude, feeling, opinion, or evaluation
of a message. Syntactically, they are not integral to the clause—as they are
often separated from the man clause using comma(s). They are usually found
at the beginning or end of the clause. They can also be placed between
commas, within a clause or sentence:
1. Naturally, he spoke to me when he saw me.
2. He spoke to me when he saw me, naturally.
3. He naturally spoke to me when he saw me.
4. He spoke to me, naturally, when he saw me.

Stance Adjuncts basically express epistemic, evidential and evaluative

meanings. An epistemic Adjunct reveals the speaker’s opinion regarding the
validity of the the information presented by the clause. It comments on the
certainty, doubt, possibility and obviousness of the proposition:

56 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE CLAUSAL ELEMENTS
UNIT 2
SESSION 6

1. Undoubtedly, he is the finest pianist alive today.

2. Obviously, he’ll rely on you even more now.

Contrary to Stance Adjuncts, Evidential Adjuncts indicate the source of

knowledge or information, be it the speaker’s own experience or belief (“In
my view”, “In my experience”) or the beliefs or accounts of others
(“According to . . .” “In the words of . . .” ) and finally hearsay (“supposedly”,
“apparently”):
1. According to the weather forecast, there’s a hurricane on the way.
2. In my view, science is an easy subject.

Evaluative Adjuncts express the subjective or objective attitude of the speaker

towards the information presented in the clause and sometimes also towards
the addressee:
1. Surely you can make up your own mind!
2. Broadly speaking, the Health Service is satisfactory. (objective)
3. Unfortunately, our team didn’t win. (subjective)

Stance Adjuncts can be realised by adverbs, prepositional phrases, finite and

non-finite clauses:
Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefully,
probably
Prepositional phrases: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chance, of
course
Non-finite clauses: to be honest, to tell the truth, strictly speaking
Finite clauses: if I may be frank with you . . .; don’t take this personally, but . .

6.2.3 Connective Adjuncts

This type of Adjuncts helps us to express how we understand the semantic
connection between two utterances, or parts of an utterance. This implies that
they occur at some boundary established at a significant point in the
organisation of the text. Consider the example below:
1. The hotel was rather noisy. On the other hand, it wasn’t expensive
(contrast).

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 THE ADJUNCT
UNIT 2
SESSION 6

In the example above, “On the other hand” serves to connect the information
presented in the second sentence to what is in the first sentence. The
relationship established is that of contrast. Aside from contrast, several other
semantic relationships can be established by these Adjuncts, some of which are
given below:
additive: besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, as well, also
contrast: instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet
causal: for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus
temporal: first, then, next, after that, finally, at once
Connective Adjuncts can be realised with a wide range of units. These are
summarized below:
Adverbs: nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, accordingly, consequently,
alternatively
Prepositional phrases: in other words, by the way, on top of that
Adjective phrases: last of all, better still
Adverb phrases: more accurately
Finite clauses: that is to say, what is more
Non-finite clauses: to sum up, to cap it all

In this session, we studied the Adjunct. We identified types of

Adjuncts and their realisations.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 2.6

1. Identify the types of Adjuncts.

2. Construct three sentences each to show the realisations of each
type of Adjuncts.

Assignment Questions
a. Identify the clausal elements in English.
b. Construct sentences to illustrate their realisations.

58 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES
UNIT 3

UNIT 3: THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Defining The Clause
Session 2: Clause Types: Finite, Non-Finite and Verbless Clauses
Session 3: The Finite Clause
Session 4: The Non-Finite Clause I: The Infinitives
Session 5: The Non-Finite Clause II: The Participles
Session 6: The Verbless Clause

Dear Student, welcome to Unit 3. In this unit, we will be

learning about the clause in the English Language. We will
be looking at what a clause is and its structure. The focus will be on the nature
of the verb phrase in the clause.
As part of our studies, we will be doing some exercises and we will be looking
at a lot of examples.

Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
1. define the clause according to its position in the rank scale;
2. identify the types of clauses – finite, non-finite and verbless;
3. describe each type of clause appropriately; and
4. construct finite, non-finite and verbless clauses.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 59
 THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES
UNIT 3

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

60 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES
UNIT 3
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: DEFINING THE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to another important

element in grammar – the clause. In this session, we shall
pay attention to the clause. We shall try to define it according to our idea about
the rank scale in English.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) define a clause;
(b) differentiate between a clause and a sentence; and
(c) identify the elements in a clause.

Now read on…

The clause is located on the rank scale. The rank scale is the hierarchical
arrangement of units in grammar either from the highest to the lowest or from
the lowest to the highest. Can you illustrate this? Look at this.

The Sentence

The Clause

The Phrase/group

The Word

The Morpheme
Fig. 1 The rank scale

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 61
 UNIT 3
DEFINING THE CLAUSE
SESSION 1

You will see from the above illustration that the clause is the second highest
unit in grammar. As a principle, a higher unit contains at least a unit below it.
What this means, for example, is that the clause is contained in the sentence.
Let us look at the examples below:
The policeman stopped us as we were about to enter the room.

The example above is a sentence which consists of two clauses: “The

policeman stopped us” and “as we were about to enter the room”.

Can you identify the clauses in the following sentences?

i. The students are playing.

ii. The driver arrived after we had eaten.
iii. Willie sang before the party began.

State your answer in your jotter for face-to-face.

Another implication of the position of the clause in the rank scale is that it
contains the elements below it. Which elements are below the clause in the
rank scale? They are
the phrase/group
the word
the morpheme

Now let us consider some clauses.

i. Because the boy came
ii. he was selected.

In clause i, we can identify the noun phrase “the boy” and the verb phrase
“came”.

In clause ii, we can identify the noun phrase “he” and the verb phrase “was
selected”.

Which phrases can we identify in the following?

i. The man/left
ii. The people/have paid

62 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSES
UNIT 3
SESSION 1

iii. The leader/worked

iv. He/slept

You will observe from the above structures that the clause is made up of
phrases, words and morphemes. The phrases are the noun phrase and the verb
phrase. Can you construct structures that we can refer to as clauses? Construct
four. Can you identify the phrases in your clauses?

In this session, we tried to define the clause according to the

rank scale. We observed that the clause is the next highest
unit in the rank scale. It is contained in the sentence, which is the highest. The
clause itself contains elements that are below it on the rank scale. These
elements are the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Thus, every clause is
expected to have a phrase or more. Since there are different types of clauses,
we shall examine each one in subsequent sessions to know more about them.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.1
Identify the phrases and words in the following clauses.

1. They wrote the paper before the supervisor came.

2. The bird flew away.

3. The construct or worked hard.

4. Our teacher taught us well so we passed.

5. Since he was tired, he rested.

CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts) 63
 UNIT 3
DEFINING THE CLAUSE
SESSION 1

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

64 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSE
UNIT 3
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND

VERBLESS CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 2 of the third

unit of this module. In the last session, we looked at the
definition of the clause as a grammatical unit. In doing so, we considered the
position of the clause in the hierarchy of grammatical units or what is referred
to as the rank scale. In this session, we shall study three ways of analyzing the
clause using the structure.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
(a) mention three structural types of clauses;
(b) form sentences to illustrate each structural type of clauses; and
(c) identify the types of clauses studied, in sentences.

Now read on…

2.1 Structural Types of Clauses

Considering the structure of clauses, we arrive at three main types:
i. Finite clause
ii. Non-Finite clause
iii. Verbless clause

Have you heard these names before? What do you know about them? Let us
look at each one of them.

2.1.1 The Finite Clause

A finite clause is one whose verb element is a finite verb. Do you remember
what we said about finite verbs? Examples of finite clauses are:
i. We won the match.
ii. Although our opponents lost, they were more jubilant than we
were.
iii. When the teacher came in, the students stood up.
iv. Since Mary left for London, we have not heard from her.

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 UNIT 3 CLAUSE TYPES: FINITE, NON-FINITE AND
SESSION 2 VERBLESS CLAUSES

You will observe from the above sentences that the verb elements (or verb
phrase)
won
lost
came
left
are finite.

Form four similar sentences for face-to-face discussion.

2.1.2 The Non-Finite Clause

The non-finite clause is one whose verb element does not mark for tense. Let
us see some examples of the non-finite clause. They are in bold.
i. Having passed his first examination, the student ………………
ii. For Esi to present the parcels on that day, she ………………...
iii. Working in the garden, the man discovered a pot of gold.
iv. Hidden under the tree, the pot was ………………...……………

Look at the nature of the verbs used in the structures above. They are non-
finite. Form four similar sentences.

2.1.3 The Verbless Clause

The third structural type of the clause is the verbless clause. Such a clause, as
the name implies, has no verb. However, its verb is recoverable from the
context. The following are examples of the verbless clause:
i. Now a father of two, Felix……………………………..…………
ii. Whether drunk or sober, the headmaster ……………………….
iii. Excited about the news, Afua……………………………………

Can you identify any verbs in the structures above? Form four
sentences each, with verbless clauses for face-to-face discussion. All
clauses (finite, non-finite or verbless) may contain subordinate clauses which
may also be finite, non-finite or verbless. We shall look at this later in our
studies.

66 CoDEUCC/B.Ed (Primary/JHS/Arts)
THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSE
UNIT 3
SESSION 2

In this session, we identified three main types of clauses;

finite, non-finite and verbless. These three types of clauses
are identified on the basis of their structure rather than function. In the next
session, we shall examine each of these clauses in detail.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.2
Identify the type of clauses underlined in the following sentences
(i.e., finite, non-finite, or verbless):
1. Always tired, John decided to see a doctor.
2. You may choose to go out.
3. Having paid the piper, he called for more music.
4. For him to pass his exam, he decided to study.
5. The company has made a lot of profit.

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• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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UNIT 3
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: THE FINITE CLAUSE

Dear Student, welcome to the third session of the unit. In the

previous session, we identified three structural types of the
clause. Do you remember them? They are the finite, non-finite and verbless
clauses. In this session, we shall study the finite clause more closely.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
(a) identify the main features of a finite clause;
(b) construct some sentences that contain the finite clause; and
(c) identify the finite clause in sentences.

Now read on…

3.1 Features of the Finite Clause

The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate. Study the
following and note the difference between a subject and a predicate.

3.1.1 The Subject

i. When Mary visited the zoo, she was amazed at what she saw.
ii. He is a manager.
iii. They work hard.
iv. He passed the test.
v. Abena worked diligently so she succeeded.

Can you identify the subject of the above sentences? They are
underlined. The subject is a necessary part of a finite clause. However,
if the clause is an imperative as in,
Pay attention.
Stop.
Come here.
Sit there.
Catch him.
Look into your books.
Open your bag.
the subject can be omitted.

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In these clauses, the subject is not present. Do you know why? The
subject is implied. In other words, a listener is supposed to carry out
the command being issued. Thus, the clauses will be:
i. You, pay attention.
ii. You, stop.
iii. You, come here.
iv. You, sit there.
v. You, catch him.
vi. You, look into your books.
vii. You, open your bag.

3.1.2 The Verb Phrase

Another necessary feature of the finite clause is that the verb should mark
tense. That is, the verb should indicate present or past time during which the
action in the verb was performed. Look at these:
i. John came late. [past]
ii. He buys fish from Elmina.[present]
iii. Susan lived in Tamale. [past]
iv. They worked hard last year. [past]
v. The director has arrived. [present]

3.1.3 Subject and Verb Agreement

Yet another important feature about the finite clause is that the finite verb
should agree with the subject of the clause. For example:
i. He does not smoke.
ii. Wiafe studies hard.
iii. They go out everyday.
iv. Because William is the manager, he …

In the clauses above, the verbs does, studies, go and is agree with their
respective subjects. Would you say the following clauses are finite?
i. He found the book.
ii. They were frightened.
iii. The judge was angry.
iv. They are training these dogs to sniff out drugs.
v. She danced all day.

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SESSION 3

vi. To see in the dark, one must use a light.

You have done well. Only iv and vi are not finite. We shall see where they
belong.

In this session, we looked at the characteristics of a finite

clause. We said the finite clause has subject. It has a verb
which marks tense (that is, present or past). Also, there is agreement between
the subject and the verb.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.3
(a) Identify the finite clauses in the following sentences:
1. Joe met the man.

2. They left in the morning.

3. It is advisable to carry a lamp.

4. They made her queen.

5. Saka became a lawyer.

6. It is better to hear from you early.

7. The golden goose was found.

8. He gulped his beer.

9. He sold the goods at moderate prices.

10. Coming down from the top floor, he ………………….

(b) Construct five finite clauses.

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SESSION 3

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics, if any.

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UNIT 3
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE I:

THE INFINITIVES

Dear Student, you are welcome to the fourth session of Unit 3.

In the previous session, we considered the features of the
finite clause. Do you remember these features? Mention them. In this
session, we shall study the non-finite clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) state two features of the non-finite clause;
(b) identify the infinitives in the construction of the non-finite clause; and
(c) construct some non-finite clauses using the infinitives.

Now read on…

4.1 Description of the Non-finite Clause

In contrast to the finite clause which we studied in session 3, the non-finite
clause can be constructed without a subject. For example,
i. Having done all that could be done, John …………………………...
ii. Realizing his mistake, the captain decided ……………………………
iii. Knowing who he had offended, he ………………………………..

4.2 Classes of the Non-finite Clause

The non-finite clause divides broadly into two: infinitivals and participials.
Each type also divides into two. In general, there are four classes of the non-
finite clause. These are:
i. The infinitive with to
ii. The infinitive without to infinitivals
iii. The -ing participle
iv. The -ed/en participle participials

We shall concern ourselves with the first two, the infinitive with ‘to’ and the
infinitive without ‘to’. The verb phrase in the infinitive clause is one that is
non-finite. The to-infinitives involve the use of to + infinitive, as in:
to go

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SESSION 4 INFINITIVES

to jump
to eat
to write
to sleep
to dance
to walk
to speak

The bare infinitives involve only the verb without to, as in:
go
travel
jump
see
eat
work
write
walk

The Infinitive with ‘to’

The infinitive with to can be constructed without a subject, as in:
i. The first thing would be to stop them from accessing their
accounts.
ii. To cut down losses, she ………………………………………
iii. To become a rich farmer in Ghana, one must
……………………………
iv. To get the job, Mary ………………………………………….

It can be constructed with a subject, as in:

i. The first thing would be for management to stop them from
accessing their accounts
ii. For the trader to cut down losses, she ………………………
iii. For one to become a rich farmer in Ghana,
one………………………….
iv. For Mary to get the job, she …………………………………

Note how “for” is used in introducing the subject. Now construct four
similar clauses.

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UNIT 3
SESSION 4

The Infinitive Without to or the Bare Infinitive

They can be constructed with or without subject.
Without Subject
i. All the policeman did was arrest the criminal.
ii. What she did was console the man.
iii. Bury all our differences is what is required.
iv. Travel throughout the night is the only way out.

With Subject
i. Rather than Mawuli do it, I’d prefer …………………………
ii. Rather than Esi go, the friend ………………………………..
iii. It is better you say nothing

In this session, we introduced the non-finite clause. We

observed that the non-finite clause, unlike the finite
clause, can be constructed with or without the subject. We studied the
infinitive with to and the infinitive without to. In the next session, we shall
consider the remaining two classes of the non-finite clause.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.4
Identify the infinitive clauses in the following sentences.
1. It would be safe to camp here.

2. It is an offence to drop litter here.

3. It would be a crime to cut down any more trees.

4. For Dede to compromise, we have to persuade her.

5. To lean out of the window, one would have to be cautious.

6. Cry was all she could do.

7. What the little girl could do was shout the name of her kidnapper.

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SESSION 4 INFINITIVES

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• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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UNIT 3
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: THE NON-FINITE CLAUSE II:

THE PARTICIPLES

Dear Student, you are welcome to Session 5 of the unit. I

hope you enjoyed the previous session and did the exercise
well. That is good. You remember in the previous session we mentioned four
classes of the non-finite clause. Which are they? We examined the first two
classes – the infinitives. In this session, we shall discuss the last two – the
participles.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) identify the features of the -ing participle clause;
(b) identify the features of the -ed/en participle clause;
(c) construct some -ing participle clauses; and
(d) construct some -ed/en participle clauses.

Now read on…

5.1 Features of the -ing Participle Non-finite Clause

The -ing participle non-finite clause contains an -ing participle as its verb
phrase. Examples of the -ing participle are
going
leaving
walking
In addition, they can be constructed with or without a subject.
With Subject
i. The landlord increasing his rent is disturbing.
ii. Him being a Jesuit was a great surprise.
iii. I admire his always defending his friends.
iv. She admires farmers working hard.
v. Daniel pestering you surprises me.
vi. Their reporting her to the boss means nothing.
vii. Her husband behaving this childishly can ruin her chances.

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SESSION 5 THE PARTICIPLES

Note how pronouns are used as subject in the -ing non-finite clause.
What do you observe? Good. You realize that the pronoun is either in the
objective case (as in “Him” in example ii above) or the genitive/possessive
case (as in “his” and “Their” in example iii and vi respectively above).

Without Subject
i. Talking in class cannot be seen to be entirely unnecessary.
ii. He prefers enjoying his Lipton without sugar or milk.
iii. Looking for examples for this course has been very revealing.
iv. They were busy collecting planning a demonstration.

5.2 Features of the -ed/en Participle Non-finite Clause

The –ed/en participle clause has an –ed/en verb as its verb phrase. Such –
ed/en verbs include
danced
broken
jumped
dreamt/dreamed
stolen
walked
sung
defeated

Like the –ing participle clause, the –ed/en participle clause can be constructed
with or without subject.
With Subject
i. John worried over the events, found out why he failed.
ii. Grisler broken in spirit, returned with nothing.
iii. The teacher surprised at her students’ performance, organized
a party for them.
iv. The workers disturbed by their low income, held a meeting.
Without Subject
i. Worried over the events, he ………….
ii. Defeated by their underdog opponents, the team lost their
appearance fee.
iii. Surprised at her students’ performance, the teacher ………..
iv. Disturbed by their low income, the workers …………
v. Boiled with beans, rice ………….

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SESSION 5

vi Given enough time, the boy ………….

When the subject of an adverbial participial clause is expressed, it is

normally introduced by with, as in the following examples:
i. With the driver realizing his fault, he ……………………..
ii. With the examination coming closer, the students ………..
iii. With the tree growing tall, we ……………
iv. With the flowers now grown, we ………..

5.3 Some Structural Deficiencies of the Non-finite Clauses

Since the non-finite clauses are constructed without a finite verb, it means that
they have no distinction of person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons) number (singular
or plural) or modal auxiliary. The use of the non-finite verb together with the
frequent absence of a subject suggests that the non-finite clauses are
compressed. However, such a compression may be a source of ambiguity.
For example,
We met Kofi leaving the room.
The above utterance may be elaborated as
We met Kofi when he was leaving the room.
Or
We met Kofi when we were leaving the room.

To avoid the ambiguity, an indefinite subject, i.e. somebody or something, may

be inferred otherwise. The I of the speaker is to be relied on. For example:

i. To be an administrator is to have the worst job in the world.

This can be
For a person to be an administrator……..
For Somebody to be an administrator ……

ii. The job is not good, to be honest

This can be
……… If I am to be honest

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SESSION 5 THE PARTICIPLES

In this session, we examined the features of the –ing and –

ed/en participial clauses. We observed that they have the –
ing verb and –ed/en verb as their respective verb phrases. Also, they could be
constructed with or without subject. Finally, we noted that the -ing and -ed
participial clauses can cause ambiguity. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary
to introduce a subject in them.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.5
Underline the participial clauses in the following sentences:

1. Sitting is the bus he paid the conductor.

2. He became tired of waiting for his meal.

3. Disturbed by the events of the day, the driver

render………………..

4. The police officer left worried over the wrong arrest made.

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THE VERB PHRASE IN THE CLAUSE
UNIT 3
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: THE VERBLESS CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to the last session of Unit 3.

Do you remember what you studied in the previous session?
You are right. We studied the -ing and –ed participial clauses. What did we
say about them? Remember we said both clauses are non-finite. Are they the
only non-finite clauses? Which others do you know? That is good. In this
session, we shall examine another clause type: the verbless clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) state the features of the verbless clause;
(b) identify the verbless clause; and
(c) construct some verbless clauses.

Now read on…

6.1 What is a Verbless Clause?

As the name suggests, the verbless clause is one that is constructed without a
verb. Would you say this is possible? Yes, the term “clause” does not apply to
only structures with overt subjects and verbs. If a structure is analyzable into
clause elements, it passes for a clause. Let us consider some examples;
i. A lot of people protested, many of them unemployed graduates.
ii. Two cars in one small garage causes problems.
iii. When in doubt, consult your doctor.
iv. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided ……….

Can you identify any verb in the above underlined utterances? One
cannot see any verb in them. That is why they are referred to as
verbless. They are referred to as clauses because those missing verbs can be
recovered.

6.2 The Verbless Clause has a Covert Verb

Even though we said the verbless clause has no verb, we can usually infer
ellipsis of the verb “be” or its forms (be, is, were, was, are, were, being, been)
. For example,
i. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to ……………………
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SESSION 6

This can be restructured as ,

ii. Being hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to………………

Thus, the verb “being” is implied in the sentence i above. Look at the
following and mention the implied verb in each case:
i. Wall-to-wall carpet in every room an expensive venture.
ii. A lot of people protested, many of them unemployed graduates.
iii. When in doubt, consult your doctor.

That is good.

6.3 The Subject of the Verbless Clause

Like the implied verb in the verbless clause, the subject, when omitted, can be
treated as recoverable from the context of the main clause. For example:
i. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.
ii. Hungry and thirsty, the captain decided to leave the camp.
iii. Too tired to write, John left the examination hall.
iv. When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

Do you note any subjects in the above clauses? The clauses can imply
the following:
i. When these mangoes are ripe, they will taste sweet.
ii. The captain, being hungry and thirsty, decided to leave the
camp.
iii. John, being too tired to write, left the examination hall.
iv. When you are in Rome, [you]do as the Romans do.

The subjects provided in the above were implied or recovered from the
subjects of the main clauses. It is also possible to recover the subject of a
verbless clause from the object of the main clause.

6.4 Verbless Clauses and Non-finite Clauses

Verbless clauses can on occasions be treated as reductions of non-finite
clauses. For example:
i. Too nervous to speak, he stared on the floor.
This can be rephrased as,
Being too nervous to speak, he ………………………

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UNIT 3
SESSION 6

ii. Too tired after the party, John slept without having his shower.
This can be rephrased as
John, being too tired after the party, slept…

You can observe in i that the verbless clause itself contains a non-finite clause,
to speak.

As with participle clauses, the subject of the verbless clause is often introduced
by with. Consider these:
i. With the building now old, we must ………..
ii. With the tree now grown tall, we get more shade.
iii. With our democracy stabilizing, we are likely to have peace.

The verbless clause, however, is limited in its variations in terms of structure.

The following are among possible combinations:
i. They marched briskly up the slope, the guns on their shoulder.
ii. When ripe, these mangoes will taste sweet.
iii. He walked towards his opponent, determined.

In this session, we examined the verbless clause. We said it is

usually constructed without a verb. However, the verb is
recoverable from the context. Such a verb is normally the verb be. Also, we
noted that if the subject of the clause is omitted, it is recoverable from the
context.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 3.6
1. Construct four verbless clauses.

2. Identify the implied verbs in the clauses you constructed.

3. If you constructed them without subjects recover the subject in each

case.

Assignment Question
What do nouns, noun phrases and clauses have in common?

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SESSION 6

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• issues that are not clear;
• difficulty topics if any.

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THE NOMINAL CLAUSES
UNIT 4

UNIT 4: THE NOMINAL CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: The Noun, The Noun Phrase and The Nominal Clause
Session 2: The That Finite Nominal Clause”
Session 3: The Nominal Interrogative Finite Clauses
Session 4: The Nominal Relative Clause
Session 5: The Infinitive Non-Finite Nominal Clauses
Session 6: The Participial and Verbless Nominal Clauses

Welcome to unit two. In this unit we shall look at the unit

of grammar called the Nominal Clause. Have you ever
heard this before? Well, we look at it together.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. describe the nominal clause;
2. identify the various type of the nominal clause in English;
3. mention the functions of each type of the nominal clause; and
4. construct nominal clauses and use them in sentences.

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UNIT 4

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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THE NOMINAL CLAUSE UNIT 4
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: THE NOUN, THE NOUN PHRASE AND THE

NOMINAL CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to another important topic

in your course. Look at the topic again. One word
appears to run through. What is that? It is the “noun”. This should remind
you of the rank scale concept so that you can talk of the noun as a word, as a
phrase and as a clause. Let’s consider it in this session.

Objectives
By the end of the lesson students should be able to
(a) identify the noun;
(b) identify the noun phrase; and
(c) identify the noun clause.

Now read on:

1.1 The Noun

In module I, we defined the noun as the name of a person, place, thing or concept.

For example,
Mary
Kofi person
Raphael
Baidoo

Tamale
Accra place
Akosombo
Wenchi

mosquito
table
book thing
basket

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 UNIT 4 THE NOUN, THE NOUN PHRASE
SESSION 1 AND THE NOMINAL CLAUSE

democracy
service concept
activity
honour

Add three examples to each of the above groups.

A noun normally functions as subject, object and complement.

1.2 The Noun Phrase

In Module 2 unit 4 we studied the phrase as a unit in grammar. Remember we
said it is any structure (simple or complex) that can function as
a. Subject
b. Verb
c. Object
d. Complement
e. Adjunct

The noun phrase then is one that has a noun as head, and functions in noun like
positions that is as subject, object and complement.
i. All the boys (the head is boys)
ii. Such a girl (the head is girl)
iii. The lady below (the head is lady)

Can you identify the head of the following noun phrases?

i. The country
ii. The new house
iii. A week
iv. Both boys
v. Man

Good, you have done well.

1.3 The Nominal Clause

The syntactic roles of Subject, Object, and Complement are traditionally
reserved for nouns and noun phrases. When a clause functions in such
positions as Subject, Object, Complement etc., which are normally occupied by

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SESSION 1

a noun or noun phrase, such a clause is referred to as a nominal clause. For

example:
This is the man

The syntactic position of the man (that is a noun phrase) can be taken by the
clause.
What I don’t like

This becomes

This is what I don’t like.

What I don’t like is functioning in the slot where nouns and noun phrases are
usually found. It follows then that “what I don’t like” is a nominal clause—a
subordinate clause taking up the role of Complement in a sentence,
In subsequent sessions in this unit, we shall be examining the nominal clause in
English.

In this session we looked at the noun as the name of a person,

place, thing or concept. A noun normally functions as Subject,
Object, and Complement. We also looked at the noun phrase. We observed
that it is a phrase that is headed by a noun.
The noun phrase functions in a sentence as Subject, Object and Complement.
We used this idea of the noun and noun phrase to explain the noun clause as a
clause that functions in noun like positions. Later, we shall look at this in
detail.

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.1
Identify the nouns, noun phrases and nominal clauses in the
following structures.
1. I shot the Sherriff.
2. The people decided to ask for help.
3. The pupils praised their teacher.
4. The contract was given to the highest bidder.
5. The birds have learned how to fly without perching.

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SESSION 1 AND THE NOMINAL CLAUSE

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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THE NOMINAL CLAUSE
UNIT 4
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: THE THAT FINITE NOMINAL CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to the second session of unit 2.

In the previous session, we looked at what the noun is. Then
we also studied the nominal clause. Do you remember the types of nominal
clauses we mentioned? Mention them. They include the:
1. That clause
2. Wh interrogative clause
3. To infinitive nominal clause
4. Nominal –ing clause
5. Bare infinitive clause
6. Verbless clause

We said the above nominal clauses are distinguished by their structure. In this
session, we shall study the structure and function of the that clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) identify the structure of the that nominal clause;
(b) construct some that nominal clauses; and
(c) identify the functions of the that nominal clause.

Now read on…

2.1 The Structure of the That Nominal Clause

The that nominal clause is the most common clause in the nominal clause
family. It is a finite subordinate clause. What does this mean to you?
Remember what we said about finite clauses. It means that a that clause has
subject and predicate or a verb which marks for tense. The that clause is
normally introduced with the word “that”. For example:
i. That Ghana is in West Africa is fact.
ii. He once mentioned that he wanted to make quick money.
iv. The truth is that he hates being told the truth.
v. I know that your answers are correct.
vi. She explained that she could be of help.

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You can see from the above clauses that each begins with the word that. That
is why the clause is referred to as a that clause. Note that, after the word that,
comes the subject of the subordinate clause and it is followed by the finite verb
phrase (that +S+V). Construct five such clauses. Then complete the following
clauses:
i. He believes that …………………………
ii. The entire class was glad that …………
iii. That he is going to make it …………………..

2.2 Difference between the That Nominal Clause and the

Relative Clause introduced by that
You must not confuse the that nominal clause with the relative clause which is
introduced by that. In a relative clause, that always modifies a preceding noun
phrase called antecedent. In a relative clause, that is a type of a pronoun which
must refer back to a general noun or a general noun phrase. That also serves as
the subject or object in the relative clause. In a nominal clause, however, the
that does not modify anything. It does not function as a pronoun, but as a
subordinator that serves to introduce the nominal clause. It is not the subject or
object of the nominal clause. It is the entire subordinate nominal clause that
functions as a subject, object, or complement. To see how noun clauses
introduced by the subordinator that differ from relative clauses introduced by
the relative pronoun that, let us consider these two sentences:
i. The commentator predicted that the match would end two red
cards.
ii. The prediction that the commentator made came to pass.

Do you note any differences between the two sentences? Of course,

each of the subordinate clauses starts with that. In sentence i, however,
there is no noun immediately preceding that, or we observe that the that in i
does not refer to anything preceding it. Sentence i contains a nominal clause.
In sentence ii, however, there is a noun prediction or a noun phrase the
prediction before that to which that relates or refers back. The noun
prediction or the noun phrase the prediction is the antecedent of the relative
pronoun that in the sentence. Sentence ii, therefore, contains a relative clause.
Let us look at another pair of examples.
iii. Do you know that it is fake? (Nominal Clause).
iv. Do you know the one that is fake? (Relative Clause)

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SESSION 2

What observations do you make? Look at the words that come immediately
before that in both sentences. In iii the word is know (a verb) and in iv it is the
one (a noun phrase). You will learn more about Relative Clauses in Unit 3.

2.3 Functions of the That Nominal Clause

a. The that clause can function as Subject of a sentence. In a declarative
structure, the that clause as subject comes at or near the beginning of
the construction just before the main verb of the construction. Often it
denotes what is being spoken about. For example:
i. That I am here today is by grace.
ii. That they are the best team in the championship will be
ferociously contested tonight.
iii. That none of them saw us is what surprises me.
iv. That no English dictionary existed during Shakespeare’s time
makes his writing even more historically important.
b. As an Extraposed Subject
Also, the that clause can function as an extraposed subject. In
extraposition, the that-clause which is the substantive subject is moved
or extraposed to the end of the sentence and is replaced by a dummy it.
Make no mistakes; this syntactic function resembles that of an adjective
complement Look at these:

i. It is necessary that we all understand the situation at

hand.
ii. It is important that we search you before you enter the
premises.
iii. It is also okay that you are not okay.
iv. It is obvious that you did not prepare for this.

c. As Direct Object
Also, the that clause can function as direct object. In declarative,
interrogative and imperative structures, the that clause as object normally
comes after the main verb of the construction. Look at these:
i. Does Daddy know that you are dating his friend? (Interrogative)
ii. They believe that a man is made of both good and bad stuff.
(Declarative)

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iii. Consider, first, that we are all humans. (Imperative)

iv. I had written her that my taste had begun to change. (Declarative)
v. She wrote back explaining to me that it is not all about my taste.
(Declarative)

d. As Complement
The that clause can occur as subject complement. As a complement, the
that clause is the part of the construction that completes the
subject. In declarative structures, it comes after the main verb and refers
back to the same person, idea or thing as the subject. Let us consider
some examples:
i. The second reason is that the hearer has to contextualize the
speaker’s utterance.
ii. Her problem is that her husband doesn’t sleep home.
iii. The solution for her was that they both relocate to where the
husbands sleeps.
iv. The latest news is that Ghana is the happiest country in the
world.
v. The achievement proves that UCC is indeed the teachers of the
nation.

e. As an Appositive
Another function of the that clause is as an appositive. As an appositive, the
that clause is placed next to a general noun or noun phrase in a sentence so that
the that clause renames or explains it. Let us consider some examples:
i. Your claim, that you were mishandled, is unfounded.
ii. Their belief, that there is a creator of the universe, is rooted in
their customs.
iii. His allegation, that the CEO is flirting with the gateman’s wife,
is a serious one.
iv. The plan, that an examination hall should be built, is laudable.

f. As a Complement to an Adjective

The that – clause can function as an adjectival complement. As complement of

an Adjective, the that- clause completes the meaning of the adjective it follows
declarative, interrogative and imperative constructions? Look at these:

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i. We are sorry that we could not respond to your mails earlier.

(Declarative)
ii. We are certain that we saw someone enter the building.
(Declarative)
iii. Is he aware that you are seeing someone else? (Interrogative)
iv. Are you not happy that I am back? (Interrogative)
v. Be happy that I am back. (Imperative)

2.4 Other things to note about the that - clause.

It should be noted that the that – clause cannot occur as prepositional
complement or as an object complement. Also, when the that clause is object
or complement (or a delayed subject), the conjunction that is normally omitted
in informal use. In this case it is referred to as a “zero” that – clause. For
example:
i. I know (that) he was wrong.
ii. They told him (that) he was wrong.
iii. He said (that) he would come.
iv. The assumption is (that) things will improve.

When the clause is functioning as subject and not extraposed, the conjunction
that cannot be omitted. It is rather expanded to the fact that, except
informal use. For example,
i. (The fact) that she is still alive consoles me.
ii. (The fact) that he should pay a fine is shocking
iii. (That fact) that he is to take that course again hurts him.

In this session, we looked at the structure of the that – clause

in English. We said that it is a clause which is introduced
with that. We, also, considered the functions of the that – clause. We
observed that it can occur as subject, object, subject complement adjective
complement and appositive.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.2

Identify the that-clauses in the following sentences and state their functions:

1. The accusation, that we closed early, is baseless.

2. They demanded that we helped them.

3. That we shall harvest maize soon is certain.

4. The rumour, that we shall start a new programme, is interesting.

5. The world is happy that a saviour is born.

6. I’m glad that you have come.

7. The agreement was that we report at 6.00a.m.

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SESSION 3

SESSION 3: THE NOMINAL INTERROGATIVE

FINITE CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your

unit. I hope you enjoyed the second session on the that-
clause. Can you form one sentence with a that nominal clause? In this
session, we shall examine the two types of nominal interrogative clauses: the
Wh-interrogative finite clause and Yes-No interrogative nominal clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) identify the nominal interrogative clauses;
(b) construct some nominal interrogative clauses; and
(c) state the functions of the nominal interrogative clauses.

Now read on…

3.1 Wh-Interrogative Finite Nominal Clause

3.1.1 Features of the WH Finite Nominal Clause
The WH – clause is another finite clause apart from the that – clause we saw
earlier. Do you remember what it means to say a clause is finite? It means it
is a clause that contains a subject and predicate, or it is a clause that
contains a finite verb (Refer to Unit 1 session 4).

The Wh-Interrogative Finite Nominal Clause is normally introduced by a WH

word or an interrogative word. Examples are
What
Who
Why
How (this is regarded as a Wh word)
Where
When
What
Whose
Whom

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That is why the clause is referred to as a Wh Nominal Clause. Let us see some
examples:
i. How he got mu contact still baffles me.
ii. I don’t remember what he said.
iii. They asked her who she visited.
iv. I don’t know who told them they could still register..
v. I wonder how she is going to cope with that.
vi. I can’t tell why he did it.

You will observe that all the above clauses begin with WH words.

Can you construct similar clauses? Try it using the following

preambles:

1. Where they …………….

2. When he ……………….
3. I forgot what ……………
4. The student knew how …………….
5. How he ………………
6. They got what ………………

Note that although the clause is referred to as wh-interrogative nominal

clause, it is not marked by the subject-auxiliary inversion feature in the
wh-interrogatives main clauses.
3.1.2. Functions of the Wh-Interrogative Nominal Clause
The WH – interrogative clause occurs in the whole range of functions
available to the that – clause, and in addition can act as prepositional
complement. Let us examine these functions.
a. As Subject
i. What Shakespeare did with his plays has been fodder for
researchers.
ii. What he did was strange.
iii. Where he went was good for him.
iv. How the book will sell is not my concern now.

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b. As Direct Object
i. I still don’t understand why he borrowed money from his in-laws.
ii. He asked who was
iii. As we speak, no one can tell what brought about the agitations.
iv. In 1600, Shakespeare didn’t realize how famous his works would
be 421 years later.
c. As Subject Complement
i. My problem right now is why he is refusing to answer the phone.
ii. The question is how he got into the room.
iii. That was why he came.
iv. It became what he really needed.
d. As Appositive
i. Our first question, why he took the exam, was not answered.
ii. The issue, what we should do now, is disturbing.
iii. The problem, how we can get water, is not solved.
iv. My question, who gave you the money, is still relevant.

e. As Adjective Complement
i. The police are not even sure who their suspects are.
ii. I am not sure where he bought that book.
iii. The teacher was certain where they saw the answer.
iv. Kofi was not sure whose house he lived in.
v. We were so sure how we were going to get out that building.
f. As Prepositional Complement
i. They are still arguing about who the greatest footballer is.
ii. It all depends on when we will start the party.
ii. No one was consulted on who should have the prize.
iii. The whole plan hinges on who should lead the group.
iv. Our success depends on what effort we put in.
As regards meaning, you will observe that these clauses resemble WH
questions in that they leave a gap of unknown information. The gap is
represented by the WH element.

Look at these:
I am not sure who is coming (WH Clause)
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This implies,
Do you know who is coming? (WH – Clause) or
Who is coming? (WH question)

In this session, we studied the WH – interrogative Nominal

Clause. We noted that the WH - interrogative clause begins
with a WH word. In addition, the WH – interrogative nominal clause can
function as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjective
complement and prepositional complement.

3.2 The Yes-No Interrogative Clause

In the preceding session, we focused on the Nominal wh-interrogative clause.
Here, we will focus on the Nominal yes-no interrogative clause.

2.2.1 Features of the Yes-No interrogative clause

a. The yes-no interrogative clause is introduced by the subordinator “if”
or “whether”
1. Do you know whether the banks are open?
2. Do you know if the banks are open?

Examples 1 and 2 above show nominal yes-no interrogative clauses. These

clauses are in italics. As can be seen, the first one begins with “whether” and
the second one begins with “if”.
b. On the other hand, nominal yes-no alternative questions are formed
with these corelative conjunctions, “whether… or” or “if…or”.
1. I can’t find out whether the flight has been delayed or whether it
has been cancelled.
2. I can’t determine if he is coming or if he has travelled abroad.
In the examples above, we find that “whether… or” is used in the first Yes-no
interrogative clause and “if…or” is used in the second. We also find that in
each case, the subordinator (whether/if) is repeated. This is because the second
element joined by the corellative conjunction is a full clause, thus:
1. …it has been cancelled
2. …he has travelled abroad.
c. There are cases where the subordinator is not repeated. That is when
the second structure being joined is not a full clause. Let us consider
the following examples:

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1. They didn’t say whether it will rain or be sunny

2. I asked them if they wanted meat or fish

Examples 1-2 above show instances where the second unit or alternative is not
a full clause. The second alternatives here are “be sunny” and “fish”. There
alternatives are reduced forms of the clauses “it will be sunny” and “they
wanted fish”. Since they are reduced forms, there is no need to repeat the
subordinator.
d. Repetition is optional if the second alternative is a to-infinitive clause.
However, the subordinator is omitted when the second clause is
reduced by a deletion of the “to” particle. Let us consider the examples
below:
1. He didn’t tell us whether to wait for him or (whether) to go on
without him.
2. i. He didn’t tell us whether to wait for him or go on without him.
ii. *He didn’t tell us whether to wait for him or whether go on
without him.

Example 1 above illustrates that the repeated “whether” can be deleted without
affecting the grammaticality of the sentence. In 2 i, it is illustrated that there is
no need to repeat “whether”, as a repetition of it will render the sentence
ungrammatical (See example 2 ii).

3.2.2 Functions of Yes-No Interrogative Clause

This clause type performs a wide range of functions. However, there are some
restrictions on the use of “if” as a subordinator in some of these functions.
a. ‘If” cannot introduce a subject clause, unless the subject is extraposed:
1. Whether she likes the present is not clear to me.
2. i. *If she likes the present is not clear to me (Ungrammatical)
ii. It is not clear to me if she likes the present (Extraposed)
b. “If” cannot introduce a subject complement clause.
1. My main problem is whether is should take students’ loan.
2. *My main problem is if I should take students’ loan
(Ungrammatical).
c. “If” cannot introduce a clause functioning as prepositional
complement.
1. It all depends on whether they will support us.

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2. *It all depends on if they will support us.

d. A clause introduced by “if” cannot function as an appositive.
1. You are yet to answer my question, whether I can count on your
vote.
2. *You are yet to answer my question, if I can count on your vote.

3.2.3 Other restrictions on the use of “if”

a. If cannot introduce a to-infinitive clause
1. I don’t know whether to see my doctor or not.
2. *I don’t know if to see my doctor or not.
b. If cannot be followed directly by “or not”. However, “or not”
can be postposed.
1. I don’t know whether or not he is coming.
2. * I don’t know if or not he is coming
I don’t know if he is coming or not.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.2

1. Identify the wh-interrogative clauses in the following sentences and

state their functions.
a. I know why you have come.
b. That is how it all happened.
c. What he prepared for supper was delicious.
d. He does not know who is coming in first.
e. How he got the house surprised everyone.
f. Well, that is why you must study hard.

2. Construct five sentences that contain Yes-no interrogative clauses

3. Identify the functions of the yes-no interrogative clauses in the
sentences you have constructed.

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SESSION 4

SESSION 4: THE NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSE

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your

unit. In the preceding section, we focused on the nominal
interrogative clause? You remember we said that it is
introduced by a wh-word as a feature of the wh-interrogative clause? What
other features of the wh-interrogative clause do you remember? In this session,
we are going to discuss a clause that looks similar to the wh-interrogative
clause. It is called the nominal relative clause.

Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(b) Describe the nominal relative clause;
(c) Differentiate it from the wh-interrogative clause;
(d) Construct some nominal relative clauses; and
(e) Identify the functions of nominal relative clauses.

Now, read on…

4.1 Features of the Nominal Relative Clause

As mentioned earlier, like the wh-interrogative clause, the nominal relative
clause is introduced by a wh-word. Let us consider the examples below:
1. He knows what he wants.
2. What he is looking for is a wife.

As can be seen from examples 1 and 2 above, the clauses in italics are nominal
relative clauses and they begin with the wh-word, “what”. While this clause
type resembles the wh-interrogative clauses, it does not leave a gap of
unknown information. As a case in point, we realise that the question posed by
“what he wants” is answered by the verb “knows” in example 1. Similarly, the
question posed by “what he is looking for” is answered by “a wife” in example
2. Since we find answers to the questions in the sentence, all doubts are cleared
and no gap of information is left. This semantically differentiates the nominal
relative clause from the wh-interrogative clause.

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Also, unlike the wh-interrogative clauses, the nominal relative clause can be
introduced by -ever versions of the wh-words. These -ever versions include
whatever, whichever, however, etc. In present day English, whoever is mostly
preferred over who in nominal relative clauses. Let’s see how they are used in
the following sentences:
1. I will give you however much tobacco you need.
2. Whoever comes first wins the prize.
3. Give her whatever she wants.

What are your observations about the three examples above? Can you identify
the -ever versions of the wh-words used?

In addition, the nominal relative clause is a noun phrase in disguise. Thus, it

can be paraphrased into a noun phrase containing a post-modifying relative
clause. Relative clauses are clauses that function as adjectives. They provide
further information about the nouns they modify. We will discuss them in
detail later in this module. For now, let us look at how the nominal relative
clause can be paraphrased into a noun phrase:
1. I will give you however much tobacco you need.
2. Quality is what counts most.

Can you paraphrase the clauses above into noun phrases? Compare
your answers to the paraphrases given below. Are they the same? Very
good.
1. however much tobacco you need.
Paraphrase: any amount of tobacco that you need
2. what counts most
Paraphrase: the thing that counts the most

Like noun phrases, the nominal relative clause requires a preposition in

adjective complementation. This means that if you want to introduce a nominal
relative clause after an adjective, you need to place a preposition between the
adjective and the nominal relative clause, as in the following example:
1. He is aware of what I write
As can be seen from the example above, the nominal relative clause is
introduced after the preposition “of”. This use of the preposition is optional in
the case of wh-interrogative clauses.

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4.2 Functions of the Nominal Relative Clause

Subject
1. What he is looking for is a wife.
2. What I want is a cup of tea.

Direct Object
1. You should see whoever deals with complaints.
2. I know what he wants.
3. He will get whatever he desires.

Indirect Object
1. He gave whoever asked for it a copy of his latest book.
2. He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile.

Subject Complement
1. Home is where friends and family are.
2. April is when the lilacs bloom.

Appositive
1. I will pay you the whole debt, what I originally borrowed and what I
owe you in interest.
2. Let us know your home address (that is, where you live on vacation).

Prepositional Complement
1. You should vote for whichever candidate you think best.
2. He is interested in whatever I do with the laptop.

In this session, we studied the nominal relative clause. We

noted that it shares some similarities and differences with the
wh-interrogative clause. Can you mention the similarities and differences?
Very good. We also noted its functions.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.4
(a) Discuss the features of the nominal relative clause.
(b) Explain the functions of the nominal relative clause.

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics if any.

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UNIT 4
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: THE INFINITIVE NON-FINITE NOMINAL

CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of your unit.

I hope you enjoyed the previous sessions especially the
exercises. Which nominal clauses have you studied so far? In this session, we
shall be looking at the to-infinitive and bare infinitive clauses.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the to-infinitive non-finite clause in terms of its structure;
(b) construct the to-infinitive non-finite clause; and
(c) state the functions of the to-infinitive non-finite clause.

Now read on…

5.1 To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clause

5.1.1 Features of the To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clause
The To - infinitive nominal clause is a non-finite one. What does this imply?
You remember that in unit 1, we studied the features of the non-finite clause.
Their verb phrases are do not locate the action of the verb in either the past or
the present tense.
a. The To - infinitive nominal clause begins with a To + infinitive as for
example:
i. Father Amuzu loved to finish his mornings with prayer walks
ii. I was fascinated by her inability to see herself in her own
future plans.
iii. He didn’t seem to be interested in the proposal.

b. The To - infinitive nominal clause can be constructed with or without a

subject. The subject of the to-infinitive clause, when a pronoun, is
almost always in the objective case.
i. It was difficult for him to part with such an amount.
ii. The plan was for us to meet at the mall.
iii. He wanted for us to partner him on a project.
iv. Is it difficult for you to ask her out?

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c. When the to-infinitive clause is a direct object, the particle ‘for’ is often
omitted.
i. I wanted [for] us to start some eatery business.
ii. If you want [for] me to stay, I will never leave.
iii. He wants [for] me to stay.
d. The to-infinitive nominal clause does not function as complement a
preposition.

Complete the following sentences with To-infinitive non-finite clauses.

1. They were to …………………………………………………..
2. The student was to …………………………………………….
3. To ………………. is a big task.
4. To ………………. is a joy in life.
5. His decision was to ……………………………………………

You have done well.

5.1.2 Functions of the To-infinitive Non-finite Clause

The To-infinitive non-finite nominal clause can function as subject, direct
object, subject complement, appositive and adjectival complement. Let us take
the functions one after the other.

a. As Subject
i. To turn back now will be a big mistake.
ii. To delay a quiz is to make it the more difficult.
iii. To be a great football player is more than just the ability to play
well.
iv. To trust and not be trusted is can be very upsetting.

b. As Direct Object
i. He has refused to accept our apology.
ii. I want to finish the project by next week.
iii. The Union intends to continue the strike.
iv. Every responsible husband loves to eat from her wife’s kitchen.

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c. As Subject Complement
i. Their resolve was to go to war.
ii. My responsibilities have been to organize entertainment for the
school.
iii. He seems to be interested in something else.
iv. Kwadwo’s wish is to become a lawyer one day.

d. As Appositive
i. His decision, to pay his bills, surprised us all.
ii. His ambition, to become a lawyer, has nothing to do with his
family’s background.
iii. The idea, to meet on Thursday, is a good one.
iv. Her ambition, to become a renowned comedian, has always upset
her Dad.

e. As Adjectival Complement
i. We are glad to have you back.
ii. They are anxious to do the course.
iii. She is eager to settle down.
iv. John is happy to visit the centre.
v. I feel honoured to be given this opportunity.

5.2 The Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause

5.2.1 Features of the Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause
The bare infinitive nominal clause is one whose verb consist of the tenseless
lexical verb. The lexical verb in this clause is not preceded by any auxiliary
verb. It is called bare infinitive because it uses the infinitive form of the verb
without to. For example:
see
do
come
go

Let us look at some bare infinitive nominal clauses.

i. He makes me laugh sometimes.
ii. Obey every single instruction was my New Year resolution.
iii. Cry over a guy is the last thing I will do.

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iv. Won’t you help me plan a surprise for Emerline this

weekend?
.
5.2.2 Functions of the Bare Infinitive Nominal Clause
The bare infinitive nominal clause can occur as subject and as subject
complement. Look at these:
a. As Subject
i. Massage him every night became the norm.
ii. Prepare for my face-to-face was what I did all night last
night.
iii. Grab a bottle of water is what I have to do now.
iv. Remain silent seem to have worked for me.

b. As Object Complement
i. Upon entry, an elegant young lady bid us sit down on the
veranda.
ii. The old man made us apologize for no apparent reason.
iii. They made us waste our energy.
iv. This woman made my uncle cry over her for years.
iv. The school authorities made the SRC pay for the damages.

c. As Subject Complement
i. What the windows key does is display the start menu.
ii. All I need you to do now is tell the truth for once.
iii. Our mission is ensure equity, not equality.

In this session we studied the to-infinitive nominal clause. We

noted that it is introduced by a to-infinitive. We also identified
the functions of the to-infinitive nominal clause. These are: subject, direct
object, subject complement, appositive and complement to preposition.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.4
(a) Identify the To-infinitive Non-finite Nominal Clauses in
the following sentences.

(b) State their function

1. To err is human.

2. For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.

3. Her wish is to be a pilot.

4. His ambition, to be a lawyer, was never fulfilled.

5. They are glad to work here.

6. To tell lies is a bad habit.

7. For the teachers to meet on Thursday is a good idea.

8. To work hard was his aim.

(c) State the structure and functions of the bare infinitive nominal
clause

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This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics if any.

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SESSION 6

SESSION 6: THE PARTICIPIAL AND VERBLESS

NOMINAL CLAUSES

Dear Student, you are welcome to another session of Unit 4. I

hope you remember what we studied in the previous session.
Good. In this session, we shall examine the Participial Non-finite Nominal
Clause and the Verbless Nominal Clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) describe the features of the participial non-finite nominal clause;
(b) construct some participial non-finite clauses; and
(c) state the functions of the participial non-finite clause.

Now read on…

6.1 The Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

6.1.1. Features of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause
The participial nominal clause is another non-finite clause. What does this
mean to you? It can be constructed with or without a subject. The verb phrase
is non-finite;it does not mark for tense (whether past or present). Remember,
we identified some participles in the construction of the participial clause.
Which are they? They are
i. ing participle
ii. ed/en participle.

a. The participial non-finite nominal clause has a verb which ends in the
–ing participle form. In subjectless -ing nominal clauses, the -ing verb
introduces the clause. Let us look at some examples.
i. In that particular year, going out without a mask was considered
a crime.
ii. Everybody was busy fighting off what had become a common
enemy-a virus.
iii. Watching movies, eating and sleeping was all we could do.

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SESSION 6 NOMINAL CLAUSES

b. The –ing participle non-finite clause can be constructed with a subject,

which can be in either the objective case or the genitive/possessive
case.
i. I don’t like his making people look bad always.
ii. I don’t like Lydia’s making people look bad always.
iii. I don’t like him making people look bad always.
iv. I don’t like Lydia making people look bad always.

Can you identify the subjects in the ing clause? Yes, in i and ii, they
are “his” and “Lydia’s” respectively. The case of these subject is what
we refer to as genitive. They show possession. In iii and iv, the subjects are
“him” and “Lydia” respectively, and the case is objective.

Note that the in formal contexts, the genitive case is preferred. That is
why according to Quirk (1973), it is commonly claimed that the genitive
form is the only “correct” form, but in fact, it frequently has a stilted effect.

6.1.2 Functions of the Participial Non-finite Nominal Clause

The participial non-finite nominal clause occurs as subject, direct object,
subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement and adjectival
complement. Let’s look at these one after the other:
a. As Subject
i. Driving in heavy traffic every day is a new thing to him.
ii. Trying to be who you are not can be very expensive.
iii. Criticizing people unnecessarily destroys society.
iv. Paying your tax enables government to provide social amenities.

b. As Direct Object
i. No one enjoys seeing you in tears all the time.
ii. Our laws prohibit building without permit.
iii. It was just one mistake that made getting a first class impossible.
iv. I don’t like his always degrading others in their absence.

c. As Subject Complement
i. The funniest part was him trying to hide the lipstick marks..
ii. What he hates is telling lies.
iii. Danielle’s dream has been wanting to marry a black from Ghana.
iv. Kofi’s greatest pleasure is listening to classical music.

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UNIT 4
SESSION 6

d. As Appositive
i. His life time ambition, putting remote places on the national
grid, gave him fulfilment.
ii. During the lockdown, even my favourite pastime, reading science
fiction, became unexciting.
iii. Their value, showing kindness to people, makes them successful.
iv. I got the most pleasant job, preparing the girls for shows.

e. As Prepositional Complement
i. I am responsible for organizing hall week celebrations on various
campuses in Ghana.
ii. Some people are fond of promising what they cannot provide.
iii. My Grandmother taught me to keep my anger from showing on my
face.
iv. Hers was the enviable role of preparing master’s bed every night.
v. This is the only army capable of shooting their own down.

f. As Adjectival Complement
i. They praise themselves to have made it easier calling family and
friends.
ii. Milovan is confident winning the African cup upon his second coming
as coach of the Black Stars.
iii. Ama is happy celebrating her twenty-second birthday with the kids.
iv. They are busy milking the state.

6.2 The Verbless Clause

6.2.1 Features of the Verbless Clause
Verbless clauses are clauses which contain no verb elements, - and often also
no subject. They are regarded as clauses because they function in ways which
make them equivalent to finite and non-finite clauses, and because they can be
analysed in terms of one or more clause elements. As we saw in unit 1 session
6, the verbless clause is one that has no overt verb. For example:
i. Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is expensive.
ii. Theresa started singing from her hymn book, quite upset at the
news.

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SESSION 6 NOMINAL CLAUSES

We observe that even though the verbless clause appears to be a phrase, it has
some semantic and structural characteristics of the prototypical clause.
a. Verbless clauses have no overt verbs, but in most cases the missing
verb can be interpreted as a form of be. In sentence ii above, we can
rephrase the verbless clause “quite upset at the news” as being quite
upset at the news. The verbless clause in sentence i can also be
rephrased as Having wall-to-wall carpets in every room.
b. In some instances, the verbless clause may also lack an overt subject,
but the missing subject is co-referential with the subject (or object) of
the main clause.
Can you tell who is “quite upset at the news” in sentence ii? Yes, it is
Theresa. We are able to tell it is Theresa because Theresa is the subject
of the main clause.
.
6.2.2 Functions of the Verbless Clause
The verbless clause can function as subject. For example
a. As Subject
i. Wall to wall carpets in every room is expensive.
ii. Fast cars in cities is a problem.
iii. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

b. As Complement to some prepositions such as although, as though, once,

with, without.
i. Although no longer a minister, she continued to exercise
power.
ii. Once away from home, she learned to fend for herself.
iii. He spoke in breathy voice, as though resentful of the fact that
she is a second girlfriend.
iv. They stood against the wall with their hands above their
heads.
v. I saw them walking down the street without any cloths on.

We have studied the participial non-finite nominal clause

and the verbless nominal clause. We looked at their features
and functions. We also looked at their functions. These functions include
subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional
complement and adjectival complement.

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UNIT 4
SESSION 6

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercise 4.5
(a) Underline the –ing participial nominal clauses in the
following sentences:

1. It is foolish disobeying authorities.

2. Seeing is believing.

3. Paying bills is uninteresting.

4. He considered it good giving things to the poor.

5. She is interested in celebrating Christmas.

6. Understanding such a lesson is easy.

(b) Identify the functions of the –ing clauses.

(c) Discuss the features and functions of the verbless clause.

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UNIT 4
SESSION 6 NOMINAL CLAUSES

This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficulty topics if any.

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
UNIT 5

UNIT 5: RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Relative Clauses-An Introduction
Session 2: Factors that Determine the Choice of the Relative Pronouns I:
The Antecedent
Session 3: Factors that Determine the Choice of the Relative Pronoun II:
The Function of the Relative Clause in the Sentence
Session 4: Factors that Determine the Choice of the Relative Pronoun III:
The Function of the Relative Pronoun.
Session 5: Sentence Relative Clauses
Session 6: Adjectival Clauses

This Unit examines the modification function at the clause

level in details. Two types of clause normally perform this function, namely,
Relative Clauses and Adjectival Clauses. These clauses will engage us in
this Unit.

Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:
1. tell the post-modification functions of relative and
adjectival clauses;
2. distinguish between relative and adjectival clauses;
3. choose appropriate relative pronouns;
4. explain the similarities and differences between relative and
adjectival clauses; and
5. use relative and adjectival clauses correctly.

We assure you of an exciting experience in our exploring relative and

adjectival clauses together.

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UNIT 5

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
UNIT 5
SESSION 1

SESSION1: RELATIVE CLAUSES, AN

INTRODUCTION
We welcome you to this session. As indicated in the Unit
Overview, the Unit will concentrate on the modification function of the clauses.
Structurally, this function is the central concern of relative and adjectival
clauses. In this first session of the Unit, we will examine the relative clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) explain and give examples of a relative clause
(b) distinguish a relative clause from a relative pronoun;
(c) identify a relative clause;
(d) state the function of a relative clause; and
(e) tell what an antecedent is.

Now read on …

1.1 What are Relative Clauses?

When we mention someone or something in a sentence, we often want to give
further information about them. One way to do this is to use a relative clause.
A relative clause is a subordinate clause which defines the reference of a noun
or a noun phrase. Unlike nominal clauses, as we have seen, relative clauses are
not introduced by subordinators, but by pronouns.

What then are they? Like nominal clauses, relative clauses have their
own subjects and finite verbs, but form part of sentences.

1.2 Relative Pronouns

English, as you have rightly recalled, has six (6) relative pronouns. Relative
pronouns always introduce relative clauses.
Can you identify the relative pronouns in the sentences below?

i. The artist who sang ‘One Corner’ is from Swedru.

ii. They voted against their own friend, which they regretted later.
iii. Those I did not understand, I did not answer.
iv. He bought me a car which I never drove.

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SESSION 1

v. The boys whose parents came here are not in the class.
vi. The NADMO team rescued the man whom the dogs had found.

Have you picked

i. who
ii. that
iii. zero relative pronoun
iv. which
v. whose
vi. whom?

Now pick out the relative clauses from sentences i-vi above. Good. They are
the clauses underlined in the sentences below.
i. The artist who sang ‘One Corner’ is from Swedru.
ii. They voted against their own friend, which they regretted later.
iii. Those I did not understand, I did not answer.
iv. He bought me a car that I never drove.
v. The boys whose parents came here are not in the class.
vi. The NADMO team rescued a man whom the dogs had found.

1.3 The Function of Relative Clauses

Now, can you tell what functions the relative clauses in i-vi above perform?
The general function of the relative clause is that of modification. The relative
clause modifies the noun phrase or antecedent that it follows or which
precedes it. Sometimes, a relative clause post-modifies a whole sentence,
which it follows.

These noun phrases and sentences which the relative clauses post-modify are
technically called antecedents.

Antecedents are the heads of the noun phrases that the relative clauses post-
modify. (Can you pick the antecedents in sentences i-vi above? To do this,
first, identify the noun phrase, and then locate the head. The underlined are the
antecedents of the noun phrases in the sentences:
i. The artist
ii. They voted for against their own friend
iii. Those

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UNIT 5
SESSION 1

iv. a car
v. The boys
vi. a man

In this first session of the unit, we learnt that a relative clause

is generally a finite clause. Its central function is to post-
modify, that is, qualify its antecedent. A relative clause is always introduced
by a relative pronoun, hence the name relative clause. The antecedent of the
relative clause is generally the head of the noun phrase which is post-modified.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercises 5.1
1. (a) Underline the relative clauses in the following
sentences;
(b) Identify the antecedents; and
(c) Copy out the relative pronoun in each case.
i The students who read consistently will excel in this course.
ii. He finally got the job he wanted since childhood.
iii. They don’t entertain quests who smoke.
iv. The drivers whose license was ceased is still on the road.
v. Show me a man who speaks faster, I will
vi. Anyone who works hard can win a prize.
vii. Do you know the ones that belong to your mother?
viii. The money with which I was to pay my fees stolen.

2. (a) Use each of the six (6) relative pronouns identified in this
session to construct six sentences.

(b) In each sentence, underline the finite verb in the relative

clause.

3. Under what circumstances can you use a zero-relative pronoun?

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

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SESSION 1

• issues that are note clear; and

• difficult topics, if any

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
UNIT 5
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS I:
THE ANTECEDENT

We welcome you to the second session of the unit. How

did you find the self-assessment exercises? In the last
session, we examined four main ideas about the relative clause. Can you recall
them?

You must have observed that the choice of a relative pronoun in the
construction of a relative clause is guided by some consistent rules. In this
session, we continue our exploration of the relative clause. Particularly, we
wish to examine one of the factors that determine the choice of the relative
pronoun in the relative clause, namely, the nature of the antecedent.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(b) know when to select and use relative pronouns such as “who”, “which”
and “that”; and
(c) use these relative pronouns appropriately.

Now read on …

2.1 The Choice of Relative Pronouns

Can you recall the six relative pronouns we studied in the last session? Of
course, they are “who”, “whom”, “whose”, “which”, “that” and the zero
relative pronoun. We are sure you can tell the function of the relative pronoun
in the relative clause: it introduces the relative clause. Observe that though
they introduce the relative clause, they are not conjunctions that introduce
nominal clauses. Can you guess the reason? Yes, unlike conjunctions, relative
pronouns do not perform connective functions. They are pronouns, so they
function as other nouns in acting as subjects, objects, complements, etc., of
sentences. However, we need to understand that the choice of the relative
pronoun in a relative clause is governed by a set of rules that reflects some
stylistic and grammatical characteristics of the clause. One of such rules is the
nature of the antecedent of the relative clause.

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UNIT 5 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS I:
SESSION 2 THE ANTECEDENT

2.2 + Human Antecedent

The nature of an antecedent is based on the grammatical gender of the
antecedent. Gender is explained here to mean a grammatical property that
distinguishes organisms or nouns on the basis of their animacy and humanness.
This distinction yields animate and inanimate antecedents.

What do we mean by the word, “antecedent”? Yes, the antecedent is the head
of a noun phrase, and which the relative pronoun relates or refers to. Here are
some examples with the heads underlined:
i. the pen
ii. The new dog
iii. The debate
iv. the trees

Now use each of these noun phrases in a sentence.

i. The pen is flowing.
ii. The new dog has refused to eat anything.
iii. The debate was won by the University of Cape Coast Team.
iv. The tree were giving is shade and cover from violent winds

Have you observed that all the antecedents in the sentences above do not refer
to human beings? What do they refer to then? Yes, they refer to non-human
things. Now here are some examples with human antecedents:
i. the carpenter
ii. the medical student
iii. a friend

The words “carpenter”, “student”, and “friend” refer to human beings. Now, if
the antecedent has the property of humanness or it refers to a human being
(+human), we select the relative pronouns “who” or “that” to introduce the
relative clause. Here are examples:
i. The carpenter who made this stool is now a pastor.
ii. The medical student that won the beauty pageant is also an
entrepreneur.
iii. This is a friend who will always be there for you.
iv. He is a friend that never disappoints.

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UNIT 5
SESSION 2

Now write down two sentences containing relative clauses that have human
antecedents.

2.3 Human Antecedent

Now we know that with + human antecedents, we select “who” or “that” as the
relative pronouns to introduce the relative clause. Now, what happens when
the antecedent is – human, that is, it refers to non-human entity? Let us start
with some – human antecedents: the computer software, the term paper and the
Town Hall. Can you give some more examples? Now, when the antecedent is
– human or refers to non- human entities, we select the relative pronouns
“which” and “that” to introduce the relative clause. Here are some examples:
i. The vehicle that/which broke down near the school has been
towed away.
ii. The movie that/which the most money was Titanic
iii. The subject which/that is most interesting is English.

Underline the relative clauses in the sentences above. Put a ring round the verb
phrases in the relative clauses. Identify the antecedent in each sentence with
double underlining

In this session, we have learnt that the relative pronoun that we

select to introduce a relative clause depends on the nature of
the antecedent, whether it is human or non-human. If the antecedent refers to a
human being, we select “who” or “that”, but if the antecedent refers to a non-
human object, we select “which” or “that”.

Self–Assessment Questions
Exercises 5.2
1. a. Write down five (5) sentences containing relative
clauses.
b. Give the antecedent double underlining.
c. Give the relative clause a single underlining.

2. What observation can you make about “that” as a relative pronoun

in your study so far?

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UNIT 5 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS I:
SESSION 2 THE ANTECEDENT

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSE UNIT 5
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN II: THE
FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE IN
THE SENTENCE

Welcome to Session 3 of the Unit. We believe you went

through the exercises at the end of the last session. How did
you find the exercises? Easy? Yes, of course, the exercises weren’t difficult if
you followed the content of the session. You’ll recall that the session
concentrated on the choice and use of “who”, “which” and “that” as relative
pronouns. Can you tell when we select these three relative pronouns?

In the current session, we intend to examine a second determining factor in the

choice of relative pronouns, namely, whether the relative clause is
defining/restrictive or non-defining/non-restrictive.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to
(a) define the terms defining or restrictive clause and non-defining
or non-restrictive clause;
(b) tell the features and meaning of each type of clause; and
(c) choose and use the appropriate relative pronoun in each case.

Now read on …

3.1 Defining or Restrictive Relative Clause

From the last session, it is clear that the nature of the antecedent is what
determines whether we should select “who” or “that”, on one hand, or “which”
or “that” on the other. Can you explain what we mean here to a mate who
missed Session 2? Attempt an explanation to an imaginary absentee mate.
Now a defining or restrictive relative clause seeks to restrict its antecedent by
limiting its reference, hence the terms defining and restrictive.

Here are some examples:

i. The book which they recommended is in the library.
ii. Politicians who make extravagant promises are always under the
spotlight.
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UNIT 5 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN II:
SESSION 3 FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE
IN THE SENTENCE

In both i and ii, the underlined parts are the relative clauses. In i, the relative
clause helps us to identify the book. Presumably, there are several books, but
we are referring to a particular one that has been recommended. The clause
“which they recommended” is defining, restricting or is essential in identifying
its antecedent, “book”. Similarly, in ii, “who make extravagant promises”
helps pick from the group of politicians ones that make extravagant promises.
The clause, therefore, helps us identify those who are always under the
spotlight. The clause, in other words, defines, identifies or restricts the
antecedent “Politicians”. As a general rule, a defining relative clause selects
one from a group, a smaller number from a bigger group or a smaller quantity
from a larger quantity.
i. The boys who came late were punished.
ii. A girl who comes from Oboadaka graduated top of her class.
iii. The milk which is on the table has gone bad.

In i, there were many boys but only those who came late suffered punishment.
In ii, several girls might have graduated from the class, but the one that
graduated top of the class is a girl from Oboadaka, viz not a girl from any other
village, but Oboadaka. In iii, there may be milk in different parts of the room,
but we are referring to the “milk on the table”.

Now write down two sentences containing defining or restrictive relative

clauses.

3.2 Features of the Defining/Restrictive Clause

a. In speech, the defining clause is said at the same pitch level as
that used for the antecedent. In other words, there is no pause
after the antecedent nor at the end of the clause. Thus, all the five
sentences in our examples are said or read with no pauses.
b. In writing, a defining relative clause does not require any
punctuation. It is not separated from the antecedent it defines or
restricts by any commas or any other punctuations as have been
exemplified in the five model sentences above.
c. In semantics, it gives central meaning to the clause by narrowing
down the class, group or category of the general noun phrase
being modified.

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SESSION 3

3.3 Non-Defining or Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses

Unlike the defining relative clause, the non-defining relative clause
simply gives extra information about an already specific antecedent.
The presence of the non-defining relative clause is not to help us
identify its antecedent. Here are some examples.
i. The Volta, which enters the sea at Ada, is a big river in West
Africa.
ii. The Bible, which is a holy book for Christians, has been
translated into many languages.
iii. 8. President Kufuor, who won in 2000, is a great
statesman.

In i, the clause is not defining because there is only one river called the Volta.
Similarly, in ii, there is only one Bible and in iii, only one President Kufuor.
The clauses in the three sentences merely comment on their antecedents; they
are, therefore, non-defining or non-restrictive relative clauses.

3.4 Features of the Non-Defining Relative Clause

(a) The antecedents of non-restrictive clauses are always unique. By
unique, we mean the antecedent is the only one of its kind. Thus,
there is only one Volta, only one Bible and only one President
Kufuor. Unique antecedents are often names of people (Kofi,
Fatima, Marian); names of villages, towns and cities (e.g.,
Kebegodo, Nsawam, and Accra); names of institutions like
University of Cape Coast, the Okomfo Anokye Teaching
Hospital, the Volta River Authority, etc. Can you name other
unique antecedents? You think about names of days of the week,
names of months, names of the oceans, names of the planets, etc.
(b) The non-defining clause is characterized in speech by two pauses,
one immediately after the antecedent and the other at the end of
the clause. In writing, the non-defining clause is separated by two
commas as equivalent to the pauses in speech.

Now write down three sentences containing non-defining relative clauses.

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UNIT 5 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN II:
SESSION 3 FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE
IN THE SENTENCE

3.5 Relative Pronouns in Defining Relative Clauses

(a) The relative pronouns “who” and “that” are selected for defining
relative clauses with +human antecedents. For example:
i. My son, who is four, loves Spiderman.
ii. He bought some Spiderman collectibles for my son, who
is four.

(b) The relative pronouns “which” and “that” are selected for defining
clauses with –human antecedents as in:
i. The book which /that I bought at the book fair has been
stolen.
ii. Oranges which/that are unripe taste sour.

3.6 Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Relative Clauses

(a) The relative pronoun “who” is selected for non-defining clause with
+ human antecedent.
i. My mother, who is very kind-hearted, pays my fees.
ii. Gordon Guggisberg, who built Wesley College, was one of
the most development-minded governors of the Gold Coast.
(b) The relative pronoun “which” is the chosen relative pronoun for the
non-defining relative clause with – human antecedent. For
example:
i. Accra, which is the capital of Ghana, is crowded.
ii. The University of Cape Coast, which was ranked number
one globally in terms research influence, runs a solid
Distance Education programme.

From the examples above, we can conclude that “that” as a relative

pronoun cannot be used in non-defining relative clauses.

In this session, we distinguish between defining and non-

defining relative clauses. We discover that while the relative
pronouns who, which and that can be used in defining clauses, only who and
which can be selected for non-defining clauses.

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SESSION 3

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercises 5.3
1. What is a defining relative clause? What are the
features of a defining relative clause?

2. A non-defining relative clause is said to be “a comment clause”.

How does this differ from a defining clause?

3. Comment on the acceptability of the following sentences

containing relative clauses:

a. My mother who hails from Kumasi is generous.

b. Parliament which is the highest law-making body in Ghana

has 200 members.

c. The Koran that can now be read in English was originally

written in Arabic.

d. The book, which I left on table has been stolen.

e. The news, which excited most Ghanaians, in recent years

was the discovery of oil in commercial quantities.

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 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE
UNIT 5 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN II:
SESSION 3 FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE
IN THE SENTENCE

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES UNIT 5
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF THE

RELATIVE PRONOUN III: THE FUNCTION OF THE
RELATIVE PRONOUN

You’re welcome to Session 4. How did you find the Self–

Assessment Exercises in Session 3? We hope you did not
only find them easy but also interesting and educative. You may recall that in
the last session, we studied the defining and non-defining relative clauses.

Can you tell the difference between the two clause types? Give one
reason why the distinction between defining and non-defining relative
clauses is important. Note down your answer for face-to-face.

In this session, we shall consider another factor that determines the choice of
relative pronouns in the relative clause, namely, the function of the relative
pronoun in the relative clause.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) tell the function of relative pronouns in relative clauses;
(b) state how the function determines the choice of the pronoun to be
made; and
(c) select and use relative pronouns appropriately in the relative clauses.

Now read on …

4.1 Relative Pronouns can Function as Noun Phrases

Can you recall what pronouns are? Yes, they normally refer back to nouns or
noun phrases. The relative pronouns, like personal pronouns, for example, can
function in different ways. Some examples of personal pronouns are:
1. He came [Subject]
2. Tom met her [Object]
3. This is my bag [Genitive]

You will recall that the forms of the personal pronouns differ according to
case. That is, personal pronouns mark case. In the following sentences, the
relative pronouns function as:

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UNIT 5 CHOICE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN
SESSION 4 III: THE FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE
PRONOUN

(a) Subject (in the relative clause): When the relative pronoun
functions as subject in the relative clause, the pronouns chosen are who,
which, and that.
i. The people who just left here were looking for your boss.
ii. The teacher returned the tests that counted for 40% of the
assessment.
iii. The house which collapsed yesterday was poorly built.

(b) Object: When the function to be performed is object, the pronouns

available are: whom, that, which, (and who in informal usage).

i. This is the news article which I wrote during the vacation.

ii. The young girl whom you spoke to is my daughter.
iii. Amanda read the book that Belinda recommended.

(c) Genitive: The genitive function is performed by “whose” for all kinds
of antecedents.
i. The old lady whose house the developers destroyed is here to see
you.
ii. The man in whose name we come is no ordinary man in this
village.
iii. The students whose grades are still not reflecting in their portals
must see the examinations officer.

In this session, we studied that the function the relative

pronoun performs in the relative clause determines the kind of
pronoun chosen: if subject, we select who, which, and that; if object, the
selection falls on whom, which and that (with who in informal usage); and if
genitive, only whose is the correct form.

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Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.4
1. Fill the blanks with appropriate pronouns.
a. The woman …… daughter was injured is seeking legal
redress.

b. I doubt if the person …………. you saw was a ghost.

c. Those ………. work hard generally succeed.

d. The strategy ………. she suggested may not work.

e. The house ……... doors are painted green belongs to Akosua.

2. Comment on the use of the relative pronouns in the following sentences.

a. Mount Everest, which is the highest peak in the world, is in Asia.

b. The man whom came here was a bailiff.

c. The dog whose tail is cut is wild.

d. Do you know the girl who is standing near the door?

e. Do you admire girls that wear jeans?

3. Why is it necessary to know the function a relative pronoun is supposed to

perform in a relative clause?

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UNIT 5 CHOICE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN
SESSION 4 III: THE FUNCTION OF THE RELATIVE
PRONOUN

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES UNIT 5
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: SENTENCE RELATIVE CLAUSES

We welcome you to Session 5 of the unit. We trust you went

through the Self-Assessment Exercises at the end of the last
session. Can you recall the three main functions that the relative pronoun
performs and their corresponding forms? Functions determine the type of
relative pronoun we choose. In this session, we want to examine another
factor that determines the choice of relative pronouns, namely, the sentential
antecedent.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) tell with examples what a sentential antecedent is;
(b) state the relative pronoun selected by the sentential antecedent; and
(c) use the appropriate relative pronoun with the sentential antecedent
in the right contexts.

Now read on …

5.1 Sentential Antecedent

What is sentential antecedent? To answer this question, let us go back a little
to recall what an antecedent is. Earlier in this module, we defined the
antecedent as the head of the noun phrase that the relative clause post-
modifies. Can you give an example? Here are two examples with the
antecedents underlined.
1. The assignment which we did together was scored very highly.
2. The receptionist whom we spoke to looks familiar.

The nature the antecedent helps in determining the choice of the relative
pronoun in a relative clause. Can you explain why “which” and “whom “are
chosen in the two sentences above? Which other relative pronoun or pronouns
can replace the relative pronouns in the two sentences above? Did you say
“that” and “zero” relative pronouns? Yes, then you’re right. In the examples
above, the antecedents are noun phrases. You must have observed that all the
antecedents we have studied so far are all noun phrases. Sometimes, however,
the relative clause can modify an entire sentence (or proposition or clause),

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rather than modify just a part of it. In this situation, the relative clause will
immediately follow that clause or sentence. Consider the sentences below:
3a. There is going to be a new management, which is good news.
4a. Before the exam she was a little nervous, which was
understandable.
5a. They wanted to go home by air, which I thought was a good idea.

Can you pick out the relative clauses from the sentences above? Yes,
we can list them as:
3b. which is good news.
4b. which was understandable
5b. which I thought was a good idea

What are the antecedents of these relative clauses? They are not parts of the
sentence or individuals or things mentioned in it. They are not any noun or
noun phrases mentioned in it; but the whole independent clause in 3c-5c.
3c. There is going to be a new management;
4c Before the exam she was a little nervous;
5c. They wanted to go home by air;

You will agree that 3c-5c are complete sentences with their subjects, finite
verbs and objects. These sentences precede the relative clauses, so they are the
antecedents of the relative clauses. When a whole sentence functions as the
antecedent of a relative clause, it is technically referred to as sentential
antecedent. Sentential relative clauses have sentential antecedents.

5.2 An Obligatory Comma Separates the Sentential

Antecedent
Refer back to sentences 3a-5a. You notice that a comma (,) separates
the sentence which serves as the antecedent from the relative clause.
This comma is obligatory. This means that the comma cannot be omitted
without changing the meaning of the whole construction.

5.3 Sentential Antecedents Select “which’ Only

In the three sentences above, we observe that “which” is used as a relative
pronoun in all of them. The fact is that the sentential antecedent selects only
“which” as its pronoun for the relative clause. No other pronoun can be chosen
when the antecedent of a relative clause is a whole sentence.
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5.4 The Function of the Relative Clause

What observation can you make about 3b-5b? Certainly, they are not defining
the antecedents. Instead, they are commenting on the antecedents in 3c-5c. In
other words, the relative clauses with sentential antecedents convey the
speaker’s comment on the content of what he has said. In this case, the
comment relative clauses may be regarded as co-ordinate sentences where 3a –
5a are equivalent to:
3d. There is going to be a new management, which is good news.
4d. Before the exam she was a little nervous, which was
understandable.
5d. They wanted to go home by air, which I thought was a good idea.

This type of clause is indeed a kind of non-restrictive clause in having an

obligatory comma and in pointing back. The main difference, however, is that
the clause points back not to a noun or a noun phrase, but to a whole clause or
sentence (and in some cases to a sequence of sentences).

We have considered another factor that determines the choice

of a relative pronoun in the relative clause: the sentential
nature of the antecedent. An obligatory comma separates the antecedent, which
is always a sentence or clause, from the relative clause which is always
introduced by the relative pronoun “which”. The relative clause in this kind of
construction serves as the speaker’s comment on the content of what has been
said.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.5
1. Distinguish between a non-restrictive relative clause and
a sentence relative clause.
2. Write down four (4) sentence relative clauses.

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This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

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RELATIVE AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES UNIT 5
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

You’re welcome to the last session of Unit 5. In the last

four sessions, we have been considering the choice of
relative pronouns in relative clauses. Can you recall the factors that influence
the choice of one relative pronoun over the others?

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) tell what relative and adjectival clauses have in common;
(b) tell with examples the differences between relative and adjectival
clauses; and
(c) select and use relative and adjectival clauses in appropriate
contexts.

Now read on …

6.1 Adjectival Clauses

Adjectival clauses are like relative clauses. They are introduced by
conjunctions such as “where”, “when” and “how”, and they post-modify their
antecedents. Here are a few examples of adjectival clauses.
1. The place where I used to meet your father is now a prayer camp.
2. The reason why the Chinese don’t kiss in public will surprise you.
3. Do you remember the time when he asked us to meet him?
4. Is this the house where Kwame Nkrumah grew up?

6.2 Adjectival and Relative Clauses

a. Similarities
Study sentences 5 - 7 below and say what they have in common with 1- 4
above.
5. The mango that fell is not ripe.
6. The friend who gave her that advice ruined her marriage.
7. The answer which Fati gave was not accepted.

i. Both types of clauses have antecedents, “place”, “reason”,

“time”, and “house” in (1 - 4), and “mango”, “friend” and
“answer” in (5 - 7).
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ii. Both types of clauses look back to a noun phrase which they
post-modify.

iii. The conjunctions can always be omitted in adjectival clauses.

Sentence 1 - 4 can be re-written as

1b. The place I used to meet your father is now a prayer camp.
2b. The reason the Chinese don’t kiss in public will surprise you.
3b. Do you remember the time he asked us to meet him?
4b. Is this the house Kwame Nkrumah grew up?

Similarly, the relative pronoun functioning as an object can also be omitted.

Sentence 7 may be re-written as
7b. The answer Fati gave was not accepted.

b. Differences
i. Whereas the introductory “where”, “why”, “when” and “where” are
conjunctions, which function to subordinate the clauses that follow
them, i.e.
(where) I used to meet your father;
(why) the Chinese don’t kiss in public;
(when) he asked us to come’
(where) Kwame Nkrumah grew up

the words “that”, “who” and “which” are relative pronouns. Being pronouns,
they can function as subject as in 5 and 6 above, and object as in 7.
ii. Adjectival clauses are introduced by conjunctions, but relative
clauses are introduced by pronouns. Being pronouns, they can
function
As subject
8. The teacher who punished me is absent today.
9. The answer that came amused everyone.

As object
10. The help that I got from my father was inestimable.
11. The man whom we met at the bank was Lydia’s uncle.

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As genitive
12. The class whose teacher is absent is noisy.
13. The dog whose tail is bushy is very friendly.

iii. The conjunctions in adjectival clauses are more or less fixed to

their antecedents. Thus, an antecedent that refers to:

a. Time takes “when”

14. I recognized her the minute (when) I woke up.
15. That was the decade when Ghana became independent.

b. Place takes “where”

16. It was in Accra where we first met.
17. Do you know the place where I can find John?

c. Reason takes “why”

18. She wants to know the reason why I married.
19. Poverty is no reason why you should beg.

You notice that all the conjunctions in 14 – 19 can be omitted, and some
people prefer to leave them out as in:
14b. I recognized her the minute I woke up.
15b. That was the decade Ghana became independent.
16b. It was in Accra we first met.
17b. Do you know the place I can find John?
18b. She wants to know the reason I married.
19b. Poverty is no reason you should beg.

However, retaining the conjunctions does not make your sentences

ungrammatical; they sound rather formal.

On the other hand, relative pronouns are not tied to their antecedents. Because
they are not tied, correct choice depends on several factors. Can you recall
these?

iv. Antecedents of adjectival clauses are limited to such references as

time, place, and reason. On the other hand, the antecedents of

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relative clauses have unlimited reference to all kinds of nouns:

proper, common, concrete, abstract, collective, countable, mass
and sometimes sentences.

In this session, we looked at the adjectival clause. Adjectival

clauses are similar to relative clauses in some ways but are
essentially different from them. The distinction between the two types of
clauses is necessary in making correct and appropriate choices.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 5.6
1. Illustrate two similarities between adjectival clauses
and relative clauses.

2. Discuss three differences between adjectival clauses and relative

clauses.

Assignment Question
Discuss the factors that determine the choice of relative pronouns in
relative clauses.

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
UNIT 6

UNIT 6: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Unit Outline
Session 1: Adverbial Clauses of Time and Place
Session 2: Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result
Session 3: Conditional Clauses I: Open and Hypothetical Conditions
Session 4: Conditional Clauses II: Unfulfilled Condition
Session 5: Adverbial Clauses of Reason, Comparison, Concession, and
Manner
Session 6: A Summary of Adverbial Clauses.

You’re welcome to Unit 6 of this module. You have

every right to congratulate yourself on what you have
achieved so far. In this unit, we shall be examining the Adverbial Clause as
the last of the clausal types in English, having already studied nominal, relative
and adjectival clauses.

Adverbial Clauses are of different functional types with a variety of

introductory conjunctions that may confuse the unwary student. But they are
easy to understand and use by the diligent student.

Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit you should be able to:
1. tell different types of adverbial function;
2. distinguish adverbial clauses from nominal, relative and adjectival
clauses;
3. select and use appropriate conjunctions in adverbial clauses; and
4. tell the function of the adverbial clause.

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This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
UNIT 6
SESSION 1

SESSION 1: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME

AND PLACE

You’re welcome to Session I of Unit 6. In the last Session of

Unit 5, we studied the use of “when”, “why” and “where” in
adjective clauses. In this session, we will study the difference between
adjectival and adverbial uses of “when” and “where” as subordinating
conjunctions and relate this to nominal uses.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) state the various conjunctions that can be selected for adverbial
clauses of time and place;
(b) distinguish adverbial clauses from adjectival clauses; and
(c) use adverbial clauses correctly.

Now read on…

1.1 The Adverbial Clause

Adverbial clauses are subordinate or dependent clauses that have subjects and
verbs. An adverbial clause can be finite or non-finite in terms of structure.
Adverbial clauses function to provide information on how, where, when, and
why the action or event described by the verb in the main clause happened.
They also function to provide information on how true or likely the speaker
thinks the event described in the main clause is.

In general, adverbial clauses describe or modify the verb of a main clause or the
entire main clause by telling how, when, where, how often or the condition
under which the state, action or event described by the verb is done. Can you
tell what information the adverbial clauses in the following examples provide?
a. When you are ready, call me.
b. He walks as if he is riding a bicycle.
c. Where you find smoke, you will also find fire.

Yes, examples a, b and c provide information about the time, the manner and
the place respectively.

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Adverbial clauses are subcategorized according to type. Depending on the

subordinate conjunction and the concept they indicate, the adverbial clause
categorizes into adverbial clauses of time, place, purpose, result, condition,
reason, comparison and concession. It is important to note that a number of
subordinators fit in more than one category because they have more than one
meaning, depending on how they are used in a sentence. Let us begin by
examining adverbial clauses of time.

1.2 Adverbial Clause of Time

Observe the answer to the question below:
1. When did you submit the assignment?
a. Yesterday
b. After lunch
c. Before I ate lunch.

Would you say that the answers are appropriate? Yes, they are all correct and
appropriate in spite of their different structures. They all answer the question
“When?” We note from the above that:
a. is a word, an adverb of time, or a time adverb.
b. is a prepositional phrase that functions adverbially.
c. is an adverbial clause of time.

Can you guess why c is a clause? Yes, it has its own subject “I”, verb
“ate” and object “lunch”. The clause is introduced by the subordinating
conjunction “before”. Adverbial clauses, like adverbs of time and adverbial
phrases of time, answer questions beginning with “when”.

How do we know that “Before I ate lunch” as a subordinate clause is an

adverbial? To answer this question correctly, we need to know two determining
factors: what the clause is doing in the sentence (function) and how the clause
has been built (structure). In terms of function, the clause functions to provide
answers the question about “when” an action took in the main clause took
place. Structurally, the clause is introduced by a conjunction “before” which
reinforces the time concept the clause indicates. A fuller sentence may read:
I submitted the assignment before I ate lunch.

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As will become clearer later, we need to use “function” and “structure” to

identify clause types. “Before I ate lunch” modifies the verb “submitted” in
the main clause, “I submitted the assignment”.

1.3 Conjunctions that Introduce Time Clauses

Conjunctions such as “when”, “before”, “since”, “after” generally introduce
adverbial clauses of time. Can you write a sentence with each? Here are some
examples:
2. Before she finished cooking, her quests had left.
3. Since there were no quests to serve, she packed everything into her
fridge.
4. When I see her, I remember my childhood days.
5. I will check my results after I finish my food.
Other conjunctions are as, as soon as, till, until, whenever, while.

Here are some examples:

(a) While we were on vacation, Akua decided to learn how to sew.
(b) As we drew nearer, we realized it was a rope.
(c) As soon as Ken saw his wife, he ran away.
(d) You will wait here till lunch is ready.
(e) Whenever I try to make a call, it indicates emergency calls only.
(f) Until you register your sim card, you cannot make calls.

1.4 Observation on the time indicators in the time clause

a. Adverbial clauses of time may function to indicate that the actions or
events described in the main clause occur
i. earlier than the action or event in the subordinate clause. See
examples below:
6. The driver paid a fine before his license was given back to him.
7. After he paid the fine, he was made to sweep the lorry station.
ii. Concurrently or simultaneously with the action or event in the
subordinate clause. See examples below:
8. I had my first child while I was pursuing a degree.
9. While I was getting down from the taxi, I dropped my purse.
iii. later than the action or event in the subordinate clause. See
examples below:
10. When I finished National Service, I applied for the position.

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11. Once we had been paid, we began working on the project.

b. Time adverbials may be placed before or after the main clause as can
be observed in examples 6-10.

1.5 Adverbial Clauses of Place

Adverbial clauses of place, like adverbs and adverbial phrases of place, answer
“where” questions. For example:
6. Where did you first meet your husband?
a. Koforidua
b. At the beach
c. Where the new congregation meet for prayers.

All the three expressions, “Koforidua”, a noun functioning as an adverb, “at

the beach” a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial and “where the
new congregation meet for prayers” an adverbial clause of place appropriately
answer the question “where?” The clause “where the new congregation meet
for prayers” is introduced by the conjunction “where”. Commonly, adverbial
clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions “where”. When the
reference is made to an indefinite place, -ever is attached to where.

Write down two sentences in which “where” introduces adverbial clauses of place.
Below are some examples to guide you:
7. The youth go where they can find lucrative jobs.
8. You must go where your help is required most.
9. Do it wherever you please.

Can you tell the function of each underlined clause?

1.6 Differences between Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses

Introduced by “when” and “where”
Group the following sentences under adverbial and adjectival clauses:
10. Nobody knows the time when all of this will happen.
11. I want to go where my services are needed.
12. Are you ready to move in when I move out?
13. I know a place in town where you can buy the same thing for less.

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SESSION 1

Have you got the following?

Adverbial
11. I want to go where my services are needed.
12. Are you ready to move in when I move out?
Adjectival
10. Nobody knows the time when all of this will happen.
13. I know a place in town where you can buy the same thing for less.

We observe that the two groups of sentences have “when” and “where” as
subordinators introducing the clauses. The adverbial clauses
11. where my services are needed, and
12. when I move out

answer the questions “where” and “when” respectively. This means they
function adverbially in the sentences they are found. Secondly, in terms of
structure, they follow immediately after the verb phrases “to go” in 11 and “to
move in” in 12. Adverbial forms often follow verbs. Here are two more
examples.
14. I will leave when you return from work.
15. Joe left after the class was over.

The third test we apply to determine whether a clause is adverbial or not is the
mobility test. Adverbs are generally mobile, so are adverbial clauses. We
know a clause is adverbial when it can be placed generally in three possible
positions in the sentence: initial, medial, final. Our adverbial sentences can be
re-written as follow.
11b.Where my services are needed, I want to go.
12b.When I move out, are you ready to move in?
14b.When you return from work, I will leave.
15b. After the class was over, Joe left.

“Where” clauses are commonly placed at sentence final, but it is not unusual in
formal English or literary English to put the clause at sentence initial as the
case is in 11b above. Some Grammarians, however, are of the view that where
clauses are restricted in terms of mobility, its correct place being only sentence
final.

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The adjectival clauses below

10. Nobody knows the time when all of this will happen
13. I know a place in town where you can buy the same thing for less.

behave differently because they both have antecedents “the time” and “the
place” respectively with which they move. “Antecedents”, you will recall we
said, are hallmarks of relative and adjectival clauses. The clauses, thus, post-
modify their antecedents “the time” and “the place” respectively. The
adjectival clauses modify their antecedents. As a grammatical rule, modifiers
cannot be separated from what they are modifying. Transposing the clause
makes the sentence ungrammatical and, therefore, unacceptable
10b. *when all this will happen nobody knows the time.
13b. *where you can buy the same thing for less I know a place in town.

The construction is still ungrammatical if we transpose the antecedent along

with the adjectival clause.
10c. *The time when all this will happen do you know?
13c. *A place where you can buy the same thing for less I know.

The c sentences are ungrammatical because the verb “know” is left without an
object.

We can conclude that only adverbial clauses can be transposed without

affecting the grammar. Transposition is, therefore, unacceptable in adjectival
clauses.

We have studied adverbial clauses of time and place. We

realize that conjunctions such as “when” and “where” are
common to both adverbial and adjectival clauses. In spite of this, we can
identify an adjectival clause from an adverbial clause by considering structure,
function and transposition of clauses.

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SESSION 1

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.1
1. Identify (a) the clause underlined, and
(b) state its function in the sentence.
i. Do it where no one will disturb you.
ii. We agree to wait for him until he comes.
iii. She is not ready to tell me the time when her mother will come.
iv. Go to the hospital whenever you are ill.
v. It is at the bank where she is to wait for me.

2a. Write down 3 sentences each of adverbial clauses of Time and Place.

b. Underline your subordinate clauses, and state their functions.

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This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.

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UNIT 6
SESSION 2

SESSION 2: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND

RESULT

You’re welcome to Session 2. Did you find the Self-

Assessment Exercises in the last Session useful? Remember
that it is very important for you to go through the exercises diligently. That is
the best way to test your understanding of the topic and build your self-
confidence.
In this session, we will study two adverbial clause types, namely, Adverbial
clauses of Purpose and Result.

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) tell the conjunctions that introduce clauses of purpose and result;
(b) distinguish between purpose and result clauses;
(c) distinguish between the finite and the non-finite to-infinitive types
of purpose clauses; and
(d) use these clause types correctly in the appropriate contexts.

Now read on …

2.1 A Purpose Adverbial Clause

2.1.1 What is an Adverbial Clause of Purpose?
In the previous session, we studied two types of adverbial clause. They are
adverbial clauses of Time and Place. What types of question do they answer?
They answer questions relating to time (when) and place (where). Can you
give some examples? Here are examples of each for you to measure your own
answers.
Time: 1. It was late when I got home.
Place: 2. Stay where you are.

We can identify the subordinate clauses as

Time: when I got home.
Place: where you are.

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Can you tell the conjunctions in the clauses above? Good, they are
“when” for time, and “where” for place. Give four more examples of
conjunctions that introduce clauses of Time in sentences for face-to-face
discussions. Here are some examples to guide you.
3. We will talk to him before he goes back to campus.
4. I was asleep when you called.
5. As soon as the wife left him, he started binge drinking.
6. We won’t get married until we have saved enough money.

You discover that several different conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses of

Time. Now make a list of these conjunctions and put each into a sentence for
face-to-face discussion later. Unlike clauses of time, adverbial clauses of place
are introduced by only two conjunctions, namely, “where” and “wherever”.
Can you use “wherever” in sentences? Here are two examples.
7. She plays wherever she goes.
8. Wherever you go, I will follow you.

Now let us look at purpose clauses. Purpose clauses express causes for actions
described in the main clause. Thus, adverbial clauses of purpose are
sometimes called cause. Here are some examples.
9a. She sold her car so that her husband could have a degree.
10a. My Ivorian friend is learning English in order that she can pursue
a PhD in Ghana.

You realize that the purpose of the actions described in each of the main clause
is expressed in the subordinate clause. Hence purpose clauses generally follow
the main clauses, as in examples 9 and 10 above.

Pick out the conjunctions in the two sentences above. Of course, they are “so
that” and “in order that” underlined in the sentences. Other subordinators are
“that”, and ‘lest’. In formal or old-fashioned English, lest is sometimes used at
sentence initial of a purpose clause to indicate what an action is intended to
prevent.
11a. I eat that I may be full.
12a. He is hesitant to speak the truth lest he be fired.

Now write a sentence with each of the four conjunctions.

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SESSION 2

2.2 Non-finite Purpose Clauses

All the Purpose Clauses we have seen so far are finite clauses. Can you pick
out the finite verbs in the four clauses above? Yes, they are “could have” in
9a, “can pursue” in 10a, “may be” in 11a, and “be” in 12a. Sometimes,
however, non-finite to-infinitive clauses are preferred in less formal contexts;
they are generally neater and shorter. To-infinitive purpose clauses usually
begin with in order to or so as to. In non-finite to-infinitive forms, our sample
sentences may read,
11b. He has come in order to talk to you.
12b. Musah got up early in order to catch the first bus.
13b. I eat to be full.
14b. The thief sneaked away not to be seen.

Now convert your own four sentences into non-finite to-infinitive purpose
clauses.
Remember that in the non-finite to-infinitive purpose clauses, the conjunctions
are omissible and the finite verbs changed into non-finite to-infinitive forms. It
is good to use these forms in informal contexts. You may reserve the finite
forms with obligatory conjunctions for formal contexts of communication.

2.3 Adverbial Clauses of Result

What types of question do result clauses answer? Let us start with some
examples:
15. John had studied hard so he found the examination easy.
16. Food is ready so that I can now eat.
17. That was such a mistake that I doubt if he will ever repeat it.
18. The campus is so big I am not likely to know everybody there.
19. Our opponents have such a defense it will be difficult for our striker
to penetrate.

Can you separate the clauses into main and subordinate clauses in the
four sentences above? Yes, on your piece of paper, draw a line down as
follows and write the sentences into the table.

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SESSION 2

Main Clause Subordinate Clause

15
16
17
18
19

Underline the conjunctions in the subordinate clauses in 15-18. From the

examples above we can tell that Result Clauses explain the consequence or
result of the event in the main clause. For example, the consequence of John’s
studying hard explains his finding the examination easy. Similarly, in 17 the
enormity of the mistake is such that it leaves doubt as to whether it will be
repeated. Now how do we explain 16, 18 and 19?

2.4 Subordinate Conjunctions in Result Clauses

From the conjunctions you have underlined in 15 - 18, can you tell the
subordinating conjunctions that usually introduce adverbial clauses of result?
Have you got “so”, “so that”, “such” and “such that”?

2.5 “So that” can Introduce Both Purpose and Result Clauses
When we refer back to Purpose Clauses, we realize that they can be introduced
by the subordinating conjunction “so that”. This explains why we do not
determine a clause type by simply looking at the subordinating conjunction; we
must also look at the function the clause is performing. In the previous session,
we studied that “when” and “where” can function as subordinating
conjunctions in both Adjectival Clauses and Adverbial Clauses of Time and
Place.

2.6 Is it possible to switch the order in the result clause?

You remember we have mentioned that adverbial clauses are mobile. We said
they can be placed at the beginning of a sentence; come in the middle of a
sentence, or be at the sentence final. The meaning implication of the result
clause as one that indicates the consequence or result of the main clause
suggests that the position of the result clause is at the sentence final. Result
clauses cannot change position with the main.

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SESSION 2

Now, write down a sentence each with “when” and “where” introducing
adjectival clauses, and adverbial clauses of time and place.

Now write down two sentences in which you use “so that” to introduce
Purpose and Result Clauses. Here are examples to help you.

a. Adjectival Clause
19. Do you know the house where Grace lives?
20. I know the time when my wife will return from the market.

b. Adverbial Clauses
i. Place 21. The man farmed where the landlord had given out.
ii. Time 22. My wife works better when she is alone.

c. “So that” in a Purpose Clause

23. She has applied for a visa so that she can visit Britain.

d. “So that” in a Result Clause

24. Aunt Grace has enough money so that she can build a new house.

We must observe that there is nothing strange for a particular conjunction such
as “when” or “so that” to function in different clause types. We have already
learnt that a word like “round” can function as different parts of speech as in
25. The boxer fell in the first round (Noun)
26. The athlete rounded the field eight times (Verb)
27. The table is round (Adjective)
28. The accident victim has come round (Adverb)

It is the function that helps us to tell the part of speech of “round” in the
sentences above. It is, therefore, important that we use function to tell the type
of clause, not only the conjunction.

In this session, we studied the type of questions that Adverbial

Clauses of Purpose and Result seek to answer; the subordinate
conjunctions that introduce these clauses; the distinction between finite and
non-finite to-infinitive clauses in Purpose Clauses; and the importance of using
clause function to identity clause types.

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SESSION 2

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.2

1. Identify and state the function of each of the underlined clauses

below:
i. When my father comes, I shall tell him about my plans.
ii My husband did not tell the time when we should expect
him.
iii. It is here where the murderer was arrested.
iv. He prayed where the atmosphere was conducive.
v. The students rushed into the lecture room so that they
could secure front seats.
vi. The doctors gave a lot of attention to the patient so that
she recovered
vii. She applied early so that she secured admission.
viii. The victim shouted lest he should be killed.
ix. We went to the beach in order that we might pray.
x. We always work that we may earn a living.

2. Distinguish between adverbial clauses of Purpose and Result.

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UNIT 6
SESSION 3

SESSION 3: CONDITIONAL CLAUSES I: OPEN AND

HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS

We welcome you to Session 3. How did you find the

exercises following Session 2? Did you get them all
correct? Remember that in identifying clauses, we do not depend on the type
of subordinating conjunction only. Why is this so? Yes, because we may use
the same conjunction such as “when” to introduce different clauses such as
noun clauses, adjective clauses and adverb clauses. Again, some of the
conjunctions such as “since” are ambiguous except in context. Can you write
three different sentences to illustrate the use of the conjunction “when” to
illustrate the three different clause types? Also write two sentences each for
since indicating two different adverbial clause types.

In this session, we shall look at conditional clauses i.e. adverbial clauses of

condition. In particular, we will concentrate on “Open” and “Hypothetical”
conditions.

Objectives
By the end of the Session, you should be able to:
(a) distinguish between “Open” and “Hypothetical” conditions;
(b) tell the two different ways of expressing Open condition;
(c) explain the meaning of hypothetical condition;
(d) select and use appropriate verb phrases in these conditional
structures.

Now read on …

3.1 Meaning of Conditional Clauses

Let us start the discussion with three examples:
1. Give me a ring if you need help.
2. You would hiss if you were a snake.
3. If my mother comes early we shall visit you.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES I: OPEN AND
SESSION 3 HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS

From the three examples above, we realize that conditional clauses state the
consequence of something that may or may not be real. In sentence (1) the
speaker does not know that “you need help”. In sentence (3) we are uncertain
whether “my mother” will come early. In sentence (2) the speaker assumes
the unlikelihood or impossibility of what he is saying.

3.2 Open Condition

Sentences (1) and (3) are examples of conditions called Open Condition. This
is because the truth or falsehood of what the sentence describes is unknown,
i.e. open. It is open condition or unknown whether “you need help” or
whether “mother will come early”. Generally, the conditional clause comes
before the main clause.
4. If she pays for the book, we shall post it to her.
5. If you prepare thoroughly, you will pass your exam.

3.3 Verb Patterns in Open Condition

There are two verb patterns in the Open Condition
(a) The conditional clause always contains a verb in the simple present
tense, “need” in (1), “comes” in (3) “pays” in (4) and “prepare” in (5).
In the main clause, however, it contains either a compound verb phrase
that expresses future time as in “shall visit” in (3) and “shall post” in (4);
or a simple verb phrase in the simple present tense as in “pass” in (5).
Other examples of the simple present in both the conditional clause and
the main clauses are:
(6) If it rains, farmers become happy.
(7) If the weather is hot, we use the fan.
(8) If you are late, the teacher punishes you.

This kind of sentence conveys a habitual act. Sentence 6, for example, means
that whenever it rains farmers express happiness. Thus, if one event takes
place, it triggers a logical consequence.
(9) If a baby feeds well, it grows healthy.

Explain sentences (7) and (8) and write down two (2) other similar sentences
for face-to-face discussions.

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SESSION 3

(b) The more usual patterns, however, is where the main clause uses a
compound verb phrase using modals such as “shall”, “can” “will” and
“may”. Here are further examples
10. You can go if you finish the work.
11. They may come if they receive our letter.
12. The doctor will come if you just ring him.
13. We shall visit the zoo if we have enough time.

The conditional clauses modify the verb phrases underlined.

Make three sentences of your own for face-to-face discussions.

Finally, you realize that in Open Conditional sentences, the fulfillment of the
condition is always left open.

3.4 Conjunctions used in Conditional Sentences

These are usually: “if”, “unless” (in negative sentences), “provided”, “in case”
and “but” (in idiomatic expressions), and “even if”.
Here are some examples:
14. We shall play football if the weather is fine.
15. Unless the Black Stars lift up their game, they may lose again.
16. Provided that John pays his dues, he will be admitted into the club.
17. Take this coat in case the weather is chilly on arrival.
18. Even if he comes, he will not be admitted.
18a. But for Pele, the Black Stars would have lost the match.
This last sentence can be re-written as
18b. If it hadn’t been for Pele, the Black Stars would have lost the match.
18c. If Pele had not played so well, the Black Stars would have lost the
match.
Observe that “But for Pele”, i.e. But for + a noun phrase, (is not itself a clause
as it has no verbal element) is the idiomatic equivalent of (18b) and (18c)
which display finite subordinate clauses.
“Unless” is used only in negative conditional clauses.
19. Unless anyone has a question, the lesson is over.

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SESSION 3 HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS

20. Unless you pay the admission fee soon, you may lose your
admission into the institution.
These sentences can otherwise be written as:
19b. If nobody has a question, the lesson is over.
20b. If you don’t pay the admission fee soon, you may lose your
admission into the institution.
Now use each of these conjunctions in sentences of your own for face-to-face
discussions.

3.5 The Hypothetical Condition

This type of conditional sentence expresses an unreal or imagined condition,
hence hypothetical condition. In this type of condition, the speaker is in a state
of day-dreaming. He clearly assumes the unlikelihood, falsehood or
improbability of what he is talking about. Examples include
21. If I were in London now, I could see the Queen.
22. If you were a snake, you would hiss.
23. If the President needed money, I would lend it to him.
In these sentences there is the assumption that “I am not in London now” (21),
“you are not a snake” (22), and that “the President does not need money”. The
hypothetical meaning is always conveyed by the hypothetical present tense.
The hypothetical present tense is the same as our ordinary past tense, but makes
present time or future time reference. The time reference in sentences 21 –
23 is present, but future in 24 and 25 below:

24. If you became a donkey next week, what would you do?
25. If the White Volta became crude oil next year, Ghana would
shoot into sudden prominence.

3.6 “Be” in Hypothetical Condition

Generally, the verb “be” has only one form “were’ for the hypothetical
condition as in 21 “I were” and 22 “you were”.
26. If you were the President of the Republic, you would be kind.
27. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.
28. If a lion were a human being, it could talk.

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SESSION 3

3.7 The Verb Patterns in Hypothetical Condition

Observe that the verbs in the hypothetical conditional clauses that we have
studied so far, 21 – 28, are all in the hypothetical present which is identical
with the ordinary past tense. The verbs in the main clauses are introduced by a
past form of the modal will (would) followed by the base form of the lexical
verb. Can you pick out the phrase in the main clauses in sentences 20 – 28?
The other modals that often occur in the main clause are, the past tense forms
of “shall”= “should”, “can”= “could”, and “may” = “might”. Any of these
other modals can be used in the main clauses in sentences 21 – 28. Can you
substitute “would” with “should, “could” and “might”? Write down four
sentences of your own in which you use these modals.
29. If you came early, you might see the President.
30. If walls had mouths, they could reveal secrets.
31. If pebbles were diamonds, Ghanaians should be rich.
32. Teachers should work harder if they loved their work.

We have been looking at two types of conditional

sentences, namely, Open condition and Hypothetical or
unreal condition. Open condition is real and uses simple present tense in both
the main and the subordinate clauses; very often, however, the main clause
uses a compound verb phrase with such modals as “will”, “shall”, “can’ and
“may” with future time reference. The unreal or Hypothetical condition uses
simple past tense in the subordinate clause with corresponding compound verb
phrase with modals such as “would”, “should” “could” and “might”. In the
next session, we shall study another type of conditional clauses.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.3
1. Comment on the correctness of the following sentences.
a. If Kofi comes early, we would visit the zoo.
b. If the exam is easy, every student passes.
c. I shall lend Acquah money if he really needed it.
d. Mothers are happy if their children did well at school.
2. Write down four (4) sentences to illustrate Open condition.
3. Write down four (4) sentences to illustrate Hypothetical condition.

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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES I: OPEN AND
SESSION 3 HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS

This is a blank sheet for your short note on:

• issues that are note clear; and
• difficulty topics, if any.

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
UNIT 6
SESSION 4

SESSION 4: CONDITIONAL CLAUSES II:

UNFULFILLED CONDITION

You’re welcome to Session 4. How did you find the

exercises in Session 3? Did you find it easy to answer all the
questions? Which ones did you find a little difficult? Yes, you realize quickly
that in conditional sentences, one clause, subordinate or main, provides clues
to the correct verb pattern in the other clause. In other words, given one
clause, we can determine the other easily. Can you recall the verb patterns in
Open condition? In what ways are Open conditional clauses different from
Hypothetical conditional sentences? Good. You’re now ready to move on.

In this Session we will study the third type of conditional clauses, namely,
unfulfilled condition.

Objectives
By the end of the Session, you should be able to:
(a) distinguish between such concepts as Open, Unreal and
Unfulfilled conditions;
(b) tell what unfulfilled conditional clause is;
(c) identify structural differences between the three types of
conditional clauses; and
(d) use each type of conditional clause correctly in appropriate
contexts.

Now read on…

4.1 Unfulfilled Condition

Let us begin with some examples:
1. If our lawyers had done some due diligence, we wouldn’t be here
today.
2. You wouldn’t miss such an opportunity if you paid your fees on
time.
3. If Fred had called earlier, Freda would have been calmed.

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 UNIT 6 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES II:
SESSION 4 UNFULFILLED CONDITION

In sentence 1, do you think the speaker and whoever he is talking to are here?
Of course, the answer is “yes”. Do you also think you missed such and
opportunity? The answer is, “yes”. Now, was Freda calmed? The answer
must be “no”. We can explain this by saying that:
The lawyers did no due diligence,
You did not pay your fees on time,
Fred did not call earlier.

In all three instances, the conditions set out in the subordinate clauses were not
met, that is unfulfilled, hence this type of clause is called “Unfulfilled
Conditional Clause”. In all three cases, the expected outcomes or events in
the main clauses did not take place. In an “Unfulfilled Conditional Clause”,
an anticipated outcome does not take place as the condition for it has not been
met.

4.2 Unfulfilled Conditional Clauses make Past Time

Reference
Can you tell the time reference in sentence 1 above? Yes, it is past time. Both
parts of the sentence, that is, the subordinate clause, “If our lawyers had done
some due diligence” and the main clause, “we wouldn’t be here today”, refer
to the past. Can you break sentences 2 and 3 into their dependent and
independent parts? Do break them down. What time references do they also
make? Yes, they also make past time reference in both parts. We can draw the
conclusion, then, that unfulfilled conditional clauses make past time reference.

4.3 Hypothetical and Unfulfilled Conditions Compared

a. Time references are different. In session 3 above, we learned the time
reference in hypothetical conditional clauses. Can you recall this? Yes,
unreal conditions make present and /or future time references. For
example, the sentence
4. If the last tree died, the last man might die. This makes present time
reference, but in
5. If the Atlantic Ocean dried up next year, all living things in it could
die,
Reference is made to future time. The verbs in these sentences are
simple past or hypothetical present.

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SESSION 4

On the other hand, Unfulfilled conditional clauses make past time reference as
found in sentences 1 - 3 above. Here are some other examples:
6. I would have failed my exam if I had not worked hard.
7. If you had not gone to school, you could have been an illiterate.

b. The verb patterns are different

Can you tell the difference in the verb patterns as found in sentences 4
and 5, on one hand, and 6 and 7, on the other? You realize that the verbs
in the subordinate clauses “died” in 4, and “dried up” in 5 are in simple
past while there are compound verb phrases “might die” in 4, “could die”
in 5 in the main clauses. The compound verb phrases are made up of
such modals as “would”, “could”, “should” “might” followed by the base
form of the lexical verb “die”. The verb patterns in the Unfulfilled
conditional sentences are more complex. The verb phrase in the sub-
ordinate clause is always compound, past perfect tense, “had…worked”
in 6 and “had….gone” in 7. The verb phrase in the main clause has three
verbal items, “would have failed” in 6, and “could have been” in 7. The
first item in this complex verb phrase is always a past modal like
“would”, “could”, “should” and “might” followed by present perfect
tense. We can conclude from these verb patterns that the Unfulfilled
conditions are, in actual fact, past tense forms of the hypothetical
conditional clauses. Now, can you convert sentences 4 and 5 into
Unfulfilled conditional sentences? Have you done so? Now compare
your answer with

8. If the last tree had died, the last man might have died.
9. If the Atlantic Ocean had dried up, all living things in it could have
died.

It must be noted that the use of “but” as a conjunction in conditional sentences,

tends to occur mainly in Unfulfilled conditional clauses. We have observed in
Session 3 above that “but” occurs in the structure “but for + NP” as in
10. But for the timely police intervention, the suspect
could/would/should/might have been lynched.
This means and can be written as
11. If the police had not intervened, the suspect
could/should/would/might have been lynched.

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4.4 Structural Differences between the Conditional Clauses

Can you recall the types of conditional clauses that we have? List these with
an example to illustrate each type.

Compare your answer with ours:

a. Open Conditional Clause
Examples are
12a. If it rains farmers sow their seeds
12b. If it rains farmers will sow their seeds.
b. Hypothetical/Unreal Conditional Clause
An example is
13a. If there were no light, plants could grow stunted.
c. Unfulfilled Conditional Clause
13b. If there had been no light, plants could have grown stunted.
From these examples we can easily complete a conditional sentence if one half of
the sentence is given. Now attempt completing the following sentences:
1a. If the road is rough …………………………………………………
2a. The water would have frozen if ……………………………………
3a. If you insulted the President, you ………………………………….
4a. There could be famine if …………………………………………...
5a. Unless you study the session, you ………………………………….
6a. But for the headmaster’s early return, the two teachers…………….
7a. …………….., go to the hospital.
8a. …………….. if Mary had invited me.

Have you got something like the following?

1b. If the road is rough, we exercise patience
1c. If the road is rough, we will exercise patience.
2b. The water would have frozen if you hadn’t removed it from the
freezer.
3b. If you insulted the President, you could be punished.
4b. There could be famine if there were no rain.
5b. Unless you study the session, you may find the questions hard.
6b. But for the headmaster’s early return, the two teachers would have
fought.
7b. If you are ill, go to the hospital.
8b. I might have gone to the party if Mary had invited me.

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SESSION 4

We have been looking at the Unfulfilled conditional clause:

we observe that the expected event in the main clause did not
take place as the condition in the subordinate class remained unfulfilled. We
also note that the Unfulfilled conditional clause makes past time reference and
so can be regarded as the past time equivalent of the hypothetical conditional
clauses. Finally, we realize that the verb phrases in Open, Hypothetical and
Unfulfilled conditional clauses are all very different, but they help us
distinguish between them and use them appropriately.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.4
1. Some of the following sentences are unacceptable. Identify them and re-
write them appropriately.
a. Give yourself rest if you were tired.
b. Unless you remove the food from the fire it may get burnt.
c. You would pass if you always work hard.
d. Our school team will win the match if it prepared thoroughly.
e. I might have visited you if I had enough time.
f. If the soil is fertile, plants grow well.
g. Throw that food away if it tasted bad.
h. Will you still come if it rains?
i. If the weather is hot, we go for a swim.

2. Explain the difference between Hypothetical and Unfulfilled conditional

clauses in about 150 words.

3. Find from this Unit how frequently the conjunctions that introduce
conditional clauses are used in the Unit.

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SESSION 4 UNFULFILLED CONDITION

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
UNIT 6
SESSION 5

SESSION 5: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF REASON,

COMPARISON, CONCESSION AND MANNER

You’re welcome to Session 5 of the unit on Adverbial

Clauses. Did you find the Self-Assessment Exercises in the
last session helpful? Did you get any of the questions under question 1
wrong? Which one? Have you now got a good explanation for your wrong
answer? In this session, we are moving on to look at four other types of
adverbial clauses, namely, clauses of reason, comparison and concession.

Objectives
By the end of the Session, you should be able to:
(a) distinguish between clauses of reason, comparison, concession and
manner;
(b) tell conjunctions that introduce these clauses;
(c) distinguish between reason clauses and purpose clauses; and
(d) use these clauses correctly in the appropriate contexts.

Now read on…

5.1 Reason Clauses

When you want to provide the reason for an event or action or happening or
state, you use a reason clause. A reason clause is used to answer the question
Why? to provide information about the reason for something happening.

5.1.1 Conjunctions that Introduce Reason Clauses

Reason clauses are commonly introduced by conjunctions such as “because”,
“as’, “since” and “for”.
Here are some examples:
1. Barfour and his sister are angry because I did visit their school on
my back-to-school tour.

In the sentence above, the subordinate clause states the reason for the state
described in the main in the clause.
2. As Tom was late, we left him behind.

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UNIT 6
SESSION 5
COMPARISON, CONCESSION AND MANNER

3. My husband flew into a rage because he thought I took no notice of

him.
4. We are behind time for we stopped to mend a tyre.
5. It was not difficult for Felix to put himself back to school since he
had saved enough money for the purpose.

5.2 Reason and Purpose Clauses should be Distinguished

Observe that reason clauses convey the reason for a particular activity or
consequence for example.
6. Mother gave me the money because I needed it.
7. He became rich because he found a pot of gold in the garden.

The subordinate clauses in (6) and (7) give reasons for activities, events or
consequences in the main clause. Sentences 8 and 9 below are purpose
clauses:
8a. Mother gave me the money so that I could pay my fees.
8b. Mother gave me the money to pay my fees.
9a. I stayed away in order that I could cure myself.
9b. I stayed away to cure myself.

Note that reason, cause and/purpose overlap in their meanings as they can all
answer the question why? Reason, however, is not so much about the event
itself as how a person interprets the event. Cause can be regarded as the
opposite of result.

5.3 Clauses of Comparison

The clauses of comparison are introduced by correlative conjunctions such as
“-er…. than”, “more/less…. than”, “so…. as”, “such…. that”. Examples
include
10. Most pupils speak better English than they can write it.
11. Mary is more beautiful than her younger sister is.
12. He didn’t run so fast as his brother did.
13. He works as hard as his sister does.
14. His brilliance is such as the school has never seen before.
15. The kittens are such a nuisance that we intend to give them out.

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SESSION 5

You observe that in comparison, correlative conjunctions link the second half
of the comparative clause. Often, there is danger of an error or ambiguity if
one half of the conjunction is left out. Can you tell why the following
sentences are unacceptable?
*16a Geoff loves Cape Coast than Accra.
*17a John writes faster.

In 16, the first part of correlative conjunction (often a comparative word) is

left out. In 17, the second clause is left out. We can re-write these sentences as
16b Geoff loves Cape Coast more than he does Accra.
17b John runs faster than Kofi does.
17c John runs fast (no comparison intended).

Sometimes, part of the comparative clause is omitted, and this causes

ambiguity. For example,
18a. I love mother more than Esi.

This sentence may mean

18b. I love Mother more than Esi does (love Mother)
18c. I love Mother more than I love Esi.

In both sentences, false brevity is the cause of the ambiguity. In one case, the
predicate (i.e. the verb and its object) is omitted (18b). In the other, the
subject and verb are omitted (18c). Comparative clauses require a lot of
attention.

5.4 Comparative Phrases

An example of a comparative phrase is (19a) below:
19a. There are more boys than girls in the class.

This may be regarded as a reduced clause from (19b) below:

19b. There are more boys than there are girls in the class.

The comparative phrase is the result of omitting repeated elements “there” and
“are” leaving “girls”, a phrase, as complement.

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SESSION 5
COMPARISON, CONCESSION AND MANNER

Other examples include:

20 I like apples more than (I like) oranges.
21 Kofi is taller than his brother (is).
22 Jane cooks better than her sister (does).

There are other comparative phrases which are not reduced comparative
clauses. These include:
23 My car can run faster than 180 km per hour.
24 There are fewer than ten apples in the fridge.
25 The boys have better things to do than going to the cinema.

5.5 Clauses of Concession

To concede something means to admit its truth. An adverbial clause of
concession says, in effect, that even though A was true, B happened. In general
concessive adverbials contrast expectations between the information the in the
subordinate clause and the one in the clause on which it depends.
Let us look at some examples of adverbial clauses of concession.
26 Although she always wanted to be a soldier, the lecture room has
claimed all her energy.
27 She still visits the barracks now and again, even though she is no
longer with the army.

Clauses of concession are introduced by such conjunctions as “although”,

“though” and “even though”.

Because of the contrasting expectations conveyed in a concessive clause, it is

sometimes called also referred to as “Clauses of contrast”.

Can you use the conjunctions in clauses of concession?

Observe that the conjunctions introducing concessive clauses convey contrast,

so do not admit the co-ordinate “but” conjunction. The adverbials “yet” and
“still”, however, are accepted for a stronger and more imperative connection.
28 Even though he studied hard, yet he failed the exams.
29 Although John works very hard, still he remains poor.

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SESSION 5

Observe again that “yet’ and “still” do not connect anything in the 28 and 29
above? They are emphatic markers rather than coordinators.

5.6 Adverbial Clauses of Manner

Adverbial clauses of manner are used to provide information about the how
things occur or happen. Adverbial clauses of manner are introduced by such
conjunctions as “as”, “like,” “as if” and “as though”
30 Esi talks like her mother (does).
31 Do you work as your mother does?
32 The police hunt the robbers as a hunter stalks an antelope.
33 The thief ran as if a lion were after him.
34 The headteacher treats me as though I were a stranger.

Note that the conjunctions “as if” and “as though” are always followed
by a clause in the past.
35 He shouted at me as if I were a thief.
36 He treats people as though they were vermin.

Can you use these conjunctions in sentences of your own?

In this session, we studied four types of adverbial clauses,

namely, clauses of reason, comparison, concession and
manner. We examined the conjunctions that introduce these clauses and drew
attention to problems associated with correlative conjunctions that are used in
comparative clauses. In the next and last session, we will summarize the
adverbial clauses.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.5
1. Study the sentences below and briefly identify the clauses
underlined.
a. Some countries arm to the teeth even though they are peace loving.
b. I need a lot of rest because I am very tired.
c. Do you speak more fluent English than you write it?
d. We scored more goals than our opponents did.
e. Though our teacher is very strict, he is also friendly.
f. Tom works as if time were standing still.

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UNIT 6
SESSION 5
COMPARISON, CONCESSION AND MANNER

g. As we are in Cape Coast, let us visit the Castle.

h. My landlord treats me as though I were his son.

2. Use each of the conjunctions in reason clauses in sentences.

3. In about 150 words, distinguish between reason clauses and purpose

clauses.

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UNIT 6
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: A SUMMARY OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

You must congratulate yourself on reaching this far in your

studies. You have done well and deserve to be congratulated.
Hard work always brings good results.

We wish to believe that you have been doing the Self-Assessment Exercises
that follow every session. Once you do these exercises regularly, you can
assure yourself that you are on the path to success.

In this last session, we wish to bring together all forms of adverbial clauses we
have studied in the unit and try to link these clauses to nominal and relative
clauses in the earlier Units.

Objectives
By the end of the Session, you should be able to:
(a) identify each type of adverbial clause studied;
(b) tell with examples, the conjunctions that introduce each type of
clause and use the conjunctions in sentences of your own; and
(c) use form, and function to identify adverbial clauses and to link this
skill to identifying other types of clauses, namely, nominal, relative
and adjectival.

Now read on …

6.1 Types of Adverbial Clauses

Can you recall the different types of adverbial clauses studied in the first five
sessions? List them. Have you got Time, Place, Purpose, Result, Condition,
Comparison, Reason, Concession and Manner? Good. Now take a piece of
paper and write down the conjunctions that introduce each type of Adverbial
clause. Have you done that for all clauses? Then use these conjunctions in
sentences to illustrate the various clauses. If you have done these, then you
have given yourself a summary of adverbial clauses as follows:

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SESSION 6

a. Time When, before, after, while, We shall go when she comes.

since, until, till, as soon She knocked before she entered.
as, as, whenever. The children played while you were
away.
He came here since he was young.
I’ll wait till you are ready.
You can come whenever you
choose.
b. Place Where and wherever She plays wherever she goes.
He goes where he is sent.
c. Purpose So that, that, in We have come that we can talk to
order that, lest you.
We play so that you may give you
time to be ready.
John obtained a scholarship in order
that he might finish his studies.
We shouted lest we be robbed.
d. Result So, so that, such, He saved money so he is now rich.
such that The team trained hard so that they
won the match easily.
That was such fun that we always
remembered it.
My hosts had such a big compound
it was always difficult for me to
keep tidy.
e. Comparison - er.... than, Amina runs faster than I can.
more/less …. than. Kofi is less ambitious than his sister
so…as is.
as….as Jane is not so pretty as Adowa is.
such…..as She runs as fast as a hare (does).
such…..that We give her work such as she can
do.
She works such honestly that
everybody admires her.

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SESSION 6

f. Reason Because, as, since, I have come because I have time.

for The baby is crying since it is
uncomfortable.
I’ll do the work as I need money.
Everybody praises him for he works
hard.
g. Concession Though, although, Though I need the loan, I cannot
even though afford the interest demanded.
Even though he is poor he is very
honest.
Although I admire you, I cannot
marry you.
h. Manner Like, as, as if, as She speaks like her mother (does).
though He talks as if the world belonged to
his father.
That girl sings as though her whole
life depended upon it.
The child behaves as if he were our
teacher.
i. Condition If, unless 1. OPEN CONDITION
(negative), but (a) You will pass provided you
(idiomatic), in study hard.
case, provided, (b) If it is wet we stay at home
(c) He’ll come if you invite him.
(d) Come to us in case you need
help.

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SESSION 6

2. HYPOTHETICAL CONDITION
If you were a dog you
would/could/might/s
hould bark.
Unless you worked hard, you
could/would/should/might fail.
Unless the University built new
halls, it would/could/might/should
be difficult admitting new students
next year.

3. UNFULFILLED CONDITON
You would/could/might/should
have won the prize if you had
participated in the contest.
But for the pupils’ intervention the
village could/should/might/would
have been burnt down.

6.2 Adverbial, Relative and Adjectival Clauses

From our study so far, we realize that conjunctions such as “when”, and
“where” can be used in adverbial as well as adjectival clauses. Can you give
examples? Here are some examples:

(a) Adverbial Clauses

1. When a mango is ripe, it tastes good.
2. Do you want to go where he lives?

(b) Adjectival Clauses

3. Do you know the time when the bus will arrive?
4. This is the house where I was born.
The word “that” occurs both as a relative pronoun as well as a conjunction. In
sentence 5 below
5a. He came that I might help him,

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UNIT 6
SESSION 6

“that” introduces an adverbial clause. What type of adverbial clause is it?

Yes, it is an adverbial clause of purpose. Can you convert the clause into a
non-finite clause? Of course, you can.
5b. He came for me to help him.

However, in sentence 6 below, “that” is a relative pronoun in a relative clause.

6. The reason that he gave for his lateness is unacceptable.

Can you use “that” both in an adverbial clause of purpose and a relative clause?

6.3 Adverbial Clauses and Nominal Clauses

It is normal in English for a clause to function differently in different sentences. Let us start with an example.
7. When he returns.
8. Where we first met.
Both clauses can function in nominal clauses.

(a) As Subject:
9. When he returned is forgotten by all.
10. Where we first met is unknown to both of us.

(b) As Object:
11. We know when he returned.
12. Do you know where we first met?

As subject, the clauses underlined in 9 and 10 are followed immediately by the

finite verb phrases “is forgotten” and “is known” respectively. As objects,
however, the clauses in 11 and 12 follow immediately the verbs “know” in the
main clauses.

On the other hand, the same clauses can function as adverbial clauses of Time
and Place respectively. For example:
13. They visited us when he returned.
14. We played where we first met.

Can you use these clauses in sentences of your own to show adverbial
clauses of time and place?

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SESSION 6

6.4 “That” in Nominal, Relative and Adverbial Clauses

From the examples above, it is clear that “that” can also function in nominal,
relative and adverbial clauses. Here are some examples:

(a) Nominal Functions

15. That she visited me is false. (subject)
16. You know that she visited me. (object)
17. Your claim is that she visited me. (complement)
18. It was certain that she visited me. (complement to an adjective)
19. The rumour that she visited me is false (in apposition)

(b) Post Modification Function in a Relative Clause

20. I denied the fact that she visited me.

(c) Adverbial Clause of Purpose

21a. She came that she might visit me. (finite – formal usage)
21b. She came to visit me. (to-infinitive - informal usage)

In this last session of the unit, we provide a summary of

adverbial clauses in terms of types, conjunctions, and some
sentence examples. We also demonstrate that sometimes the same conjunction
can function in different structures such as nominal, relative, adjectival and
adverbial clauses. Remember that in all cases, we use form, and function, and
in a few cases transposition of clauses to identify clausal types.

Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 6.6
1. (a) Identify the clauses underlined in the sentences below and

(b) State their function.

For example: She came that she could check her result.

(a) An Adverbial Clause of Purpose.

(b) The clause modifies the verb “came” in the main clause.

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SESSION 6

(i) If you are late, we shall leave you behind.

(ii) Whenever Uncle comes, he brings us toffee.

(iii) Kofi claimed that my answer was wrong.

(iv) The house that Allotey built is very beautiful.

(v) But for your vigilance, the traders could have been
robbed.

(vi) What he said to you is not entirely true.

(vii) Even though I marry him, I don’t actually love him.

(viii) My mother makes a garden wherever she goes.

(ix) Everybody admires him because he is honest.

(x) I am less intelligent than my sister (is)

2. Use “that” in a nominal, relative and adverbial clauses.

3. Use “when” and “where” in nominal, adjectival and adverbial clauses.

Assignment Question
Distinguish between Adverbial clauses of Purpose and Result

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SESSION 6

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

• Issues that are not clear; and
• Difficult topics, if any

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 REFERENCES

Bentley, M. & Sherwood, A. (1966). English for modern Africa. Allen and
Urwin.

Downing, A. & Locke, P. (2006). English grammar: A university course.

Routledge.

Leech, G. & Svartrik, J. (1973). A communicative grammar of English.

Longman.

Matthews, P. H. (1974). Morphology. Cambridge University Press.

Quirk, R. (1961). The use of English. Longman.

Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1972). University grammar. Longman.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive
grammar of the English language. Longman.

Rowe, F. J. & Webb, W. T. (1951). A guide to the study of English. Macmillan.

Tomori, O. S. H. (1977). The morphology and syntax of present-day English.

Heinemann.

Young, A. (1984). Introducing English grammar. Hutchison.

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