Ore Minerals: How They Are Found, Mined, And

Processed For Human Use

What is Mining?
is the process of mineral extraction from a rock seam or ore –a
natural rock or sediment containing one or more valuable
mineral. The minerals can range from precious metals and
iron to gemstones and quartz. Modern mining technology uses 2. Underground mining – is used to extract the rocks,
geophysical techniques that involve measuring the magnetic, minerals and other precious stones that can be found beneath
gravity and sonic responses of rocks above and around a the earth’s surface. In underground mining, miners need to
prospective mineral ore body. create a tunnel so they can reach the ore minerals. This kind of
mining is more expensive and dangerous as compared to
surface mining because miners need to use explosive devices
to remove the minerals from the rocks that cover them.

Methods of Mining

1. Surface Mining – is used to extract ore minerals near the

surface of the earth. The soil and rocks that covered the ores
are removed through blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from
explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. Some examples the ore, refining them, and preparing these minerals for use.
of surface mining are: The primary steps involved in processing minerals include:
1. Sampling – is the removal of a portion which represents a
A. Open-pit mining - This is the most common type of whole needed for the analysis of this material.
surface mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in the 2. Analysis – is important to evaluate the valuable component
ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting with explosives in an ore. This includes chemical, mineral and particle size
and drilling. It is used to mine gravel and sand and even rock. analysis.
3. Comminution – is the process where the valuable
components of the ore are separated through crushing and
grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a
particular size and finishes it by grinding the ores into a
powder form.
4. Concentration – involves the separation of the valuable
minerals from the raw materials
5. Dewatering – uses the concentration to convert it to usable
minerals. This involve filtration and sedimentation of the
B. Strip mining – This mining type involves the removal of a
suspension and drying of the solid materials harvested from
thin strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a desired deposit,
this suspension
dumping the removed overburden behind the deposit,
extracting the desired deposit, creating a second, parallel strip
The extracted rocks will undergo processes of mineral (e.g.
in the same manner, and depositing the waste materials from
metal) separation and recovery.
that second (new) strip onto the first strip. This mining
method is used for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar mining.
Recovering the minerals from the ore and waste materials
can involve one or more processes where in the separation
is usually done in a mill.
1.Crushing and screening are the first stages of controlled
size reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are
pulverized
The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the
heavier/denser minerals sink thus are separated from the
lighter minerals. This is commonly used to separate
AREA STRIP MINING chalcopyrite from quartz before the refining processes of
Earth movers strips away overburden, and giant shovels extracting copper.
removes mineral deposit.
Often leaves highly erodible hills of rubble called spoil 2. Magnetic separation: If the metal or mineral is magnetic,
banks. the crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a
powerful magnet.
C.Dredging – This is the process of mining materials from the
bottom of a body of water, including rivers, lakes, and oceans.
3. Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and  Air Pollution
frothy slurry where some minerals and metals based on  Water Pollution
physical and chemical properties may either sink to the  Drought
bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top thus
separating the minerals and metals from the waste. Environment Impacts
The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or  Flooding
sent to a tailings pond, while the metals are sent for further  Erosion
processing.  Subsidence
 Water and air pollution
 Damage to wildfire and habitat

Role of Government
 Mines and Geoscience Bureau (MGB)
- Undertake final evaluation of all mining application, conduct
audit of the disposition of mineral lands and resources, and
manage the Mineral Rights Management System.

4. Cyanide heap leaching: This method used for low-grade  Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on a “leach pile” - Issued ECC and monitor its commitments and compliance's.
where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the
pile. As the leach solution percolates down through the rocks, Laws
the gold is dissolved into the solution. The solution is  RA 7942 - The Philippine Mining Act
processed further to extract the gold.  EO 79 - People’s Small Scale Mining Areas
The waste material is either used as a backfill in the mine or
sent to a tailings pond, while the metals are sent for further POSSIBLE STEPS TO RESTORING SURFACE-MINED
processing. LAND

Topsoil replacement using uncontaminated soil Replacing

and/or adding topsoil/nutrients as needed to improve soil
quality or structure
Replanting
- native vegetation
- fast-growing species
- reintroduction of flora and fauna;
- neutralizing acidic waters;
- backfilling and sealing underground mines;
- changing the slope of impacted area to reduce erosion
Heavy Media Separation
How Fossil Fuels are Formed

What are fossil fuels?

- Fossil fuels are basically remains of plants and animals that
died millions of years ago.
- energy source that provide most of the energy support in
transportation, electricity, and industries.
- natural and finite resources that are very abundant and has a
cheaper cost production compare to other resources.
Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral - non-renewable energy source as they take millions of years
and Energy Resources to form.
Mining - Exploration, extraction Characteristics of Fossil Fuels
Environmental effects - Disturbed land; mining accidents; forms from organic matter buried beneath sediments
health hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills and blowouts; - changed by high pressures and temperatures
noise; ugliness; heat - exists mostly as a solid
Processing - Transportation, purification, manufacturing - exists mostly as a liquid
Environmental effects - Solid wastes; radioactive material; - exists mostly as a gas
air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; - forms mostly from plant matter
ugliness; heat - forms mostly from microscopic animals
- releases energy when burned
Use - Transportation or transmission to individual user, - pollutes the environment when burned
eventual use, and discarding - nonrenewable resource
Environmental effects - Noise; ugliness; thermal water
pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and
radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat

EFFECTS OF MINING TO OUR ENVIRONMENT

Fossil Fuel Formation -An aquifer is a rock layer that stores water in the spaces
between the rock and allows water to flow through it.
Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas. They are non-
renewable forms of energy that are commonly used to provide
energy to meet our needs. Forming fossil fuels requires very
specific conditions

Groundwater
- Water that seeps into the soil & is pulled down by gravity
- Can move or sit under the surface if there are spaces
between the rock/soil particles (permeable)
The Hydrosphere - Water will seep down until it hits an impermeable surface,
then fill up from there (like your bathtub with the drain
Hydrosphere: the part of Earth that contains water closed!)
- 97% of Earth’s water is salt water - The region filled with ground water = Saturation Zone
- Only 3% is fresh water: (22% groundwater, 77% frozen, - The top surface of this area = Water Table
1%on surface)

Precipitation -
Land -
Flows Downhill -
Stream -
River -
Larger River or Lake -
Estuary = mix of fresh & salt water in a bay -
Ocean!!...all water ends up here 

Groundwater to the Surface Via…

What is water cycle? 1.) Man-made Well – pipe dug into ground to extract water
from aquifer
Water Cycle 2.) Artesian Well – water flows naturally to surface because
it’s under pressure
1. Sun heats the water on the surface of Earth  3.) Spring – water flows to surface because surface of land
2. Freshwater evaporates into atmosphere as water vapor (salt dips below water table
in ocean stays behind)  4.) Hot Spring/Geyser – water heated up by rocks, pushes up
3. Water vapor cools & condenses on dust particles to form to surface due to pressure
clouds 
4. Water falls back to Earth as precipitation in the form of Aquifers
rain, sleet, snow, or hail  Underground permeable rock or sediment that contains water
5. Precipitation that hits surface either gets absorbed into Particles in ground act like filter to water!!
ground, stays trapped as standing water, or moves downhill as
“run-off” back into lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, oceans
**The amount of water on Earth stays the same!!**

Freshwater Resources
1/3 of Earth’s freshwater is groundwater!!

-Groundwater forms when water moves through soils and

sediment and collects in spaces underground.
How water is distributed on Earth? Types of Geothermal Power Plants

- The distribution of water on the Earth's surface is  There are three types of geothermal steam plants
extremely uneven. Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh; depending on the way the energy is generated.
the remaining 97% resides in the ocean. Of freshwater, 77%
resides in glaciers, 22% underground, and less than 1% is 1. Dry Steam Power Plant
located in lakes, rivers, and swamps. 2. Flash Steam Power Plant
3. Binary Steam Power Plant
What is geothermal energy?
How it Works
- “Geothermal” comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and
thermal (heat). So, geothermal means earth heat. - Large holes have to be dug into the earth until a geothermal
-The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is hotspot is found.
called geothermal energy. - Pipes are inserted inside these holes through which water is
- Geothermal heat originates from earth’s fiery consolidation sent and steam output is obtained.
of dust and gas over for billion years ago. - The production involves two process
- The geothermal energy is enormous and will last for several 1. Converting Geothermal energy into Mechanical Energy
millions of years and is therefore called renewable. 2. Converting Mechanical energy into Electrical energy
- The success of the energy production depends on the
What is geothermal power plant? temperature of the plant which depends on the temperature of
the rocks in earth.
A geothermal power plant uses its geothermal activity to - The water is sent through the injection well and reaches the
generate power. This type of natural energy production is rocks and then hot water comes from the production well.
extremely environmentally friendly and used in many - Due to the high pressure when it reaches the topmost of the
geothermal hot spots around the globe. earth surface it is converted into steam.
- The seperator is the place where steam that comes from earth
is made clean by removing the brine and dirt so that they do
not damage the turbine blades.
- The high pressure and low pressure steam runs the turbine.
- The generator is coupled with turbine to produce electricity.
- The condenser is a phase changer where the steam output of
the turbine is given to the condenser and gets converted to hot
water.
- This hot water is then sent to the cooling tower where it
loses it heat and then sent to the geothermal reservoir for
further production of steam.

DRY STEAM POWER PLANTS

Dry steam plants are the simplest and oldest design. They
directly use geothermal steam of 150 Degree C or greater to
turn turbines.

Heat Resources

- The Earth’s temperature increases with depth, with the

temperature at the center reaching more than 4200°C (7600°F)
- A portion of this heat is a relic of the planet’s formation
about 4.5 billion years ago, and a portion is generated by the
continuing decay of radioactive isotopes.
- Heat naturally moves from hotter to cooler regions, so
Earth’s heat flows from its interior toward the surface.
Current list of Geothermal Power Plants
- Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) Geothermal Power Plant
Philippines
- Leyte Geothermal Power Plant Philippines
- Northern Negros Geothermal Power Plant Philippines
- Negros (Palinpinon) Geothermal Power Plant Philippines

What is Hydropower?

- Hydropower is the electricity or power that is generated

from the energy of moving water.
- Hydro means “ water”
- It is a renewable source of energy. It is constantly being
refilled by the water cycle, specifically precipitation.

Hydropower Energy

Hydropower, the Leading Renewable Energy

• Water energy encompasses both plants installed on land —
on rivers and lakes — and ocean energy, which is still being
developed and harnesses the force of waves, tides and
currents.
- Widely used for decades, hydropower plants are the world’s
leading renewable energy source, producing 83% of
renewable power.

History of Hydropower

- Ancient Greek farmers have used water wheels to grind

wheat into flour.
- In the early 1800’s, American and European factories made
use of the water wheel to run machines.
- In the late 19th century, hydropower was used for generating
electricity.
- Waterwheels and mills were used for irrigation and mining.
- Hydropower was the foremost source of energy for new
inventions.
- In the 1830’s, hydropower provided the energy for
transportation up and down steep hills.
- In 1848, the turbine was created, improving the waterwheels
and mills which were bulky and slow. Turbines are specific to
each site.
- The first hydroelectric power plant was built at the Niagara
Falls in 1879.
- In the late 1940’s, big dams for hydropower had been built.
 Advantages
- No fuel charges
- Less supervising staff is required.
- Maintenance & operation charges are very low.
- It takes few minutes to run & synchronize the plant.
- No fuel transportation is required.
- No ash & flue gas problem & does not pollute the
atmosphere.
- These plants are used to control flood & irrigation purpose.
- Long life in Comparison with the thermal & Nuclear Power
Plant
- Hydropower source is clean.

Disadvantages
- The initial cost of the power plant is very high.
- Takes long time for construction of the dam
- Generally, such the plant are located in hilly areas far away
from load center
- Wildlife habitats can be changed or destroy.
- The water quality can also be degraded as the hydro plant
blends in dissolved metals.
- Hydropower may become expensive in the future.

Water Resources

- Water
- Earth’s surface is covered by 71% water
- Essential for life – can survive only a few days without
water

What are the three main components of hydroelectric

power plant?

A hydroelectric power plant has three main components:

- A dam that creates a large waterfall and stores enough water
to supply the plant at all times. As well as producing and
storing energy, a dam also helps to regulate flooding.
- A penstock that channels water from its natural environment
(river or lake) to supply the dam reservoir. It may be an open
channel, a tunnel or pipeline.
- A powerhouse that houses the turbines driven by the
waterfall and the generator driven by the turbines.

How does the electric power plant works?

At the plant level, water flows through a pipe—also known

as a penstock—and then spins the blades in a turbine,
which, in turn, spins a generator that ultimately produces
electricity. Most conventional hydroelectric facilities operate
this way, including run-of-the-river systems and pumped
storage systems.

How is energy produced in Hydroelectric power plant?

A turbine and generator produce the electricity

As to how this generator works, the Corps of Engineers
explains it this way: "A hydraulic turbine converts the energy
of flowing water into mechanical energy. A hydroelectric
generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity.
 - Use the garbage disposal sparingly. Compost vegetable food
waste instead and save gallons every time.
- Water your lawn and garden in the morning or evening when
temperatures are cooler to minimize evaporation.
- Wash your fruits and vegetables in a pan of water instead of
running water from the tap.

What is soil?

- Soil can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on

the surface of the earth that provide the medium for plant
growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of
many different materials through the process of weathering.

- Soil is a necessary resource because it helps sustain life on

Earth including humans, animals and plants. Aside from life
sustaining roles, soil helps purify, or clean, water as it drains
through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In
addition, decomposers in soil also help recycle nutrients by
breaking down the remains of plants and animals, releasing
nutrients that living plants use to grow. Soil also provides a
home for a variety of living things, from tiny one-celled
organisms to small mammals.

- There are serious issues concerning the soil’s good qualities

Oil Spills and availability. In fact, a review of soil degradation in the
Philippines (Asio, V. 2009) revealed that soil degradation, the
Was the cleanup effective? physical, chemical and biological decline in soil quality is a
Most marine oil pollution comes from non-point sources: major agricultural and environmental problem in the
runoff from streets Philippines due to erosion. Loss of nutrients and organic
- improper disposal of used oil nutrients, salinization, acidification, pollution, compaction and
- discharge of oil-contaminated ballast water from tankers subsidence are other soil degradation processes cause by
erosion.
What is Water Conservation? Human Activities that Affects Soil Degradation
- water conservation is a practice in which people, companies, FARMING
and governments attempt to reduce their water usage. Positive Effect of Farming
- Application of herbicide, a pesticide has a positive benefit on
Why Conserve Water? soil health.
- Lime and mineral fertilizers added to soil provide stable
- Water is essential to life on earth. We need water to grow optimum growing conditions for plants.
foods, keep clean, provide power, and last but not the least, - Organic manures and other organic fertilizers make the soil
we need it to stay alive! healthy and good for planting.
- Growing plants help in stabilizing the soil structure.
If water is constantly being cleaned and recycled through the farming on soil health is the provision of water through
earth’s water cycle, why do we need to conserve it? irrigation and drainage.
- Irrigation/drainage water stabilizes the soil moisture thus
- The answer is that people use up our planet’s fresh water making it healthier and more suitable for planting
faster than it can naturally be replenished.
Negative Effect of Farming
Simple Ways to Conserve Water - Tillage in farming is the preparation of soil for planting can
cause direct damage to soil microorganisms and potentially
- When washing dishes by hand, don’t let the water run while expose those to new predators.
rinsing. Fill one sink with wash water and the other with rinse - Though pesticides are found beneficial to soil, it was found
water. to have long term harmful effects on the overall activity or
- Run your clothes washer and dishwasher only when they are population of soil organisms.
full. You can save up to 1,000 gallons a month. - Some applied veterinary medicines are found to affect the
- Some refrigerators, air-conditioner and ice-makers are normal degradation rate of some insects and animals, thus
cooled with wasted flows of water. Consider upgrading with altering the soil’s health.
air-cooled appliances for significant water savings.
- Adjust sprinklers so only your lawn is watered and not the
house, sidewalk, or street.
- Plant in the fall when conditions are cooler and rainfall is
more plentiful.
Construction of Structure
- Construction activities, such as grading and filling, reduce
soil quality on construction sites. Land use conversion usually
done to support urbanization activities can cause rapid soil
degradation and sedimentation. Soil nutrients are washed
away making it unsuitable for farming.

Waste Disposal
- Soil pollution happens when hazardous chemicals from
human and industrial sewage are carelessly disposed .There
are methods of soil conservation and protection that can be
observed in order to protect and conserve our soil at the same
time. The goal here is to reduce erosion and to ensure the
soil’s fertility. Water the Soil

Forest Protection

Ways to Protect and Conserve the Soil

Maintain PH
Buffer Strips
- Buffers are strips or corridors of permanent vegetation used
to reduce water and wind erosion. They provide protection
where stream banks exist. They can be created with grass,
trees and shrubs.

No-Till Farming
- No-till farming is an approach that allows crops to remain in
place for a season. This keeps the soil from being left bare and
unprotected.

Fewer Concrete Surfaces

- Soil requires an adequate amount of water in order to
function properly. Lots of concrete surfaces, especially in
residential areas make it difficult for water to get to the soil.
Using paving stones for patios and gardens work to protect the
soil. They are also a tool to prevent soil erosion in specific
areas.

Plant Windbreak Areas

- Windbreaks are composed of shrubs, plants and trees. They
work in combination and serve a conservation purpose. These
will work together to slow the force of wind over ground
areas. This is a method that can also work to prevent erosion
of the soil

Terrace Planting
- This type of planting is done by maximizing the topography
of the land. It benefits from the way the rain water flows
naturally. This is a way to protect the soil from erosion. It is
also a proven method to encourage growth from moist soil
areas.

Plant Trees
 Waste Management is the process of treating solid wastes and
offers variety of solutions for recycling items that don’t
belong to trash.
- It is about how garbage can be used as valuable resource.
Waste management is something that each and every
household and business owner in the world needs.
- Waste management disposes the products and substances
that you have use in a safe and efficient manner.

Kinds of Waste

A. Solid Waste - this type of wastes is in solid form like

domestic, commercial and industrial wastes such as plastics,
styrofoam, papers, scrap iron, and sludge from a wastewater
treatment plant or air control facility.

Solid Type: wastes in solid form, domestic, commercial and

industrial wastes.
Examples: plastics, styrofoam, containers, bottles, cans,
papers, scrap iron, and other trash.

Types of Solid Waste

A. Municipal Solid Waste

- This consist of household waste, construction and demolition
debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets.
- This garbage is generated mainly from residential and
commercial complex.

B. Hazardous Waste
- Industrial and hospital waste are considered hazardous as
they may contain toxic substances.

C. Hospital Waste
- This is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in research
activities in these fields or in the production or testing of
biological waste.

B. Liquid Waste - this type of wastes is in liquid form such

as chemicals, oils, and waste water from ponds and
manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as well as
wastewater from industrial processes and agricultural
processing.

Liquid Type: wastes in liquid form

Examples: Domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water
from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources

Gaseous Waste - this type of waste is in gaseous form which

usually originates from chopping and dissolution operations.
As an example, volatile radionuclides are discharged to the
stack after scrubbing with sodium hydroxide and filtration
through charcoal filter devices. Electrostatic precipitation, wet
scrubbers and gaseous waste treatment are some ways of
minimizing gaseous waste.

Hazardous Type: or harmful wastes are those that potentiallt

threaten public health or the environment. Such waste could
be inflammable, reactive, corrosive, or toxic.

Organic Type: come from plants and animals. They are

biodegradable.
Different Types of Waste
Agricultural Waste - wastes generated from farming
activities. These substances are mostly biodegradable.

Fishery Wastes - waste generated due to fishery activities

like viscera, fish bone, and scales. These are extensively
found coastal and estuarine areas.

Radioactive Wastes - wastes containing radioactive

materials. These are commonly by-products of nuclear
processes. Sometimes industries that are not directly involved
in nuclear activities may also produce some radioactive waste
such as radio-isotopes and chemical sludge.

E-Wastes - electronic wastes generated from any modern

establishments. They may be described as discarded electrical
or electronic devices. Some electronic scrap components such
as CRTs may contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium,
and beryllium or brominated flame retardants.

Biomedical Wastes - solid or liquid wastes including

containers, intermediate or end products generated during
diagnosis, treatment, and research activities of medical
sciences.

WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES