CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT

CEPC 10

TOPIC - CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR

EARTHQUAKE PRONE AREA

GROUP 11
 WHAT IS EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake happens when the
ground suddenly shakes because of
movement deep underground. The
Earth's outer layer is made of large pieces
called tectonic plates, which are
constantly moving, but very slowly.
Sometimes, these plates get stuck, and
pressure builds up over time. When the
pressure becomes too much, the ground
shifts, and that sudden movement causes
the shaking we feel as an earthquake.
The Countries Hit by the
Most Earthquakes
Countries with the Highest number of major earthquakes between 1990 and 2024

0 50 100 150

China 186

Indonessia 166

Iran 109

Japan 98

United States 78

Turkey 62

India 58 As of Jan. 2, 2024. Earthquakes with at least $1M in

damages, 10 deaths, a magnitude of 7.5 or a
Philippines 55 tsunami(one criteria min.)
Source: NOAA
 MEARSUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE
1. Magnitude:
The magnitude of an earthquake tells us how
strong it is or how much energy was released.
This is measured using the Richter scale or the
Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw).

2. Intensity:
The intensity measures how much damage
or shaking people feel on the surface.The
Mercalli scale is used to describe the
intensity, ranging from people barely
feeling it (low intensity) to buildings
collapsing (high intensity).
DEVICES USED FOR MEASUREMENT
 TERMINOLOGY REALTED TO EARTHQAUKE

1. Epicenter-The point on the Earth's surface directly

above the location where the earthquake originates

2. Focus (Hypocenter)-The point within the Earth

where the earthquake actually starts.

3. Seismic Waves-The energy waves that travel

through the Earth during an earthquake.

4. Richter Scale-An older scale for measuring

earthquake magnitude, developed by Charles Richter.

5. Fault-A fracture in the Earth’s crust along which movement has occurred.
Earthquakes are often caused by sudden movements along faults.
 REASON FOR EARTHQUAKE
Earthquakes occur due to a variety of natural and human-induced factors. Here are the
primary reasons for earthquakes:

1. Tectonic Plate Movement-

Plate Boundaries: The Earth's lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates, which
constantly move. Earthquakes commonly occur at the boundaries of these
plates:
Convergent Boundaries: Where plates collide, one plate is forced beneath
another (subduction), causing powerful earthquakes.
Divergent Boundaries: Where plates move apart, causing tension and
resulting in earthquakes.
Transform Boundaries: Where plates slide past each other horizontally, as in
the case of the San Andreas Fault in California.
 REASON FOR EARTHQUAKE
2. Volcanic Activity-
Earthquakes can occur near volcanic regions as magma moves toward the surface,
exerting pressure on the surrounding rock. These are called volcanic earthquakes.

3. Human-Induced Earthquakes-
Mining Activities: The removal of large amounts of rock or mineral deposits can lead
to ground subsidence and small tremors.
Reservoir-Induced Seismicity: The filling of large reservoirs behind dams can
increase pressure in the Earth's crust and trigger earthquakes.
Geothermal Drilling and Fracking: The injection or extraction of fluids from the
Earth can induce seismic events by altering the pressure conditions underground.
Underground Nuclear Testing: Large explosions can produce seismic waves,
simulating small earthquakes.
 REASON FOR EARTHQUAKE
4. Seismic Waves from Other Sources-
Glacial Movements: Slow-moving glaciers can create stress on underlying rock
layers, leading to tremors.
Meteor Impacts: Though rare, the impact of large meteors or asteroids can produce
earthquake-like effects.

5. Isostatic Rebound
Over time, glaciers melt, and the Earth's crust, which was previously depressed by
the heavy ice, begins to rise again, potentially causing earthquakes.
 IMPACT OF EARTHQUAKE
1 . Destruction of Buildings and Infrastructure
Building Collapse: Poorly constructed or non-
earthquake-resistant buildings suffer the most
damage. Multi-story buildings, schools, hospitals, and
homes can collapse, trapping or killing residents
inside.
Bridges and Roads: Earthquakes can destroy or
severely damage road networks, bridges, and tunnels,
making rescue and relief efforts difficult.
Examples:
1995 Kobe Earthquake, Japan: Magnitude 6.9, caused extensive destruction of
buildings and infrastructure, with over 100,000 buildings destroyed.
1985 Mexico City Earthquake: Magnitude 8.0, around 10,000 deaths, and widespread
collapse of buildings, including schools, hospitals, and residential towers.
 IMPACT OF EARTHQUAKE
2. Economic Losses
Cost of Reconstruction: The economic cost of
rebuilding cities, industries, and infrastructure is
immense. Global earthquakes have resulted in billions
of dollars in damages.
Examples:
2011 Tōhoku Earthquake and Tsunami (Japan):
Magnitude 9.1, caused about $235 billion in damages,
the costliest natural disaster in history.

3. Displacement of People
Homelessness: Earthquakes often leave thousands or
even millions of people homeless. Temporary shelters
are set up, but recovery can take months or even years.
 IMPACT OF EARTHQUAKE
4. Loss of Lives and Injuries
Injuries: Thousands can be injured by collapsing structures,
flying debris, fires, and secondary hazards like landslides.
Examples:
2010 Haiti Earthquake: Magnitude 7.0, over 220,000 deaths,
and around 300,000 injuries. The densely populated and
poorly built structures contributed to the massive toll.
2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake (Tsunami): The undersea
quake and the resulting tsunami killed over 230,000 people
in countries including Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and
India.
5. Tsunamis:
Underwater Earthquakes: Earthquakes that occur beneath the
ocean can trigger tsunamis, which are large ocean waves that
cause catastrophic damage when they reach coastal areas.
India is divided into four seismic
zones based on the level of
seismic hazard or earthquake risk.
1. Zone II-Low Risk Zone
2. Zone III-Moderate Risk Zone
3. Zone IV- High Risk Zone
4. Zone V- Very High Risk Zone
MAIN CAUSE OF BUILDING FAILURE

Buildings collapse during earthquakes

due to a variety of reasons related to
poor design, structural weaknesses, and
the intensity of the seismic forces.
Understanding the factors that
contribute to building collapse is crucial
for improving earthquake - resistant
construction techniques. Below are the
key reasons why buildings collapse
during earthquakes:
 1. Poor Structural Design:
Lack of Seismic Design Considerations:
Many buildings are not . designed with
earthquakes in mind. Buildings that don’t
follow proper seismic design principles lack
the flexibility to absorb and dissipate
seismic forces, leading to collapse during
strong ground shaking.
For example, if a building is designed without
sufficient lateral load resistance (the ability
to resist horizontal forces), it may collapse
during an earthquake.
 2. Weak or Inadequate Foundation:

Poor Soil Conditions:

If a building is constructed on weak or
.
liquefiable soil (soil that can lose strength
during an earthquake), the foundation may
become unstable, leading to building
collapse. Liquefaction occurs when loose,
water-saturated soil temporarily behaves
like a liquid under seismic shaking.
Buildings on reclaimed land, riverbeds, or
loose sandy soil are particularly vulnerable
to collapse due to liquefaction.
.
2. Weak or Inadequate Foundation:

Shallow Foundations:
.
Foundations that are too shallow
or improperly designed may not
anchor the building sufficiently to
the ground, especially in areas
prone to seismic activity.
Buildings with inadequate
foundations can tilt or sink during
an earthquake, leading to collapse
3. Use of Substandard Materials:
Low-Quality Construction Materials:
Buildings constructed with substandard
materials, such as poor-quality concrete, weak
. steel reinforcements, or inferior masonry, are
more prone to collapse during earthquakes.
Low-grade materials fail to provide the
necessary strength and ductility to withstand
seismic forces.
Even if high-quality materials are available,
improper mixing of concrete, insufficient
curing time, or poor workmanship can result in
weak structures that are more susceptible to
seismic damage.
 4. Lack of Ductility:
Brittle Materials:
Buildings constructed using brittle materials,
. or masonry, are
such as unreinforced concrete
prone to sudden and catastrophic failure when
subjected to seismic forces. These materials
cannot absorb or redistribute the energy from
earthquakes, leading to a higher likelihood of
collapse.
Ductile materials, such as steel, allow buildings
to bend and deform without breaking, thereby
reducing the risk of collapse.
5. Pounding Effect:

Closely Spaced Buildings:

In densely populated urban areas, buildings are
. often constructed very close to one another.
During an earthquake, these buildings may sway
and hit each other, a phenomenon known as the
"pounding effect." This can lead to severe
structural damage and cause buildings to
collapse.
The pounding effect can be especially
problematic if the buildings have different
heights or structural characteristics, causing
uneven swaying.
 6. Soft-Story Buildings:

Weak First Floor:

A "soft-story" building is one where the
ground floor is significantly weaker or
has fewer walls than the floors above,
often due to large open spaces like
parking garages or commercial
storefronts. These weak first stories can
fail during an earthquake, causing the
entire building to collapse.
 7. Irregular Building Shapes:

Architectural Irregularities:
Buildings with irregular shapes, such as L-
shaped or T-shaped designs, or those with
uneven mass distribution, are more likely to
experience uneven stress during an
earthquake. These irregularities can lead to
concentrated forces at specific points,
increasing the likelihood of collapse.
Irregular structures often experience
torsional forces (twisting motion), which can
cause severe damage or failure in certain
sections of the building.
7. Irregular Building Shapes:

Vertical Irregularities:
A building with significant variations
in height or changes in the number of
floors at different sections (e.g., high-
rise sections adjacent to low-rise
ones) may respond unevenly to
seismic forces, making parts of the
structure more prone to collapse.
 8. Inadequate Reinforcement:

Lack of Proper Steel Reinforcement

in Concrete:
Reinforced concrete is a key material in
modern construction, but if the
reinforcement (usually steel bars) is not
placed correctly or if there is too little of
it, the concrete can crack and fail under
the stress of seismic forces.
Unreinforced masonry buildings, in
particular, are highly susceptible to
collapse because they lack the flexibility
and strength provided by reinforcement.
 9. Building Age

Old and Unmaintained Structures:

Older buildings, especially those constructed
before modern seismic building codes were
introduced, are more likely to collapse during
earthquakes. These buildings may have
outdated design features, such as unreinforced
masonry or insufficient reinforcement.
Over time, the building materials may degrade
due to environmental exposure (corrosion of
steel, cracking of concrete), weakening the
structure and increasing the risk of collapse.
10. Inadequate Retrofitting:
Failure to Retrofit Older Buildings:
In many earthquake-prone areas, older
buildings need to be retrofitted to meet
modern seismic standards. Failure to do so
leaves these buildings vulnerable to collapse.
Retrofitting techniques, such as adding shear
walls, bracing systems, or reinforcing
foundations, can significantly reduce the risk
of building failure.
Without retrofitting, historical buildings,
schools, and hospitals, which are often critical
during emergencies, remain highly vulnerable
to collapse during major seismic events.
 11. Resonance Effect:

Resonance Between Building and

Ground Motion:
Every building has a natural frequency at
which it tends to vibrate. If the frequency of
the seismic waves matches the building's
natural frequency (resonance), the shaking can
amplify, causing much more severe damage
and potential collapse.
Taller buildings are particularly vulnerable to
resonance, as they may sway excessively if the
ground motion aligns with their natural
frequency.
12. Non-Structural Elements:

Heavy Elements:
Non-structural elements such as heavy roofs,
large windows can cause buildings to collapse
if they detach and fall during an earthquake.
These elements may not be properly anchored
or designed to withstand seismic forces,
leading to additional stresses on the building’s
structure.
During earthquakes, parapets, chimneys, and
cladding can become detached and cause local
failures, contributing to the overall collapse.
 13. Overloading or Change of Use:
Increased Load on Structure:
Buildings designed for a specific use may be
altered over time, leading to an increased
load on the structure. For example, a
residential building converted into a
commercial space with added equipment or
storage may put more stress on the building,
reducing its ability to withstand seismic
forces.
Overloading may compromise the integrity
of columns, beams, and foundations,
increasing the likelihood of failure during an
earthquake.
 TECHNIQUES
To make buildings more resistant to earthquakes,
engineers and architects employ various construction
techniques and strategies aimed at enhancing the
building's ability to withstand seismic forces. These
techniques involve designing structures to be
flexible, strong, and capable of absorbing and
dissipating the energy released during an earthquake.
Below are key construction techniques that can be
used to improve a building’s earthquake resistance:
1. Base Isolation:
Concept: Base isolation involves placing the
building on flexible bearings or isolators, which
allow the structure to move independently from the
ground during an earthquake. These isolators
reduce the amount of seismic energy transmitted to
the building.

Components:
Rubber bearings or friction pendulum bearings
that allow controlled movement.
Seismic isolators that act like shock absorbers,
dampening the energy transfer.
Example: Many modern hospitals and critical
infrastructure buildings use base isolation to
prevent severe damage during earthquakes.
2. Seismic Dampers:
Concept: Seismic dampers are devices installed in buildings to absorb and dissipate
seismic energy, reducing the amount of force transferred to the building structure.

Types of Dampers:

Viscous Dampers: Use fluid to absorb

energy, similar to how car shock absorbers
work.

Friction Dampers: Use friction

between moving parts to dissipate
seismic energy.
.
 Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD): A large mass inside
the building that moves in the opposite direction
of the building’s sway, counteracting the
earthquake forces.

Example: The Taipei 101 skyscraper uses a tuned

mass damper for stability during earthquakes and
typhoons

Taipei 101
3. Reinforced Concrete Structures:
Concept: Concrete alone is strong in compression but weak in tension. By adding steel
reinforcement (rebar) to concrete structures, the tensile strength is improved, making
them better suited to resist earthquake forces.

Techniques:
Moment-Resisting Frames: Reinforced
concrete or steel frames that are designed
to resist bending and twisting forces during
an earthquake.

Column Jacketing: Surrounding columns with

additional reinforcement to improve their
ability to handle seismic loads.
 Reinforced Shear Walls: Vertical walls with
steel reinforcement that provide lateral
stability to the building

Example: Reinforced concrete structures are widely used in high-rise buildings

and bridges to improve earthquake resilience.
4. Cross-Bracing and Shear Walls:
Concept: Cross-bracing involves the use of diagonal braces within the structural frame
to distribute seismic forces. Shear walls are rigid vertical elements that provide
resistance to lateral forces caused by earthquakes.

Benefits:
Cross-Bracing: Provides additional support
to prevent the building from swaying
excessively during an earthquake.
Shear Walls: Help transfer seismic forces
to the building’s foundation, improving
stability.
Example: Cross-bracing is often used in steel
frame buildings, while shear walls are common
in mid- and high-rise structures to provide
lateral stiffness. Cross-Bracing
5. Ductile Building Materials:
Concept: Ductile materials can bend and deform without breaking, which is essential
during an earthquake. Steel and reinforced concrete are examples of ductile materials
commonly used in earthquake-resistant construction.

Application:
Steel Structures: Steel frames are highly
ductile and can withstand significant
deformation without collapsing.
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete: Concrete
mixed with fibers (steel, glass, or synthetic)
to improve tensile strength and ductility.

Fiber Reinforcing
Example:
A two-story building locally named Carbonhaus on the campus of Technical University
in Dresden, Germany is under construction which will be the first building in the world
built entirely on Carbon Reinforced Concrete. The building has a covered area of 2200
Square feet and will be completed with a budget of 5 Million Euros (US$5.63 million).
6. Modular and Precast Construction:
Concept: Modular and precast construction
methods involve building sections of the
structure in a controlled environment,
ensuring high-quality materials and
adherence to seismic standards.
Prefabrication
Benefits:
High precision and quality control.
Standardized design, ensuring that
seismic-resistance features are
incorporated consistently.
Lightweight materials reduce the mass
of the building, lowering the forces
experienced during an earthquake.
Example: Precast concrete panels with integrated reinforcement are often used in
earthquake-prone areas for their durability and ease of construction.

7. Foundation Design for Earthquake Resistance:

Concept: A well-designed foundation can help anchor the building and prevent it from
collapsing during ground movement.

Techniques:
Deep Foundations (Piles): Piles are driven
deep into stable layers of soil or rock to
anchor the building and prevent it from
shifting or sinking.
 Mat Foundations: A thick slab that
distributes the building’s weight over a
large area, providing stability during
seismic shaking.

Seismic-Safe Pile Foundations: Piles are specially designed to remain stable

during liquefaction or lateral ground movement.

Example: Tall buildings in earthquake-prone cities like San Francisco often use
deep pile foundations to prevent collapse during seismic activity.
8. Flexible Joints and Connections:
Concept: Special joints and connections are designed to flex during an earthquake,
allowing parts of the building to move independently without causing significant
damage.
Techniques:
Seismic Expansion Joints: Allow different
sections of the building to move
independently, preventing damage during
shaking..

Flexible Pipe and Utility Connections: Pipes

and utilities are fitted with flexible joints to
prevent ruptures and service interruptions
during seismic events
Example: Many high-rise buildings use seismic expansion joints between building
sections to absorb movement during earthquakes.

9. Soft-Story Reinforcement:
Concept: Buildings with a "soft story" (a weak or open ground floor, often used as
parking or commercial space) are particularly vulnerable to collapse during
earthquakes. Reinforcing these floors can prevent the entire building from
collapsing.
Reinforcement Techniques:
Steel Bracing or Shear Walls: Adding steel braces or shear walls to strengthen the
soft story.
Column Strengthening: Increasing the strength of columns by wrapping them in
steel or adding additional reinforcement.
Example: In earthquake-prone areas, soft-story apartment buildings are often
retrofitted with steel braces to prevent collapse.

10. Lightweight Materials:

Concept: Using lightweight materials in construction can reduce the overall mass of the
building, minimizing the seismic forces that act on it.
Application:
Lightweight Steel or Aluminum Frames: These materials are strong yet lightweight,
reducing the building's inertia during shaking.
 Prefabricated Panels: Lightweight prefabricated panels can be used for
walls and roofs to reduce mass and improve earthquake resistance.

Lightweight Steel Frames Prefabricated panels

Example: In areas with frequent earthquakes, lightweight materials like aluminum

panels and light steel frames are preferred to minimize the impact of seismic forces.
11. Use of Seismic Building Codes:
Concept: Earthquake-resistant buildings must be designed according to strict seismic
building codes that prescribe minimum standards for materials, design, and
construction practices.
Key Codes:
International Building Code (IBC): Widely adopted around the world, with provisions
for earthquake-resistant design.
National Building Codes: Many countries (e.g., Japan, New Zealand, Chile) have
developed their own seismic codes based on local seismic activity.
Example: In California, the strict enforcement of building codes has significantly
reduced the risk of building collapse during earthquakes.
12. Post-Tensioning Systems:
Concept: Post-tensioning involves applying tension to steel cables or tendons after the
concrete has set, which helps the structure better resist seismic forces.
Benefits:
Increased strength and flexibility.
Reduced cracking and structural damage during seismic events.

Example: Post-tensioning is commonly used

in bridges and large concrete structures to
improve their resilience to earthquakes.

Post-Tensioninig
13. Geotechnical Solutions for Soil Stability:
Concept: In areas where the ground is prone to liquefaction or landslides during
earthquakes, special soil stabilization techniques can be employed to improve the
foundation's stability.

Techniques:
Soil Compaction: Increasing soil density to
reduce the risk of liquefaction.

Stone Columns: Installing stone columns

to improve soil strength.
 Grouting: Injecting cement or other
materials into the ground to stabilize it.

Chemical Grouting

Example: Geotechnical solutions are widely used in coastal and low-lying areas where
the soil is prone to liquefaction during earthquakes.