UNIT-V

Software tools

Specification Methods
• Design requires a good notation to record and discuss alternate possibilities:

– The default language for specifications in any field is natural

language, e.g., English
– Communication medium, e.g., sketchpad, or blackboard
• Natural-language specifications tend to be:
– lengthy
– vague
– ambiguous
• Therefore, often are difficult to prove:
– correct
– consistent
– complete

• Backus-Naur Form (a.k.a. Backus Normal Form or BNF)

– high-level components are described as non terminal
– specific strings are described as terminals

• Grammars Example
<Telephone book entry>:= <Name><Telephone number>
<Name> ::=< Last name>, <First name>
<Last name> ::=< string>
<First name> ::=< string>
<String> ::=< character>|<character><string>
<Character>:= A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|I|J|K|L|M|N|O|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z
<Telephone number>:= (<area code>) <exchange>-<local number>
<Area code> ::=< digit><digit><digit>
<Exchange> ::=< digit><digit><digit>
<Local number>:= <digit><digit><digit><digit><digit>:= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|
8|9
• Examples of acceptable entries
-WASHINGTON, GEORGE (301)555-1234
-BEEF, STU (726)768-7878
-A, Z (999)111-1111

• Multiparty grammars
<Session> ::=< U: Opening><C: Responding>
<U: Opening>:= LOGIN <U: Name>
<U: Name> ::=< U: string>
<C: Responding>:= HELLO [<U: Name.]

U: User C: Computer

• Multiparty grammars are effective for text oriented command sequences

• Transition Diagram
– a set of nodes that represents system states and a set of links
between the nodes that represents possible transitions
• State Charts

Interface-Building Tools:
Features of Interface-Building Tools.

• 1. User Interface Independence

– Separate interface design from internals
– Enable multiple user interface strategies
– Enable multiple platform support
– Establish user interface architect role
– Enforce standards
• 2. Methodology & Notation
– Develop design procedures
– Find ways to talk about design
– Create project management
• 3. Rapid Prototyping
– Try out ideas very early
– Test, revise, test, revise, ...
– Engage end users, managers, and others

• 4. Software Support
– Increase productivity
– Offer some constraint & consistency checks
– Facilitate team approaches
– Ease maintenance
User interface mockup tools
• Examples
 – Paper and pencil
– Word processors
– Slide-show software
– Macromedia Director, Flash mix, or Dreamweaver

• Visual Editing
– Microsoft Visual Studio
– Borland J Builder

Finding the right tool is a tradeoff between six main criteria:

• Part of the application built using the tool.

• Learning time
• Building time
• Methodology imposed or advised
• Communication with other subsystems
• Extensibility and modularity

Interaction Devices- Keyboard

Layouts QWERTY layout
– 1870 Christopher Latham Sholes

– good mechanical design and a clever placement of the letters that

slowed down the users enough that key jamming was infrequent

– put frequently used letter pairs far apart, thereby increasing finger
travel distances

Dvorak layout
– 1920
– reduces finger travel distances by at least one order of magnitude

– Acceptance has been slow despite the dedicated efforts of some

devotees

– it takes about 1 week of regular typing to make the switch, but most
users have been unwilling to invest the effort

ABCDE style

– 26 letters of the alphabet laid out in alphabetical order no typists will

find it easier to locate the keys
 Additional keyboard issues

– IBM PC keyboard was widely criticized because of the placement of a

few keys
• backslash key where most typists expect SHIFT key
• placement of several special characters near the ENTER key
– Number pad layout
– wrist and hand placement
Keys
– 1/2 inch square keys
– 1/4 inch spacing between keys
– slight concave surface
– matte finish to reduce glare finger slippage
– 40- to 125-gram force to activate
– 3 to 5 millimeters displacement
– tactile and audible feedback important

– certain keys should be larger (e.g. ENTER, SHIFT,CTRL)

– some keys require state indicator, such as lowered position or light

indicator (e.g. CAPS LOCK)
– key labels should be large, meaningful, permanent
– some "home" keys may have additional features, such as deeper cavity
or small raised dot, to help user locate their fingers properly (caution -
no standard for this)

Function keys

– users must either remember each key's function, identify them from the

screen's display, or use a template over the keys in order to identify

them properly
– can reduce number of keystrokes and errors

– meaning of each key can change with each application placement on

keyboard can affect efficient use
– special purpose displays often embed function keys in monitor bezel
– lights next to keys used to indicate availability of the function, or
on/off status
 – Typically, simply labeled F1, F2, etc, though some may also have
meaningful labels, such as CUT, COPY, etc.

– frequent movement between keyboard home position and mouse or

function keys can be disruptive to use

– alternative is to use closer keys (e.g. ALT or CTRL) and one letter to
indicate special function

Cursor movement keys

– up, down, left, right
– some keyboards also provide diagonals
– best layout is natural positions

– inverted-T positioning allows users to place their middle three fingers

in a way that reduces hand and finger movement
– cross arrangement better for novices than linear or box
– typically include typeamatic (auto-repeat)feature
– important for form-fill-in and direct manipulation

– Other movements may be performed with other keys, such as TAB,

ENTER, HOME, etc.
Keyboard and keypads for small devices
– Wireless or foldable keyboards
– Virtual keyboards
– Cloth keyboards
– Soft keys
– Pens and touch screens
Pointing Devices
Pointing devices are applicable in six types of interaction tasks:
1. Select:
– User chooses from a set of items.
– Used for traditional menu selection, identification of a file in a
directory, or marking of a part in an automobile design.
2. Position:
– User chooses a point in a one-, two-, three-, or higher-dimensional
space
– Used to create a drawing, to place a new window, or to drag a block of
text in a figure.
3. Orient:
– User chooses a direction in a two-, three-, or higher-dimensional space.
 – Direction may simply rotate a symbol on the screen, indicate a
direction of motion for a spaceship, or control the operation of a robot
arm.
4. Path:
– User rapidly performs a series of position and orient operations.
– May be realized as a curving line in a drawing program, the
instructions for a cloth cutting machine, or the route on a map.
5. Quantify:
– User specifies a numeric value.
– Usually a one-dimensional selection of integer or real values to set
parameters, such as the page number in a document, the velocity of a
ship, or the amplitude of a sound.
6. Text:
– User enters, moves, and edits text in a two-dimensional space. The
– Pointing device indicates the location of an insertion, deletion, or
change.
– More elaborate tasks, such as centering; margin setting; font sizes;
highlighting, such as boldface or underscore; and page layout.
Direct-control pointing devices light pen
– enabled users to point to a spot on a screen and to perform a select,
position, or another task
– it allows direct control by pointing to a spot on the display
– incorporates a button for the user to press when the cursor is resting on
the desired spot on the screen
– light pen has three disadvantages: users' hands obscured part of the
screen, users had to remove their hands from the keyboard, and users
had to pick up the light pen.
Touch screen
– allows direct control touches on the screen using a finger
– early designs were rightly criticized for causing fatigue, hand-
obscuring-the- screen, hand-off-keyboard, imprecise pointing, and the
eventual smudging of the display
– lift-off strategy enables users to point at a single pixel
– the users touch the surface
– then see a cursor that they can drag around on the display
– when the users are satisfied with the position, they lift their fingers off
the display to activate
– can produce varied displays to suit the task
– are fabricated integrally with display surfaces
Tablet PCs and Mobile Devices:
• Natural to point on the LCD surface
• Stylus
• Keep context in view
• Pick up & put down stylus
• Gestures and handwriting recognition

Indirect pointing devices

• mouse
– the hand rests in a comfortable position, buttons on the mouse are easily
pressed, even long motions can be rapid, and positioning can be precise
• trackball
– usually implemented as a rotating ball 1 to 6 inches in diameter that moves
cursor

• joystick
– are appealing for tracking purposes

• Graphics tablet
– A touch-sensitive surface separate from the screen

• Touchpad

– built-in near the keyboard offers the convenience and precision of a touch
screen while keeping the user's hand off the display surface

• Human-factors variables
– speed of motion for short and long distances
– accuracy of positioning
– error rates
– learning time
– user satisfaction
• Other variables
 cost
 durability
 space requirements
 weight
 left- versus right-hand use
 likelihood to cause repetitive-strain injury
 compatibility with other systems
 Comparison of pointing devices
• Some results
– direct pointing devices faster, but less accurate
– graphics tablets are appealing when user can remain with device for long
periods without switching to keyboard
– mouse is faster than isometric joystick
– for tasks that mix typing and pointing, cursor keys a faster and are preferred by
users to a mouse
– muscular strain is low for cursor keys
• Fit’s Law
– Index of difficulty = log2 (2D /W)
– Time to point = C1 + C2 (index of difficulty)
– C1 and C2 and constants that depend on the device
– Index of difficulty is log2 (2*8/1) = log2(16) = 4bits
– A three-component equation was thus more suited for the high-precision
pointing task:
– Time for precision pointing = C1 + C2 (index of difficulty) + C3 log2 (C4 /W)

Novel devices
• Foot controls
• Eye-tracking
• Multiple-degrees-of-freedom devices
• Data Glove
• Hap tic feedback
• Bimanual input
• Ubiquitous computing and tangible user interfaces
• Handheld devices

Speech and auditory interfaces

Speech recognition still does not match the fantasy of science fiction:
– demands of user's working memory
– background noise problematic
– variations in user speech performance impacts effectiveness
– most useful in specific applications, such as to benefit handicapped
users
Discrete word recognition
– recognize individual words spoken by a specific person; can work with 90-
to98- percent reliability for 20 to 200-wordvocabularies
 – Speaker-dependent training, in which the user repeats the full vocabulary
once or twice
– Speaker-independent systems are beginning to be reliable enough for
certain commercial applications
– been successful in enabling bedridden, paralyzed, or otherwise disabled
people
– also useful in applications with at least one of the following conditions:
• speaker's hands are occupied
• mobility is required
• speaker's eyes are occupied
• harsh or cramped conditions preclude use of keyboard
voice-controlled editor versus keyboard editor
• lower task-completion rate
• lower error rate
use can disrupt problem solving
• Continuous-speech recognition
– Not generally available:
• difficulty in recognizing boundaries between spoken words

• normal speech patterns blur boundaries

• many potentially useful applications if perfected
Speech store and forward

– Voice mail user scan

• receive messages
• replay messages
• reply to caller
• forward messages to other users, delete messages
• archive messages
• Systems are low cost and reliable.
• Voice information systems

– Stored speech commonly used to provide information about tourist

sites, government services, after-hours messages for organizations
– Low cost
– Voice prompts
– Deep and complex menus frustrating
 – Slow pace of voice output, ephemeral nature of speech, scanning
and searching problems
– Voicemail
– Handheld voice recorders
– Audio books
– Instructional systems

• Speech generation

– Michaels and Wiggins (1982) suggest that speech generation is

"frequently preferable" under these circumstances:

• The message is simple.

• The message is short.
• The message will not be referred to later.
• The message deals with events in time.

• The message requires an immediate response.

• The visual channels of communication are overloaded.
• The environment is too brightly lit, too poorly lit, subject to
severe vibration, or otherwise unsuitable for transmission of
visual information.
• The user must be free to move around.
• The user is subjected to high G forces or anoxia

Audio tones, audio libation, and music

– Sound feedback can be important:
• to confirmations
• offer warning
• for visually impaired users
• music used to provide mood context, e.g. in games
• can provide unique opportunities for user, e.g. with
simulating various musical instruments

Displays – Small and Large

• The display has become the primary source of feedback to the user
 from the computer
– The display has many important features, including:
• Physical dimensions (usually the diagonal dimension and depth)
• Resolution (the number of pixels available)
• Number of available colors, color correctness
• Luminance, contrast, and glare
• Power consumption
• Refresh rates (sufficient to allow animation and video)
• Cost
• Reliability
Usage characteristics distinguish displays:
• Portability
• Privacy
• Saliency
• Ubiquity
• Simultaneity Display technology
• Monochrome displays
– are adequate, and are attractive because of their lower cost
• RGB shadow-mask displays

– small dots of red, green, and blue phosphors packed closely

• Raster-scan cathode-ray tube(CRT)
– electron beam sweeping out lines of dots to form letters
– refresh rates 30 to 70 per second
• Liquid-crystal displays(LCDs)
– voltage changes influence the polarization of tiny capsules of liquid
crystals
– flicker-free
– size of the capsules limits the resolution
• Plasma panel
– rows of horizontal wires are slightly separated from vertical wires by
small glass-enclosed capsules of neon-based gases
• Light-emitting diodes(LEDs)
– certain diodes emit light when a voltage is applied
– arrays of these small diodes can be assembled to display characters
• Electronic ink
– Paper like resolution

– Tiny capsules with negatively and positively charged particles

• Braille displays
– Pins provide output for the blind
• Large displays
– Informational wall displays
 – Interactive wall displays
– Multiple desktop displays
• Heads-up and helmet mounted displays

– A heads-up display can, for instance, project information on a

partially silvered widescreen of an airplane or car
– A helmet/head mounted display (HMD) moves the image with the
user
– 3D images

Mobile device displays

• Currently mobile devices used for brief tasks, except for game playing
• Optimize for repetitive tasks
• Custom designs to take advantage of every pixel
• Data Lens allows compact overviews

• Web browsing difficult

• Okay for linear reading, but making comparisons can be difficult

Animation, image, and video

• Accelerated graphics hardware
• More information shared and downloaded on the web
• Scanning of images and OCR
• Digital video
• CDROMS and DVDs
• Compression and decompression through MPEG
• Computer-based videoconferencing
Printers
• Important criteria for printers:
– Speed
– Print quality
– Cost
– Compactness
– Quiet operation
– Use of ordinary paper (fan folded or single sheet)
– Character set
– Variety of typefaces, fonts, and sizes
– Highlighting techniques (boldface, underscore, and soon)
– Support for special forms (printed forms, different lengths, and soon)
– Reliability
• dot-matrix printers

– print more than 200 characters per second, have multiple fonts, can print
boldface, use variable width and size, and have graphics capabilities
• inkjet printers
– offer quiet operation and high-quality output
• thermal printers or fax machines
– offer quiet, compact, and inexpensive output on specially coated paper
– laser printers
– operate at 30,000 lines per minute
• color printers

– allow users to produce hardcopy output of color graphics, usually by an inkjet

approach with three colored and black inks
• photographic printers

– allow the creation of 35-millimeter or larger slides (transparencies) and

photographic print