Lesson 1: Measure of Central Tendency A measure of central tendency is a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or center of data set. Most commonly used measures of central tendency or type of averages. are arithmetic mean, median and mode. Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean or just simply mean is the sum of the value of each observation in a data set divided by the number of observations. The traditional symbol used to indicate a summation is, the Greek letter sigma, E . Thus, the notation 2x, called summation notation, denotes the sum of all numbers in a given set . ‘The definition isthe same for both the sample (portion of the whole population) and population {isa collection ofall possible observations under a particular study), although we use different symbol to refer to each. The sample mean ‘The symbol for the sample mean is x bar (), and for the population mean is the Greek letter mu). (TERETE). ensin a Matenaisin the Modern World clas of 35 students received test grades of 92 , 84,65, 76,88, and 90. Find the mean of these test scores. b. Is the mean computed, a statistic or a parameter? Why? Solution a. The six friends are sample of the population of 20 students, Use ¥ instead of 1 to represent the Dx 92 +844 654764 88+ 90 nm 6 82.5 ‘The mean of the test scores is 82. 5. Median ‘The median isthe middle number of the mean of the vo middle numbers in alist of numbers ‘that have been arrange in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to smallest. Any list of numbers arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or largest to smallest isa ranked list. ‘Median “The median of a ranked list of m numbers is ‘©The middle number if mis odd ‘= The mean of two middle numbers ifm is even | erangie2 > Find the median of the data in the following lists. 4,8149,21,12 1B. 46,23, 92, 89.77, 108, Solution a. The list 4,8,1,4,9.21,12 contains 7 numbers. The median ofa lst with an odd number of entries is found by ranking the numbers and finding the mile number. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives 1, 4,8, 9,12,14,21 ‘The middle number is 9. Thus 9s the median D. The list 46, 23, 92, 89.77, 108 contains 6 numbers. The median ofthe list of data with an even ‘number of entries is found by ranking the numbers and computing the mean of the two middle ‘numbers. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives 23,46, 77, 9, 92, 108, “The two middle numbers ae 77 and 89, The mean of 77 and 89 is 83. Thus 83 isthe median of the ataMode ‘The mode is another measure of type of average. Mode ‘The value ofthe observation that appears most frequently. = a 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15,21 b.25,8,9, 11,4, 7,23 Solution a In the list 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21, the number 15 occurs more often that the other numbers. ‘Thus 15 is the mode. bb. Each of the number in the list 2.5, 8, 9, 11,4, 7, 23 occurs only once, Because no number occurs more often than others, there is no mode, The Weighted Mean ‘The weighted mean of given groups data isthe average of the mean of all the groups. Is often used when some data values are more important than others. ‘The Weighted Mean ‘The weighted mean of the m numbers x1, 2,3, ..»%n With respective assigned weights Way Way Way ner Wn is 2oew) Weighted mean = = where = w = weight of each item Xx = value of each item formula to Find the Janet's GPA for the spring semester, ‘Table 1.1 Janct's Grades, First Semester Course | Course Grade | Course Units Physics Ls 4 ‘Statistics 223 3 Pryehoiogy [2.75 3 PE 15 2 Solution Ew = ES 0es 45x )4(4.75%2) as 4434342, =208 Janet's GPA for frst semester is 2.08 .Lesson 2 : Measures of Dispersion While measures of central tendency are used to estimate “normal” values of a dataset, ‘measures of dispersion are important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central value. Two distinct samples may have the same mean or median, but completely different levels of variability, or vice versa. A measure of dispersion or variability tells us how much the observations spread out from the mean. The higher the variability, the more dispersed are the observations; the lower itis, the more consistent are the observations, ‘The Range ‘The simplest measure of dispersion is the rang. I is the difference between the largest and the smallest values in a data set Range Range = Largest value ~ Smallest value ‘Mean Deviation A defect of the range is that it is based on only two values, the highest and the lowest; it does not take into consideration all ofthe values. The mean deviation does. It measures the mean amount bby which the values ina population, or sample, vary from their mean. In terms of a definition: Mean Deviation isthe acthmetic mean ofthe absolute values ofthe deviations from the arithmetic ‘Mean Deviation (MD) mp = 2 where x~ the value of each observation ‘£- the arithmetic mean of the values n— the number of onservation | |—is the absolute vale ‘The mean deviation has two advantages. Firstituses all values in the computation while range ‘only uses the highest and lowest values. Second itis easy to understand=it is the average amount by Which values deviate from the mean. | eanglet > ‘The weighs of some containers being shipped to China ae (thousands of pounds): 95, 103, 105, 110, 104, 105, 112, 90 ‘a, What isthe range of the weights? . Compute the arithmetic mean weight ‘c. Compute the mean deviation of the weights Solution ‘a. Range = Highest value ~ Lowest value 112=90 2 thousand pounds 9511034 105+11001044 1054112490 = 103 thousands of pounds [p5=-10514103-1051+1105~105110-1051+]104~10311105~10311112-10314‘The Standard Deviation ‘The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the individual amount that each data value deviates from the mean, These deviations, represented by (x — 2), are positive when the data value x is greater than the mean % and are negative when «is less than the mean ¥ . The sum. of all the deviations (x — 2), is 0 for all sets of data. This is shown in Table 2.2 for the Machine 2 data of Table 2.1. ‘Table 2.2 Machine 2 :De ations from the Mean x @-% 8.01 801-8 ).01 7.99 7.99 = 0.01 7.95 7.95 — 8 = =0.05 8.03 8.03-8 8.02 8.02-8 Ya=D=0 [_ example 2 > ‘The following numbers were obtained by sampling « population, 2, 4, 7, 12, 15. Find the standard deviation of the sample, Solution : ‘Step 1: Determine the mean . 2H4+7412415 _ 40 5 5 ‘Step 2: For each number , calculate the deviation between the number and the mean. x x-z 2 2 4 T a Ta @ rey -8=7) ‘Step 3 : Calculate the square of each of the deviations in Step 2, and find the sum of these squared deviations. Sum ofthe squared deviations Step 4 : Because we have a sample of n = 5 values, divide the sum 118 by n— 1, which is 4. 118 7 9.5 ‘Svep 5: The standard deviation of the sample is $= 5.43, = VI9.5. Thus the standard deviation isVariance A statistic known as the variance is also used as a measure of dispersion. The variance for a _ziven set of data isthe square of the standard deviation of the data. Variances Tx X24, 11 Xq 8 population of m numbers with a mean of 44 then the variance of Bow? the population is [RFS ina the variance or the sample given in Example 2 Solution In Example 2 , we found s= V29-5)« The variance isthe square ofthe standardl deviation . Thus the variance is s? = (V2.5)? = 29.5 Lesson 3: Measures of Relative Position ‘The measures of relative position of a given value shows where the value stands in relation position ofa given value to other values inthe same set of data, The most common measures of relative position are quartiles, deciles, percentiles , and standard scores Quartile divide a set of observations into four equal parts. To explain further, think of any set of values arranged from smallest to largest . The frst quartile , usually labelled Qy, is the value below which 25 percent of the observations occur , and the third quartile , usually labelled Qa, is the value below which 75 percent of the observations occur . Logically Qz, is the median Ina similar fashion deeiles divide a sot of observation s into 10 equal pants. So if you found that your GPA was in the 8" decile oF Dyp at your class, you could conclude that 80 percent of your classmates had a GPA. lower than yours and 20 percent has a higher GPA ‘The last one is the percentiles which divides observations into 100 equal parts. For instance, GPA of 33" percentile means that 33 percent of the students have a lower GPA and 67 percent have higher GPA. ‘Quartiles,Deciles, Percentiles Decile Percentile int) int) itt) = m= P= where ‘n= number of observations i desired location | eranpies >> Find 3" quartile for the following data, 5,75 My 1 17,23, 19,3,9,21, IS and 13 Solution: First thing to dois arrange the data in ascending order. 3,5,7,9.11 1 and 23 3, 15,17, For 3" quartile Hee _ M2155 9 potion» pecon 2810-9" psn =17 475+ (19-17) = 185Standard Scores (or the z — score) ‘The 2 — score for a given data value sis the number of standard deviations that x is above or below the mean of the data. ‘The following formulas show how to calculate the zscore fora data value in a population and ina sample Population: zy = A negative 2 ~ score represents a value es than the mean. A positive 2 — score represents ‘value greater than the mean . When 2 = 0, the data value is equal to the mean Az score equal tol represents a value tha i 1 standard deviation above the mean : 2 {2 score equal to—1 represents an element that i I standard deviation below the mean Ifthe rhumber of clements in the data set is large , about 68% of the elements have z — scores between 1 and 1. About 95% have 2 ~ scores between ~2 and 2 and about 99% have 2 — scores between Band 3 i a ith standard deviation of 8, Belle gets a score of 74 in a Physics test where the mean is 58 and the standard deviation is 10 . Find out who actually performed better. Solution Find the z-score for each fest. 475 Belle: 274 = => So although Belle’s score is higher, Andrew's score is farther above the mean and we may say that it ‘Andrew who performed better. Correlation is a degree of relationship between variables, which seeks to determine how well ‘a linear or other equation describes or explains the relationship between variables. It also implies “association” between two variables. PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICIENT ‘The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson r for short) is a measure of the strength of a linear association between two variables with interval and r type of scale. NY Pady veered yoy Oy where r sum of the values of x sum of the values of y x Lv = sum of the values of the square of x yy sum of the values of the square.y Lye sum of the values of the product of x and y n= total number of pair‘The arbitrary seale for the interpretation of r is given below. ‘Range of computed r Interpretation £10 Perfect Relationship £0.70 10 099 ‘Strong/ High Relationship £0.40 100.69) “Moderate Relationship £0.10 10039) ‘Slight/ Low Relationship oO ‘No Correlation [examples >> Below are the scores of 12 college students in Mathematics and Physics tests ‘of 80 items each. Table $.1 ‘Mathematics @) [65 | 63 [67 | 64 | 68 [ 62 [70] 66 | 68 | 67 | 69 [71 Physics) | 68 66 | 68 | 65 | 69 | 66 [68 | 65 | 71 | 67 | 68 | 70 ‘Table 52 amber | MAMEMAIES | Paysis (7) x ” y 1 6 @ as aa 0 2 3 © 3968 386 188 3 a & 9 62s 3580 * oI © 2096 3225 160 5 a @ ae 61 82 © 2 rm sts 86 092 7 50 os “40 et 100 5 ra © 356 3225 290 ° 3 7 4628 S041 828 0 a @ 80 80 380 mn o nm 608 692 2 7 70 3500 970 wen | Dx=800 | Dy=si Dy saa | Desss07 12453418) (800) [.2)54849) (B11). r=0.70 Referring tothe arbitrary scale for the interpretation of r = 0.70, it states that there i a stong/ high postive relationship between the scores ofthe students in Mathematics and Physics. LINEAR REGRESSION ‘Regression isa term used to describe the process of estimating the relationship between two variables. The relationship is estimated by fitting a straight line through the given data, ‘The method 1 to find a line of best fit called regression line which keeps the errors of| ‘of least squares perm prediction t a minimum. ‘The equation for a fitted line i: Ysatbe where predicted value Seinercept Slope ofthe regression fine ‘he value of xt be predicted ‘To find the slope b: ‘Tofind the value of a: NSo-DeEy ape » where Lee sumofthevalesofe FE mean of value of X Sym im ofthe values of Se su of the ales ofthe Say sm the tes fhe proc of and y tm otal number of irsERED ee oe kanes Solution Formulate the regression line equation by solving first the value of the variables b and a. Solving for b (12)(54107)-(800)811) ae b=0.48 (12(53418)- (800) Solving for a a= 67.58 — (0.48)66.67) a=3559 Substitute the computed values of b and a to the regression line equation Yeathr y=35.59+0.48x ——e regression line equation ‘We can now estimate scores in Physics (y) using the regression line equation by substituting «value or score in Mathematics (x). Say for instance, if xis equal to 75, then solving for y will give a 71.39. 5.59 + 0.48(75) 71.59 or approximately equivalent to 72 if the score in Mathematics is 75. The regression line equation may be used now in estimating scores for y INDUCTIVE REASONING ‘Inductive Reasoning - Is the process of getting a general conclusion by observing the spevific examples or se. It is used to predict the next number and make a conjctue. EXAMPLES! Use inductive reasoning to predict a next umber. 36,912.15, _? Jennifer always leaves for schoo! at 7:00 a.m. Jennifer is always on time, Jennifer assumes, then, that if she leaves a 7.00 asm. for school today, she will be on time. ‘+ The cost of goods was $1.00. The cost of labor to manufacture the item was $0.80. The sales price ofthe item ‘was $5.00, So, the item always provides good profit forthe stores selling i DEDUCTIVE REASONING ‘© Deduetive reasoning is ogiea approach where you progress from general ideas 1 specific conclusions. Its often ‘contrasted with inductive resoning, where you sar with specific observations and form general conclusions, Deductive reasoning is also called dedvetve logic or top-down reasoning EXAMPLES: ‘© All numbers ending in O or S are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with aS, so it must be divisible by 5. ‘© Allbinds have feathers, AM robin ae birds. Therefore, robin have feathers. ‘© Elephants have calls in their bodies, and all ells have DNA. Therefore, elephants have DNA.