What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which

multiple signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted
over a single communication/physical line.

Uses of Multiplexing
Multiplexing is used for a variety of purposes in data communications to enhance
the efficiency and capacity of networks. Here are some of the main uses:
 Efficient Utilization of Resources: Multiplexing allows multiple signals
to share the same communication channel, making the most of the
available bandwidth. This is especially important in environments where
bandwidth is limited.
 Telecommunications: In telephone networks, multiplexing enables the
simultaneous transmission of multiple telephone calls over a single line,
enhancing the capacity of the network.
 Internet and Data Networks: Multiplexing is used in internet
communications to transmit data from multiple users over a single
network line, improving the efficiency and speed of data transfer.
 Satellite Communications: Multiplexing helps in efficiently utilizing the
available bandwidth on satellite transponders, allowing multiple signals to
be transmitted and received simultaneously.
Types of Multiplexing
There are five different types of multiplexing techniques, each designed to
handle various types of data and communication needs. These techniques
include:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
 Space-division multiplexing (SDM)
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the
bandwidth of a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.

Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk, due to the fact that in
this type of multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In
order to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of bandwidth must be
placed between each channel. These unused strips between each channel are
known as guard bands.

2. Time Division Multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM,
instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM,
time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :

 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
 Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing
Synchronous TDM : Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame. Time slots are
grouped into frames. One frame consists of one cycle of time slots. Synchronous
TDM is not efficient because if the input frame has no data to send, a slot
remains empty in the output frame. In synchronous TDM, we need to mention
the synchronous bit at the beginning of each frame.

Statistical TDM: Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing where

the output frame collects data from the input frame till it is full, not leaving an
empty slot like in Synchronous TDM. In statistical TDM, we need to include the
address of each particular data in the slot that is being sent to the output frame.
Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-division multiplexing as the
channel capacity is fully utilized and improves the bandwidth efficiency.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a multiplexing technology used to
increase the capacity of optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a different wavelength. Each
signal is carried on a different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals are
combined onto a single optical fiber for transmission. At the receiving end, the
signals are separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and routed to their
respective destinations.
WDM can be divided into two categories: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(DWDM) and Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
Advantages of Multiplexing
 Efficient Use of Bandwidth: You can send more than one signal over a
single channel. This way, you can use the channel’s capacity more
efficiently.
 Increased Data Transmission: Multiplexing can significantly boost the
amount of data that can be sent over a network simultaneously,
enhancing overall transmission capacity.
 Scalability: Multiplexing allows networks to easily expand and
accommodate more data streams without requiring significant changes to
the existing infrastructure.
 Flexibility: Different types of multiplexing (TDM, FDM, WDM, CDM) can be
used based on the specific needs and characteristics of the
communication system, providing flexibility in network design.
Disadvantages of Multiplexing
 Synchronization Issues: Ensuring that multiple data streams remain
properly synchronized can be challenging, leading to potential data loss or
errors if not managed correctly.
 Latency: Combining multiple signals into one can introduce delays, as
each data stream needs to be processed, synchronized,
and demultiplexed at the receiving end.
  Signal Degradation: Over long distances, multiplexed signals can
experience degradation and interference, requiring additional measures
such as signal boosters or repeaters to maintain quality.
 Resource Management: Allocating and managing resources for
multiplexing can be complicated, requiring careful planning and real-time
adjustments to avoid congestion and ensure efficient operation.
What Is a Filter?
A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while
attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies
from signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.
In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters.
Examples include:
 Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the
desired signal while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other
signals have different frequency content).
 DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high
frequencies (i.e., noise) that are present on AC input lines. Additionally,
filters are used on a power supply's output to reduce ripple.
 Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to
channel low-frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to
midrange speakers, and high-frequency sounds to tweeters.
 Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input
to minimize aliasing.

Four Major Types of Filters

The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass filter,
the band-pass filter, and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-stop filter).
Take note, however, that the terms "low" and "high" do not refer to any absolute
values of frequency, but rather, they are relative values with respect to the cutoff
frequency.
Figure 1 below gives a general idea of how each of these four filters works:
Figure 1. A basic depiction of the four major filter types.

There is also such a thing as an all-pass filter, but I'm not considering it to be one
of the four basic filter types for this article.

Passive and Active Filters

Filters can be placed in one of two categories: passive or active.
Passive filters include only passive components—resistors, capacitors,
and inductors. In contrast, active filters use active components, such as op-
amps, in addition to resistors and capacitors, but not inductors.
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Passive filters are most responsive to a frequency range from roughly 100 Hz to
300 MHz. The limitation on the lower end results from the fact that the
inductance or capacitance would have to be quite large at low frequencies. The
upper-frequency limit is due to the effect of parasitic capacitances and
inductances. Careful design practices can extend the use of passive circuits well
into the gigahertz range.
Active filters are capable of dealing with very low frequencies (approaching 0
Hz), and they can provide voltage gain (passive filters cannot). Active filters can
be used to design high-order filters without the use of inductors; this is important
because inductors are problematic in the context of integrated-circuit
manufacturing techniques. However, active filters are less suitable for very high-
frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth limitations. Radio-
frequency circuits must often utilize passive filters.
Some Key Points and Terms
Response curves are used to describe how a filter behaves. A response curve is
simply a graph showing an attenuation ratio (V OUT / VIN) versus frequency (see
Figure 2 below). Attenuation is commonly expressed in units of decibels (dB).
Frequency can be expressed in two forms: either the angular form ω (units are
rad/s) or the more common form of f (units of Hz, i.e., cycles per second). These
two forms are related by ω = 2πf. Finally, filter response curves may be plotted in
linear-linear, log-linear, or log-log form. The most common approach is to have
decibels on the y-axis and logarithmic frequency on the x-axis.

Figure 2. Response curves for the four major filter types.

Note: A notch filter is a bandstop filter with a narrow bandwidth. Notch filters are
used to attenuate a narrow range of frequencies.
Below are some technical terms that are commonly used when describing filter
response curves:
 -3 dB frequency (f3dB). This term, pronounced "minus 3dB frequency",
corresponds to the input frequency that causes the output signal to drop
by -3dB relative to the input signal. The -3 dB frequency is also referred to
as the cutoff frequency. It is the frequency at which the output power is
reduced by one-half (which is why this frequency is also called the "half-
power frequency"), or the output voltage is the input voltage multiplied by
1/√2. For low-pass and high-pass filters, there is only one -3 dB frequency.
However, there are two -3 dB frequencies for band-pass and notch filters—
normally referred to as f1 and f2.
 Center frequency (f0). The center frequency, a term used for band-pass
and notch filters, is a central frequency between the upper and lower
cutoff frequencies. The center frequency is commonly defined as the
arithmetic mean (see equation below) or the geometric mean of the lower
and upper cutoff frequency.
 Bandwidth (β or B.W.). The bandwidth is the width of the passband, and
the passband is the band of frequencies that do not experience significant
attenuation when moving from the input of the filter to the output of the
filter.
  Stopband frequency (fs). This is a particular frequency at which the
attenuation reaches a specified value.
 For low-pass and high-pass filters, frequencies beyond the stopband
frequency are referred to as the stopband.
 For band-pass and notch filters, two stopband frequencies exist. The
frequencies between these two stopband frequencies are referred to
as the stopband.
 Quality factor (Q): The quality factor of a filter conveys its damping
characteristics. In the time domain, damping corresponds to the amount of
oscillation in the system’s step response. In the frequency domain, higher
Q corresponds to more (positive or negative) peaking in the system’s
magnitude response. For a bandpass or notch filter, Q represents the ratio
between the center frequency and the -3dB bandwidth (i.e., the distance
between f1 and f2).
 For both band-pass and notch filters:
Q=f0/f2−f1

A transmitter delivers power

to an antenna which has gain GT in the direction of the receiver. The receiver’s
antenna has gain GR. As always, antenna gain is equal to directivity times
radiation efficiency, so GT and GR account for losses internal to the antenna, but
not losses due to impedance mismatch.
A simple expression for PR can be derived as follows. First, let us assume “free
space conditions”; that is, let us assume that the intervening terrain exhibits
negligible absorption, reflection, or other scattering of the transmitted signal. In
this case, the spatial power density at range RR from the transmitter which
radiates this power through a lossless and isotropic antenna would be:
PT/4πR2
that is, total transmitted power divided by the area of a sphere of radius RR
through which all the power must flow. The actual power density Si is this amount
times the gain of the transmit antenna, i.e.:
Si=PT/4πR2*GT
The maximum received power is the incident co-polarized power density times
the effective aperture Ae of the receive antenna:

PR,max=AeSico
=Ae PT/4 πR2*GT

This assumes that the receive antenna is co-polarized with the incident electric
field, and that the receiver is conjugate-matched to the antenna. The effective
aperture can also be expressed in terms of the gain GR of the receive antenna:
Ae=λ2/4π*GR
Thus, Equation may be written in the following form:
PR,max=PT GT (λ/4πR)2 *GR
This is the Friis transmission equation. Summarizing:
The Friis transmission equation gives the power delivered to a conjugate-
matched receiver in response to a distant transmitter, assuming co-polarized
antennas and free space conditions.

The factor (λ/4πR)2 appearing in the Friis transmission equation is referred to

as free space path gain. More often this is expressed as the reciprocal quantity:

LP ≜ (λ/4πR)-2
which is known as free space path loss. may be expressed as follows:
-1
PR,max =PT GT Lp GR
The utility of the concept of path loss is that it may also be determined for
conditions which are different from free space. The Friis transmission equation
still applies; one simply uses the appropriate (and probably significantly
different) value of Lp.
A common misconception is that path loss is equal to the reduction in power
density due to spreading along the path between antennas, and therefore this
“spreading loss” increases with frequency. In fact, the reduction in power density
due to spreading between any two distances R1<R2 is:
(PT /4πR12)/ (PT /4πR22 )= (R1 /R2 )2
which is clearly independent of frequency. The path loss Lp in contrast, depends
only on the total distance RR and does depend on frequency. The dependence on
frequency reflects the dependence of the effective aperture on wavelength.
Thus, path loss is not loss in the traditional sense, but rather accounts for a
combination of spreading and the λ2 dependence of effective aperture that is
common to all receiving antennas.
Finally, note that is merely the simplest form of the Friis transmission equation.
Commonly encountered alternative forms include forms in
which GTGT and/or GRGR are instead represented by the associated effective
apertures, and forms in which the effects of antenna impedance mismatch
and/or cross-polarization are taken into account.