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Production Of X-Rays.

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 WORKING OF X-RAY TUBE
When a Cathode is heated, it produces electrons by
thermionic emission. Emitted electrons are
accelerated to anode (target) by high potential
difference between cathode and anode.
When first moving electrons are stopped by the
anode (target) part of their kinetic energy is
converted to x-rays.
Cathode is concave so as to focus electron beam to
the tungsten target.
 The anode target has high melting point (tungsten)
to withstand a lot of heat generated.

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 WORKING OF X-RAY TUBE
Most of kinetic energy of electrons is converted
to heat energy but about 0.5% is transferred to
x-rays radiation
Anode is made of good conductor of heat i.e.
copper for dissipation of heat energy. However,
oil circulation and fins enhances cooling
process.
Lead shielding has high density so as to prevent
x-rays from penetrating into undesirable
targets.
Modern x-rays have a rotating target during
operation to change the point of impact thereby
reducing the wear and tear on it.
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 Properties of X-rays
They travel in straight lines
They undergo reflection and diffraction
They are not affected by electric or magnetic
fields since they are not charged particles.
They ionize gases by knocking off their electrons
from air molecules.
 They affect photographic films
They penetrate matter, able to pass easily
through thin sheets of paper, metal foils and
body tissues
They cause fluorescence in certain substances
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 Hard And Soft X-rays
• Hard x-rays: Have high frequency (short wavelength)
hence high penetrating power. This is achieved by
increasing the anode voltage, in order to give the
cathode rays more kinetic energy.
• These x-rays penetrates the flesh but are absorbed by
the bones.
• Soft x-rays: The soft x-rays are produced by electrons
moving at a lower velocity compared to those
producing hard x-rays.
• This is achieved by lowering the accelerating voltage.
• These x-rays are used to show malignant growth in
tissues because they only penetrate the soft tissues.
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 Strength And Intensity Of X-rays
Intensity (Quantity) of x-rays
• The Intensity of x-rays is controlled by amount of
heating current.
• The greater the heating current, the greater the
number of electrons produced hence more x-rays.
Strength (quality) of x-rays
• The strength of x-rays is controlled by the kinetic
energy /velocity of the electrons. This is achieved
by increasing the accelerating potential (E.H.T)
between the anode and the cathode.

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Energy Changes In An X-ray Tube.
• When the cathode is heated electrons are emitted by
thermionic emission. They acquire electrical energy
which can be expressed as E = eV. Once in motion the
electrical energy is converted to kinetic energy, that is
eV = ½ me v2.
• The energy of an electromagnetic wave can be calculated
using the following equation.
E= h f, where h- Planck’s constant, f – frequency of the wave.
• The highest frequency of the X-rays released after an
electron hits the target is when the greatest kinetic
energy is lost, that is hf max= eV.
• Lower frequencies are released when the electrons make
multiple collisions losing energy in stages,
• The minimum wavelength, λ min, of the emitted X-rays is
given by; E=(hc)/λ min

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Example 1
The frequency of X-rays range from 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 to 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 . Determine:
(a) The range of the wavelengths
(b) The maximum energy of X-rays (velocity of light, c = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 and
Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 Js)
Solution
(a) Let 𝝀𝟏 and 𝝀𝟐 be the wavelengths.
c = f 𝝀𝟏
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 x 𝝀𝟏
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝝀𝟏 =
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
= 1.0 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 m
Also, c = f 𝝀𝟐
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 = 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 x 𝝀𝟐
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝝀𝟐 =
3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
= 1.0 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m
thus, the range of the wavelengths is 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m to 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 m
(b) The maximum energy is given by;
𝐄𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐡𝐟𝒎𝒂𝒙
= 6.63 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 x 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗
= 1.989 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 J
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Example 2
An X-ray tube has an accelerating potential difference
of 100 kV. What is the shortest wavelength in its X-ray
beam? (Planck’s constant h = 6.63 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 Js, charge
on electron, e = 1.6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C and velocity of light, c
= 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 ).

Solution
eV = 𝒉𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐜
=h
𝝀𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐡𝐜
𝝀𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝐞𝐕
6.63 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝐗 3.0 x 𝟏𝟎𝟖
=
1.6 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟓
= 1.24 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m
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Uses of X-rays
• Medicine – X-ray photos called
radiographs are used as
diagnostic tools for various
diseases. They are also used to
treat cancer in radiotherapy.
• Industry – they are used to
photograph and reveal hidden
flaws i.e. cracks in metal
casting and welded joints.
• Science – since the spacing of
atomic arrangement causes
diffraction of x-rays then their
structure can be studied through
a process called X-ray
crystallography.
• Security – used in military and
airport installations to detect
dangerous metallic objects i.e.
guns, explosives, grenades etc.

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 Dangers Of X-rays And The Precautions
Dangers of X-rays and How do hospital workers
limit the exposure to Gamma
the precautions. and Xrays?
 They can destroy or
Hospital workers limit
damage living cells when exposure to Gamma and X
over exposed. rays by standing behind lead
shields or by leaving the
 Excessive exposure of room when the radiations are
living cells can lead to being used.
genetic mutation. 1) X-ray machine has lead shield
 As a precautionary to protect the operator from
stray x-rays.
measure X-ray tubes are 2) The rooms of operation have
concrete walls to absorb any
shielded by lead shields. leaking radiation.

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1. State two properties of X – rays
2. State one property of X-rays that show that X-rays are waves
3. State the effect on the nature of x – rays when the heater current is increased
4. Give two uses of x – rays
5. State one danger of x – rays
6. Distinguish between ‘hard and soft’ x – rays
7. State one property of X-rays that show that X-rays are waves
8. State one industrial use of X-rays.
9. State the factor that determines the hardness of the X-rays produced in an X-ray
tube
10. Explain how the intensity of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube is controlled
11. State one difference between hard and soft X – rays.
12. Explain why X-rays are appropriate in study of the crystalline structure
materials.
13. Name the metal used to shield X-rays operators from the radiation. Give
reasons why it is used.
14. State the properties of X-rays, which makes it possible to detect cracks in
bones.
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15. The potential between the anode and the cathode of an x-ray tube is 80KV.
Calculate, The energy of an electron accelerated in the tube.
(Electronic charge e = 1.6 x 10-19C)
16. The accelerating voltage between cathode and anode is 1000V. Calculate
the
(i) Energy possessed by the electrons across the tube.
(ii) Speed of the electrons (take e = 1.6 x 10-19C me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg)
17. An x-ray tube has an accelerating p.d of 50kv. Determine the shortest
wavelength of in its x-ray beam. (Take C=3.0 x 108 ms-1) e = 1.6 x 10-19 h =
6.63 x 10-34Js)
18. An x-ray tube is operating with an anode potential of 20KV and a current
of 40mA. Determine the number of elections hitting the target per second. (
the charge or an electron is 1.6 x 10-19C)
19. An accelerating potential of 20kv is applied to an X-ray tube.
i) What is the velocity with which the electron strikes the target?
ii) State the energy changes that take place at the target.
20. If accelerating voltage in an X-ray tube is 40kV, determine the minimum
wavelength of the emitted X-rays. (Electronic charge = -1.6 x 10-19C, planks
constant = 6.6 x 10 -34Js, velocity of electromagnetic waves = 3.0 x 108ms-1)

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