Geology is the field of knowledge concerning the present and past morphology and structure of the earth, its

environments, and the fossil record of its inhabitants. I also define as the study of earth, the materials of which it is
made, the structure of those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting upon them and is important to civil
engineering because all work performed by civil engineers involves earth and its features.

It has vast subjects embraces all the rocks, soils, water bodies of the earth and the development of life. There are
different ways how geology gives importance to civil engineering fields its study helps the systematic and efficient
exploration and investigation of the crust for mineral deposits.

Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the
geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and accounted for. Engineering geologists provide geological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis,
and design associated with human development and various types of structures. The realm of the engineering geologist
is essentially in the area of earth- structure interactions, or investigation of how the earth or earth processes impact
human made structures and human activities.

Civil engineers who deals with foundations of a structure and works related to dams and tunnels stability of earth slopes
etc. should be knowledgeable of geography, climate, type of soil and geology (rock formation) etc., of the place they are
working in. But to be exact it is not the job of the civil engineer to the whole details of geography of all the places cause
it is for professional geologist to do.

It is important to know that in those projects like dams or foundation of a bridge where we are going to deal with rocks
the full geological details survey should be done by an engineering geologist, not by a civil engineer, But the civil
engineer should understand the geologist's report and the terms used. One of the most important point in there report
is the geological history of the rock formation in the site. Hence in this chapter we will discuss historic geology to be
familiarized with the terms and definitions as used in a geological report.

B. BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

TERM and DEFINITION DESCRIPTION

Geochemistry- is the study of the chemistry of rocks and of the waters and atmosphere Geodesy concerned with the
measuring the form and size of the earth

Geomorphology- is the study of bind forms, their origin and development

Geophysics- the application of the principles of physics to the study of the earth,

Structural Geology- deals with the position of rock bodies, and with tectonic geology interprets the forces causing them
to be deformed at broken,

Mineralogy- is the study of minerals

Oceanography- is the study of the oceans and their basins

Paleontology- is the study of the life of past geologic periods and the evolution of plants and animals whose remains or
traces are found in the rocks..

Petrology- is the systematic study of rocks especially their origin

Physiography- embrace the fields of geomorphology, meteorology, climatology, and oceanography.

Stratigraphy- is the study of layered rocks, chiefly those of sedimentary origin

Agricultural Geology- Is the study of soils, especially of their depletion and erosion

Economic Geology- is a broad field, involving the commercial and industrical uses of the resources of the earth

Engineering Geology- Is the application of the geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the
geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering Works are
recognized and accounted for.

Hydrology- Is the study of surface and underground water

Military Geology- is the application of geological theory to warfare and the peacetime practices of the military,

Mining Geology- is geology applied to the finding and extraction of metallic deposits (ores) and nonmetalic resources
such as coal, building stones, clay, etc.

Petroleum Geology- is the study of the origin and occurrence of petroleum (oil) and natural gas.
Earth Structure

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest planet in the solar system in the terms of size and mass, its
single most outstanding feature is that its near-surface environments are the only places in the universe known to
harbor life,

The structure of the earth is divided into four major components: the crust, the mantle, the outer core and the inner
core, Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface, Movement in
the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. These natural hazards then change our landscape, and in some cases, threaten Ives and property,

The crust makes up less than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of ocean crust and continental crust is often more
felsic rock, The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth's mass, Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The
core makes up about 31% of the Earth.

COMPONENTS OF EARTH CRUST

THE CRUST

Lightest layer and made of silicate materials. Earth's outer surface is its crust, a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of
rock, The crust is very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each with its
own distinctive physical and chemical properties

1. Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or coots deeper down to
create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro.

2. Continental crust-is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average
composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous ricks of the oceanic crust. The lithosphere is the
outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid.

The lithosphere is about 100 Kilometers thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave,
so it includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act
on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.

THE MANTLE

Discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909, Largest part of part Earth with the area of 2,900 km, thick. Mantle is 68% of
earth's volume while the crust is 1% and the core is 31%. The temperature of upper mantle is 1,300 Kelvin and the lower
mantle is 4,000 Kelvin. The two most important things about the mantle are (1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is hot.
Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and meteorites. The
properties fit the ultramatfic rock peridotite, which is made of the iron-and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Peridotite
is rarely found at earth's surface.

Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat flowing outward from it and because of its physical
properties. Heat flows in two different ways within the earth: conduction and convection

1. Conduction-is defined as the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the
material is solid.

2. Convection-is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop convection currents.

THE CORE

At the planet's center lies a dense metallic core, Scientists know that the core is metal for a few reasons. The density of
Earth's surface layers is much less than the overall density of the planet, as calculated from the planet's rotation. If the
surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than average. Calculations indicate that the
core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic
meteorites are thought to be representative of the core. Earth's core were not metal, the planet would not have a
magnet: felt. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not. Scientists know
that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves stop at the inner wire. The strong magnetic field
is caused by convection in the liquid outer core, Correction currents in the outer core are due to heat from the even
hatter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer care from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of radioactive
elements in the inner core.

Outer Core: A magnetic field discovered by Beno Gutenberg in 1913 with a thickness of 2,400 km. The temperature of
the outer care is 3.000 Kelvin to 4,000 Kelvin, The outer core is a liquid,

Inner core: in 1936, Inge Lehman discovered the inner core with a radius of 1,220 km. The temperature of the inner core
is around 3,300 Kelvin to 5,000 Kelvin, Inner core is solid.
D. ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

The movement of the Earth's continents Relative to each other, thus appearing "drift" across the ocean bed

The idea that the continents move around on Earth's surface,

The theory that once all the continents were joined in a super continent which scientist calls Pangaea.

PLATE TECTONICS

The surface of the earth is broken into pieces like a giant jigsaw puzzle. Plate tectonics describe how these pieces move
on Earth's surface.

Tectonics is the study of large scale movement and deformation of the earth's outer layers.

ALFRED WEGENER, a German Climatologist and arctic explorer who suggested the idea of continental drift. He proposed
that all continental landmasses had once formed a single supercontinent, Pangaea (Greek for all lands"), which had then
apart, the modern continents moving to their present positions via a process call continental drift, Wegener found three
main pieces of evidence

Geologic: evidence in the layers of rocks across continents. (Similarities in the coast lines of South America and Africa)

Fossil: evidence in the places certain fossils are found, (Mesosaurus, an aquatic reptile with the fossils limited in the
Permian period and located in Eastern South America and Southwestern Africa. Another fossil found is the lystrosaurus,
a land reptile at has fossil remain in Eastern Africa, India, and Antarctica. Lastly, a fern named glossopteris has fossil
remains in Australia. Africa, South America, Antarctica, and India)

Climate: evidence of changing climates in the past. (Glaciation in Antarctica, Africa, South America, Australia, and India.
300 milion years ago, the continents mentioned are in the one big ice sheet)

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth's subterranean
movements. The theory, which solidied in the 1960's, transformed the earth sciences by explaining many phenomena,
including mountain building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes,

In plate tectonics, Earth's outermost layer, or lithosphere made up of the crust and upper mantle is broken into large
rocky plates, These plates lie on top of a partially molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere. Due to convection of
the asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other at different rates,

from two to 15 centimeters (one to six inches) per year. This interaction of tectonic plates is responsible for many
different geological formations such as the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, the East African Rift, and the San Andreas
Fault in California, United States.

2 TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATE

1. Oceanic plates-made of oceanic crust composed mostly of magnesium and silicon minerals.

2. Continental plates-made of continental crust, composed mostly of aluminum and silicon materials

BOUNDARIES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY

-Plates slide apart from each other

- Moves in opposite directions

- Volcanic activity produces a mid ocean ridge and small earthquakes

2. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY

-Plates move agains each other

-One plate goes underneath another plate

-Volcanoes and mountains are formed of these boundaries

3. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY

-Occur between plates which move

-past each other by sliding

-Plates gets minimal damage

-Locations of these boundaries are called FAULTS

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, submarine ridge lying along the north-south axis of Atlantic Ocean, it occupies the central part of
the basin between a series of flat abyssal plains that continue to the margins of the continental coasts. The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge is in effect an immensely long mountain chain extending for about 10,000 miles (18,000 km.) in a curving path
from the Arctic Ocean to near southern tip of Africa. The ridge is equidistant between the continents on either side of it.
The mountains forming the ridge reach a width of 1,000 miles. These mountains sometimes reach above sea level, thus,
forming islands or island groups of the Azores, Ascencion, St. Helena and Tristan de Cunha, among others, The Mid-
Atlantic Ridge is an example of divergent plate boundaries,

Ring of Fire, long horseshoe-shaped seismically active belt of earthquake epicenters, volcanoes and tectonic plate
boundaries that fringes the Pacific basin. For much of its 40,000 km. (24,900-mile) length, the belt follows chains of
island arcs such as Tonga and New Hebrides, the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines, Japan, the Kuril Islands. and
the Aleutians, as we all other arc-shaped geomorphic features, such as the western coast of North America and this
Andes Mountains.

How do plate tectonics affect humans

Plate tectonics affects humans in several important ways.

+It causes earthquakes

+It causes volcanism

+It induces the recycling of elements within the biosphere and between the geosphere and biosphere.

+It causes mountain-building.

7 MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES

1. South American Plate (43,600,000 sq km)

2. Indo-Australian Plate (58,900,000 sq km),

3. Antarctic Plate (60,900,000 sq km)

4. African Plate (61,300,000 sq km)

5. Eurasian Plate ( 67,800,000 sq km)

6. North American Plate (75,900,000 sq km)

7. Pacific Plate (103,300,000 sq km)

EARTH PROCESSES
Earth Process- dynamic actions inside the earth's surface.
Constructive process-any process that builds earth material or landforms (eg, erosion,
transportation of sediments).
Destructive process-any process that breaks down earth material or destroy landforms
(eg weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruption)

EARTH PROCESS BY WIND:

1. EROSION
a. DEFLATION
-Process of wind removing loose material from flat dry areas, uncemented sediments
-Occurs in deserts, dry lake beds, floodplains, and glacial washout plains
b. ABRASION
-Scraping of rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles

2. TRANSPORTATION
-The total sediment load carried by a wind can be devided into two
a. Bed load
-larger and heavier particles such as sands or gravels
-moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the earth surface
b. Suspended load
-finer clay or dust particles which are led by the moving winds by a distance of hundreds of
meters above the earths surface.

3. DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT
-sediments gel dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits
a. Sand dunes
-huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind blown sand
-sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape
-often found to migrate from one place to another due to change in the direction and
velocity of wind

3 Types of Sand Dunes:

1. Barchans or Crescent-Shape dunes
Most common occurrence and triangular in section
Steep side:
-facing away from the direction of wind
-inclined at an angle of about 33 to 33
Gentle side:
-lies on the windward side
-makes an angle about to 10 to 15
-maximum height: 335 meters
-horn to hom width: 350 meters
2. Transverse Dunes
- similar to a barchan in section
-not curved in plan the barchans
-its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing wind
3. Longitudinal Dunes
-elongated ridges of sand with their longer was broadly parallel in the direction of the
prevailing wind.
-3 m. height and 200 m. long in average

b. Loess
a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment of which extensive
deposits occur.

BY WATER (COASTAL PROCESSES):

1. EROSION
-wearing away of rock along the coastline
-caused by destructive waves on the coastline
-occurs where waves have direct contact with the rock
a. Hydraulic action-this is the sheer power of the waves as they smash agains the cliff. Air
becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with explosive force causing the
rock ta break apart
b. Abrasion- his is when pebbles grind along a rock platform of cliff base much like
sandpaper, Over time the rock becomes smooth
c. Attrition- this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They
break apart to become smaller and more rounded:
d. Solution/Corrosion-this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks, in the UK,
chalk and limestone clifts (salt rock) are prone to this type of erosion

2. TRANSPORTATION
a. Solution- when minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea water and
then carried in solution. The load is not visible.
b. Suspension- small particles such as silts and clays are suspended in the flow of the
water.
c. Saltation- where small pieces of stringle or large sand grains are bounced along the
seabed.
d. Traction- where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the seabed.
3. MASS MOVEMENT
a. Rockfall- bits of rock fall of the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering
b. Mudflow- saturated soil flows down a slope
c. Landslide- large blocks of rock side downhill
d. Rotational slip- saturated soil slumps down a curved surface.

4. DEPOSITION
when the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying occur on coastlines that
have constructive waves.
Factors leading to deposition include
a. waves starting to slow down and lose energy
c. sheltered areas
b. shallow water
d. little or no wind

F. WEATHERING
Weathering-breakdown of rocks at earth's surface under the influence of certain physical and
chemical agencies.
Factors affecting Weathering:
1. Nature of racks
2. Length of time
3. Climate

TYPES OF WEATHERING
1.PHYSICAL WEATHERING
-is caused by the effects of changing temperatures on rocks, causing the rock to break apart,
The process is sometimes assisted by water, It happens especially in places where there is
little soil and few plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts. It occurs either
through repeated melting and freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or through
expansion and contraction of the surface layer of rocks that are baked by the sun (hot
deserts). There are three main types of physical weathering.
a. Abrasion It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to water, wind and gravity.
b. Freeze-thaw-it occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands,
eventually breaking the rock apart, It occurs in mountainous regions like the Alps or
Snowdonia.
c. Exfoliation-It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface as a
consequence of the reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion. It occurs typically in
upland areas where there are exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline igneous rocks.

2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
-Chemical weathering is caused by rainwater reaching with the mineral grains in rocks to a
new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when the water is
slightly acidic. These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher
temperature, so warm, damp climates are best. Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis
and oxidation) the first stage in the production of soils,
There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:
a. Carbonation-carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.
This weak "carbonic acid" can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over
many years, solution of the rock can form spectacular cave system
b. Hydrolysis-the breakdown of rock by sad water to produce day and soluble salts.
Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to
produce day and salts that are removed in solution. The only common rock-forming mineral
that is not affected is quartz, which is a chemically resistant mineral. Therefore, quartz and
clay are the two of the most common minerals in sedimentary rocks.
c. Hydration- a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks,
modifying chemical structure Example: H20 (water) is added to Ca504 calcium sulfate) to
create CaS04+2H20 (calcium sulfate dehydrate,) it changes from anhydrite to gypsum d.
Oxidation-the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-
colored weathered surface.
Enter
3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
-Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological
agents like plants and animals. When plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fracture and
cracks that result eventually to rock breakage. It can be classified Into.
a. Biological Weathering by Physical Means - Burrowing animals like shrews, moles and
earthworms create holes on the ground by excavation and move the rock fragments to the
surface. These fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors that can
further enhance their weathering, Furthermore, humans also indirectly contribute to
biological weathering by different activities that cause rocks to break,
b. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds-Some plants and animals also
produced acidic substances that react with the rock and cause its slow disintegration.

G. WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE

Rivers -the rivers have a beginning which is called head. The place where as river ends in
the sea or lake is called mouth, in all the cases, the slope of the rivers at the head is high so
that it can carry all the materials (the coarse and fine weathered products) from the parent
rocks down

PLAYFAIR'S LAW (FUNCTION OF A RIVER)

-this law indicates how deep valleys and landforms have been formed
-those landforms have been formed by the three geologic functions of the rivers
JOHN PLAYFAIR

-Scottish Geologist and mathematician.

-March 20. 1748 ( Benvie Forfarshire, Scotland)
-Died July 20, 1819
-Explanation and expansion of ideas on uniformitarianism.
-He was the first to propose that a river cuts its own valley and was also the first to
recognize the transport role of glaciers.

Juvenile or Youth Stage (Upper Course)

This is the stage of high downward vertical erosion, It develops the following characteristics
formations:
a. V-shaped valleys
b. Gorges and canyons
c. Rapids and cataracts (Rapids of greater dimensions are known as cataracts)
d. Waterfalls
e. Holes
f. Piracy (capturing of a streamlet that flowed into one river another stream that bows into
another fiver)

Maturity Stage (Middle Course)

The is the middle course of a river where the gradient is gentler and the river valley
becomes wide, leading to the following features:
a. Meanders- the term meander is derived from river Meanderz in Turkey, which flows in
loops In the wide plains the river may be made to bend and take a curve due to some
obstructions. Then the velocity around the outside bend becomes very much higher and
hence the river cuts down the river bank. As erosion cuts away bank on one side and
deposition takes place on the opposite side, the river migrates laterally and produces a
meandering river.
b. Flood plain- the flood plains occur in the middle course of the river that has formed its
maturity. The valley characteristics are absent and the river flows along a wide and flatter
region, Overflow of the banks and flooding happens during floods. This leaves behind
deposits of silt on both sides. These are called flood plains.
c. Levees-the natural embankments formed by the river in the flood plains are called
levees, As the floodwater in the river spills on the flood plains it loses plains it loses energy
and coarse materials are deposited at the edges. Over the years raised edges are formed
which are called levee.

Old Age (Lower Course)

- in the last stages of the river just before it joins the sea or lake, the flow becomes gentle as
the slope of the river in considerable reduced. If joins the sea, there are waves, sea currents
and also change in the salinity of water. The suspended material is deposited. If the amount
of material is not large then it will be carried away by the sea by its currents and waves.
The three stages or courses do not depend on the age of the river but on the present
performance of the river at a given place which on the present performance of the river at a
given place which depends on many present factors. It is also interesting to consider the
two basic physiographic concepts in river flow that of (a) base level and (b) profile
of equilibrium which varies with the flow.
a. Base level-this is the level that controls the depth of the stream erosion. No stream base
level can be below the sea level. A base level is the depth limit of the valley and is controlled
by the water level in the body of water into which it flows down (ocean, sea, lakes, etc.)
b. Profile of equilibrium-a stream is said to have reached its grade or profile of
equilibrium when its slope and volume of water it carries are in equilibrium with the
sediment load it transports. The annual and seasonal fluctuations in volume and velocity
bring about continual readjustments of their profile.

Wind
-the movement of air over the surface of the earth is called wind, Wind performs all the three
functions of erosion, transportation and deposition of the weathered products. The wind
deposits are also called Aeolian deposits.
Sea
-Seas and oceans covered 70% of the Earth's surface. The term "sea" is generally used for
saline water bodies surrounded by landforms and also water bodies of shallower depth less
than 4 km,

Formation of the shoreline

Sea waves- the waves are created by the winds. This disturbance travels to the coast and
gets its energy destroyed, The distance between the crests of adjacent waves is the
wavelength in the deep part of the sea, waves are only oscillatory (goes only up and down).
These are called oscillatory waves,

LANDFORM FORMED BY MARINE EROSION OF ROCKS ON SEACOASTS

-SEA CLIFFS
-SEA CAVES, ARCHES, STACKS AND STUMPS
-WAVE-CUT PLATFORMS

FORMATION OF LANDFORMS BY COASTAL DEPOSITION ‘

-the sediments entering the sea are carried away by the sea waves and deposited in the sea
or alternately it may be taken to the other parts of the seacost, Deposits on the coast forms
the landforms called beaches, spits and bars,
BEACHES-These are formed by the deposition of sand and gravel along the coast, in theory,
beach is the zone extending from low water sea level to upper limit of high water.
SPITS-spit is a long and narrow extension of the beach into the sea. They are sand deposits
formed by shore drifts.
BARS-bars are long deposits of sand formed in the sea parallel to the shoreline. This may be
above or below the sea level. Thoses above the sea level are called barrier beach.
TOMBOLO if the bar forms a link to the mainland the link is known as a tomobolo
LAGOON-a bar spit can enclose a portion of the sea
SEAWALLS-their faces may be vertical, sloping or parabolic to produce as little force on the
wall as possible,
BULKHEADS are made of steel or concrete or limber piles and they are used where the
impact of waves is not very large,

CONSTRUCTION OF REVETMENTS
Revetments against the coast are usually built with large stone or concrete block big enough
to resist the force of the waves placed on each other, It should also be built high enough to
prevent overtopping of the ordinary waves. For economy, the height may be such that storm
waves may just spill over
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost
: Origin and Occurrence of Earthquake
OBJECTIVE
• To give basic information about the probable causes of occurrence of earthquakes.
• To give their mode of occurrence and places of occurrence.
• To give details of their effects, particularly from the civil engineering point of view.
• To give possible measures to prevent damage to civil engineering structures due to earthquakes.

INTRODUCTION
The physical forces the surfaces are rearranging rock materials by shifting magmas about altering the structures of solid
rocks. The adjustment beneath the surface however involve various crystal movements, some of which because of
suddenness and intensity produce tremors in the rocks and they are known as earthquake. The science dealing with the
study of earthquakes in all their aspects is called seismology.

EARTHQUAKE TERMINOLOGY
1. The place of origin of the earthquake in the interior of the earth is known as focus or origin or center or hypocenter.
2. The place on the earth’s surface, which lies exactly above the center of the earthquake, is known as the epicenter.
The point which is diametrically opposite to the epicenter is called anticenter.
3. The imaginary line which joins the center and the epicenter is called the seismic vertical.
4. An imaginary line joining the points of same intensity of the earthquake is called an isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins the points at which the earthquake waves have arrived at the earth’s surface is called a
coseismal.
6. The enormous energy released from the focus at the same time of the earthquake is transmitted in all directions in
the form of waves, known as seismic waves.
7. A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each
other.

CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence, earthquakes are described as tectonic or nontectonic.
➢ Tectonic Earthquakes – are exclusively due to internal causes, i.e. due to disturbances or adjustments of geological
formations taking place in the earth’s interior.

➢ Non-tectonic Earthquakes – are generally due to external or surficial causes. (Of course, earthquakes which occur due
to volcanic eruptions are also termed as non-tectonic earthquakes). Such earthquakes occur due to a variety of reasons,
some of which are as follows:
1. Due to huge waterfalls: When huge quantities of water pound a particular place, tremor develop in the ground there.
2. Due to avalanches: Avalanches are generally the parts of valley glaciers which get detached from the main body
under certain circumstances and hence roll down with considerable momentum along the steep slopes of mountains.
When they hit the ground forcefully minor tremors will produce.
3. Due to meteorites: Meteorites are heavenly bodies of various sizes wandering in the space. When they come under
the influence of the earth’s gravity field, they suddenly fall on earth’s surface. Their violent impact creates tremors on
the ground.
4. Due to the occurrence of sudden and major landslides: The impact of such landslides will be capable of causing
earthquakes.
5. Due to volcanic eruption: Most of the volcanoes erupt quietly and as consequence, initiate no vibration on the
adjoining area. But a few of them when erupt, cause feeble tremors in the surface of the earth. But there may be still a
volcanic eruption may cause a severe vibration on the adjoining area and have really disastrous effects.
6. Due to tsunamis: Tsunamis are the giant sea waves formed due to submarine earthquakes. They move shorewards
and dash against the coastline violently sometimes causing earthquakes.
7. Due to manmade explosions: During mining the economic mineral deposits and during quarrying the building
material, many are carried out. These naturally produce tremors locally.
8. Minor tremors may also develop due to collapse of caves, tunnels, etc.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Earthquake vibrations originate from the focus and are propagated in all directions. These vibrations travel through the
rocks in the form of elastic waves. Mainly, there are three types of waves called P waves, S waves and L waves. Of
course, there are subvarieties among them. The important features of these three kinds of waves are as follows:
➢ P waves
These are variously called primary waves, push-pull waves, preliminary waves, longitudinal waves, compressional waves,
etc. These are the fastest among the seismic waves. They travel as fast as 8 to 13 km per second. Therefore, when an
earthquake occurs, these are the first waves to reach any seismic station and hence the first to be recorded. The P waves
resemble sound waves because these too are compressional or longitudinal waves in nature.
➢ S waves
These are also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc. Compared to P. waves, these are relatively
slow. They travel at the rate of 5 to 7 km per second. For this reason, these waves are always recorded after P waves in a
seismic station.
➢ L waves
These are called long waves or surface waves. These are the slowest among the seismic waves. Therefore, these are the
last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of the earthquake. They travel at the rate of 4 to 5
km per second. These are called surface waves because their journey is confined to the surface of the earth only. They
are complex in nature and are said to be of two kinds, namely, Rayleigh waves and Love waves.

Paths followed by P, S and L waves generated by an earthquake F and recorded at R; and a seismogram sketch

INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE
The intensity of an earthquake refers to the degree of destruction caused by it. In other words, intensity of an
earthquake is a measure of severity of the shaking of ground and its attendant damage. This of course, is empirical to
some extent because the extent of destruction or damage takes place to a construction at a given place depends on
many factors. Some of these factors are as follows:
1. Distance from the epicentre: Destruction decreases with increasing distance from the epicentre, Therefore, this is an
important factor of influence in terms of damage caused to a construction.
2. Compactness of the underlying ground: If the ground over which a construction exists is loose or fractured, the
extent or damage due to an earthquake will be relatively less because the shock waves are absorbed effectively by such
ground.
3. Type of construction: All other factors being equal, a properly reinforced construction will suffer less damage while a
weak, non-reinforced structure gets affected badly.
4. Magnitude of the earthquake: The term magnitude refers to the absolute energy released at the time of the
earthquake. Naturally; earthquakes with a greater magnitude cause greater destruction and vice versa.
5. Duration of the earthquake: Earthquakes, generally are of short duration. They normally last only a few tens of
seconds. Rarely do they last over a minute. The duration of the earthquakes is very important because the destructive
effects increase greatly with an increase in the length of time.
6. Depth of the focus: The extent of damage depends on the depth of the focus. Very shallow earthquakes cause only
local damage.

The Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale

The seismic intensity scale most widely used today is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale (1931), as modified in
1956.
The Mercalli Scale was devised by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry O. wood and frank Neumann in
1931, in which intensity is considered to be more uniformly graded. The 1931 MM scale was revised in 1965 to conform
to construction and cultural practices in New Zealand. Four categories of masonry construction are defined, with effects
included at appropriate levels. Regarding to cultural practices, an item receiving special attention is the domestic water
tank (cylindrical corrugated iron, soldered, or riveted seams), which is compliance in rural areas.

Intensit Type Acceleration Effect produced

y in mm/sec^2
I Instrumental < 10 Not felt by people; recorded only by seismic instruments
II Very feeble > 10 Felt by people at rest only
III Slight > 25 Felt by people indoors. The vibration is felt like the passing of a truck.
IV Moderate > 50 Sensation similar to a heavy truck striking a building. Loose objects
disturbed; walls make a cracking sound.
V Rather strong > 100 Unstable objects are overturned. Many are awakened if sleeping;
dishes broken, belts ring, pendulum clocks stop.
VI Strong > 250 Felt by all, slight damage to constructions, heavy furniture moved,
cracking of plasters of walls, etc
VII Very Strong > 500 General alarm, felt by people moving in vehicles, weak structures are
considerably damaged.
VIII Destructive > 1000 Heavy furniture overturned, substantial damage to many buildings, etc.
IX Ruinous > 2500 Pipes are broken, ground cracks, great damage even to good
constructions including partial collapse, etc.
X Disastrous > 5000 Twisting of rails, many buildings destroyed.
XI Very Disastrous > 7500 Collapse of bridges, broad fissures develop in the ground, very few
structures are left standing.
XII Catastrophic > 9800 Objects thrown upward into the air, waves seen on ground surface,
total destruction.

Richter Scale Richter

Magnitude Scale or Local Magnitude Scale. Earthquake magnitude is reported using the Richter scale from the motions
measured by seismic instruments. The Richter scale/ Richter magnitude scale (ML)was named after Charles Francis
Richter who developed it in 1935. Richter showed that, the larger the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the larger the
amplitude of ground motion at a given distance. He calibrated his scale of magnitudes using measured maximum
amplitudes of shear waves on seismometers particularly sensitive to shear waves with periods of about one second. The
records had to be obtained from a specific kind of instrument, called a Wood-Anderson seismograph. It is a base-10
logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude (shaking amplitude) of the
largest displacement from zero on a particular type of seismometer (Wood–Anderson torsion). So, for example, an
earthquake that measures 5.0 on the Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times larger than one that measures 4.0.
The effective limit of measurement for local magnitude ML is about 6.8.

Sources of Groundwater
1. Meteoric Water - It is water derived from precipitation.
2. Connate water - this is the water present in the rock right from the time of its deposition in an aqueous environment.
It is commonly saline in nature.
3. Juvenile water - is also called magnetic water, it is the water formed in crevices or cracks or pores of cracks by
condensation of the steam emanating from the molten masses. It is of only theoretical importance.

The Water Table

The saturated zone is the subsurface zone in which all rock openings are filled with water.
Water table - the upper surface of the zone of saturation.
Vadose zone - a subsurface zone in which rock openings are generally unsaturated and filled partly with air and partly
with water, above the saturated zone.
Capillary fringe - a transition zone with higher moisture content at the base of the vadose zone just above the water
table.
Perch water table - the top of a body of groundwater separated from the main water table beneath it by a zone that is
not saturated.
The Movement of Ground Water
-Most groundwater moves relatively slowly through the rock underground
- Because it moves in response to differences in water pressure and elevation, water within the upper part of the
saturated zone tends to move downward following the slope of the water table.

Water Bearing Qualities of Rocks

Aquifer
- water-bearing porous soil or rock strata that yield significant water to wells or through which water can move easily. -
good aquifers include sandstone, conglomerate, well-jointed limestone, bodies of sand and gravel, and some fragmental
or fractured volcanic rocks such as columnar basalt.
Aquiclude
- any water-bearing soil or rock that may be porous enough to hold a good quantity of water but is effectively
impermeable they do not allow an easy or quick flow through it. Example: shale, slate, clays
Aquifuge
- is an impermeable formation through which there is no possibility of storage or movement of water. Water-bearing soil
or rock that retards the flow of groundwater. Example: compact interlocking granites, quartzites, slits, mudstones
Aquitard
- It is a less common term used for an aquifuge or aquiclude that has become locally leaky due to the development of
joints or cracks.

Types of Aquifers
1. Unconfined aquifer – partially filled aquifer expose to the land surface and marked by a rising and falling water table.
Water is in direct contact with the atmosphere through the porous material.
-allows transferring of gases and water
2. Confined Aquifer (Artesian Aquifer) – an aquifer filled with pressurized water and separated from the land surface by
a relatively impermeable bed, such as shale.
-Also called artesian; these are under pressure

Hot Water Underground

Hot Springs - springs in which the water is warmer than the human body temperature

Water can gain heat in two ways while underground:

-groundwater may circulate near a magma chamber or a body of cooling igneous rock
-groundwater may circulate unusually deep in the earth

Geyser - a type of hot spring that periodically erupts hot water and stream, the water is generally near boiling (100
degrees Celcius)

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.

ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF

EARTHQUAKE
Introduction
Earthquakes are among the
most deadly natural hazards.
There are around 100
earthquakes each year
of a size that could cause
serious damage. They strike
without warning and many of
the Earth’s
earthquake zones coincide with
areas of high population
density. When large
earthquakes occur in such
areas the results can be
catastrophic, with terrible loss
of human lives and untold
economic cost.
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a
quake, tremor or temblor) is the
shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth’s
lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
Earthquake terminology
1. Focus/hypocenter is the place
of origin of the earthquake in
the interior of the earth.
2. Epicenter is the place on the
earth’s surface, which lies
exactly above the center of the
earthquake.
The point which is diametrically
opposite to the epicenter is
called anticentre.
3. Seismic waves- The
enormous energy released from
the focus at the same time of
the earthquake is
transmitted in directions in the
form of waves.
4. An imaginary line joining the
points of same intensity of the
earthquake is called an
isoseismal.
5. An imaginary line which joins
the points at which the
earthquake waves have arrived
at the earth’s
surface is called a coseismal.
6. The imaginary line which
joins the centre and the
epicenter is called the seismic
vertical.
7. Fault – a fracture in rocks
that make up the earth’s crust.
Origin of earthquake
An earthquake is caused by a
sudden slip on a fault. The
tectonic plates are always
slowly
moving, but they get stuck at
their edges due to friction.
When the stress on the edge
overcomes the friction, there is
an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel
through
the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics is the generally
accepted scientific theory that
considers the Earth’s
lithosphere
to comprise a number of large
tectonic plates which have been
slowly moving since about 3.4
billion years ago.