PHM 2305
Color Schemes
Sources:
Elements of Cartography , Six edition:
PennState College of Earth and Mineral Science:
ITC, The Netherlands.
What is colour
• The perception of colour is a complex process involving a physical
stimulus (electromagnetic radiation), the physiological reaction of the
eye and psychological reaction of the brain to the signals sent by the
eye along the optic nerve to the brain.
• It is important to remember that the colours we perceive in fact exist
only in our brains.
• Newton’s classic experiment, in which he passed a
narrow beam of sunlight through a glass prism, to
separate the visible wavelengths and display the
spectrum
Introduction
• The Red-Green-Blue (RGB) definition of color is based
on the additive mixing principle of color and is directly
related to the way in which computer and television
screens function.
Explanation
• When we look at the result, our brain combines the
stimuli from the red, green and blue dots and enables
us to perceive all possible colors from the visible part
of the spectrum.
• During the combination, the three colors are added.
We see yellow when green dots are illuminated in
addition to red ones.
Explanation
• This principle is called the additive color scheme.
Figure below illustrates the additive colors caused by
activating red, green and blue dots on a monitor.
• When only red and green light is emitted, the result is
yellow. In the central area, there are equal amounts of
light emitted from all three dots, so we experience
white.
Comparison of the (a) additive and (b) subtractive colour schemes.
Explanation
• In the additive colour scheme, all visible colors can be
expressed as combinations of red, green and blue, and
can therefore be plotted in a three-dimensional space
with R, G and B each being one of the axes.
• The space is bounded by minimum and maximum
values for red, green and blue, thus defining what is
known as the colour cube.
• The Figure below the normalized colour cube; the
maximum value for each colour is set to 1.
The RGB cube. Note
the red, green and
blue corner points
Nature of Colour
• Colour is a perceptual phenomenon, product of our
mental processing of electromagnetic radiation
detected by our eyes.
• One important aspect of color is our response to
spectral colors of the visible spectrum.
• Another is the fact that we see reflected color,
resulting from selective absorption of visible radiation
by different features
Spectral color
• The visual sensation of light occurs because receptors
in our eyes are stimulated by electromagnetic
radiation of certain wavelength.
• The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from short-
wavelength gamma rays and X-rays to long-
wavelength radio waves used in the broad-casting
industry, (see figure below)
A portion of electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths shown
in nanometers. Only a small portion of the entire spectrum is
visible
Spectral color
• Only wavelengths in a tiny portion of the spectrum
namely those with “visible” wavelengths ranging from
approximately 400 to 700 nm- stimulate the receptors
in our eyes.
• This tiny visible portion of the spectrum corresponds
with the sun’s peak radiation emission as our eyes are
fine-tuned to our energy source.
Spectral color
• When the sun or another source of illumination emits
the full range of visible wavelengths in suitable
portions, our brain interprets the electrical signals
from the receptor in our eyes as white light.
• Since Isaac Newton’s optics experiments in the 1670s,
we have known that white light can be separated into
a continuum of component wavelengths by refraction
through a prism.
• When this continuum enters our eyes, the signals
from our visual receptors are transformed by our
mind into the sensation of hue (blue, yellow, green,
red, and so on)
Spectral color
• The shorter wavelengths are seen as the violet-blues,
near the 400 nm end of the spectrum: the longer
wavelengths as the reds near the 700 nm end.
• The order of these “spectral” hues is that of the
rainbow, and is shown in the figure above.
• Pure spectral colors are not often seen except when
white light is reflected, but they provide most of the
basic names we use to identify hues (violet, blue,
green, yellow, orange, and red. )
• Note that their order is significant in cartography.
Reflected color
• The colors we see in the nature and in all fabricated
things, including maps, are rarely spectral hues but
instead are almost always made by combinations or
reflected wavelengths.
• This is because surfaces illuminated by white light
absorb differing proportions of some of the
wavelength and reflect the reminder.
• Graphs of spectral reflectance curves help us to
understand reflected color as figure below
Four spectral reflectance
curves:
A)A white surface
B)A “greenish blue” ink
C)A “red purple” ink
D)A dark grey surface
Reflected color
• For example, curve “A” could be from a white surface
such a typing or printing paper.
• From such a surface, sunlight reflectance is uniformly
high throughout the visible spectrum.
• Such wavelength by-wavelength surface reflectance
data are collected using an instrument called a
spectrophotometer.
• Curve ‘D’ might be measurement from a dark grey
printed area from which the reflectance is uniformly
low.
Reflected color
• Curve ‘B’ could be from a “greenish blue” inked area.
• From such an area, all wave-lengths except those in
the blue and green portions of the spectrum are
heavily absorbed.
• Curve “C” could be from a “red-purple” inked area,
since green and yellow are heavily absorbed.
• Ordinary surfaces such as paper partially covered by
ink, will reflect at least a small proportion of all visible
wavelengths, even if the ink is black
• The color we see comes from the wavelengths which
are reflected the most.
Types of color schemes
• Sequential,
• Diverging,
• Qualitative
Sequential
• Most popular color schemes used in thematic mapping.
• They are excellent for demonstrating the order of data
values
• They are effective on their own
• They are often designed with multiple harmonious hues,
• The multi-hued nature of these color schemes can make
it easier for viewers to discriminate between all data
classes on the map.
• They also often create more aesthetically-pleasing
visualizations.
Sequential color schemes
using color lightness
Credit: Cary Anderson, Penn State University;
color specifications via ColorBrewer2.org.
Sequential color schemes
using color lightness and
color hue
Credit: Cary Anderson, Penn State University; color specifications
via ColorBrewer2.org.
Sequential
• When hue is paired with lightness it can create a
dramatic effect in a sequential map.
• When making such maps, ensure that they accurately
reflect the progression of the data that you have.
• It is challenging to create an effective sequential color
scheme that relies heavily on hue.
Diverging
• They demonstrate order.
• Instead of showing a single progression, like
sequential, they visualize the distance of all values
from a critical point.
• These color schemes work well for depicting data
that have a critical middle value or class (such as
maps showing percent change).
• A diverging color scheme works well where the data
has a natural midpoint, for it permits the reader to
easily identify values on the map as either above or
below that value.
Diverging Color
Schemes
Example:
Choropleth map
Credit: Cary Anderson, Penn State University; color specifications via
ColorBrewer2.org.
Diverging color scheme
• An important consideration when applying a diverging color scheme
is whether your data has a critical break or a critical class.
• Using a diverging scheme with a critical class will highlight a critical
group of areas on any map, as well as those above and below.
A critical break will show all areas as
either above or below a critical value –
there is no “neutral” color class in this
scheme.
Diverging schemes also do not always
have to be symmetrical. Critical
break/class will often be near the
center of the data range.
Diverging schemes with a critical class (left),
and critical break (right).
Qualitative color scheme
• These schemes are used to demonstrate differences—but not
order—between map features.
Qualitative Color Schemes.
Credit: Cary Anderson, Penn State University; color specifications via ColorBrewer2.org.
Qualitative color scheme
• Are often used when creating maps of political
boundaries, or to create categorical choropleth maps.
• As the term choropleth is composed of the Greek
words for “area/region” and “multitude,” it is
technically incorrect to refer to a map of nominal
values as a choropleth map, despite the characteristic
enumeration-unit shading such maps employ.
• These maps should instead be called chorochromatic
maps.
Qualitative color scheme
• The most common use of qualitative color schemes in
mapping is in land use/land cover maps.
• These maps seek to demonstrate category (e.g., Build
up areas vs. forest) but not to demonstrate order.
Qualitative color scheme
• The (color vision unimpaired) human eye can
discriminate between about twelve different hues;
dependent on the reader and the design of the map,
often even less.
• Many maps, and land use/land cover maps in particular,
contain more than this number of categories.
• A frequent strategy is to group categories into hue classes
(e.g., green for vegetation) and then to use lightness and
saturation to create intra-class differences.
Example: Green hue is used for forest, and lightness
variations are used to differentiate between forest types
Graphs
• These are used to map data and display information one
need. They are used to illustrate data trends, relationship
distributions or proportions of the data.
• The purpose of mapping helps decide on the type of graph
one has to use.
• The user of the graphs also determine the data to use in
the graphs
• The relationship between the variables, different groups of
variables to compare different groups of variables or track
changes over time
• Deciding on what to do one will select the appropriate
types of graphs to use
Graphs
• There are several different kinds of graphs.
• Some graphs are better than others at presenting
certain kinds of information.
• Each graph has display properties that one can adjust
to suit what one needs.
• Various graph types can be used to experiment and
display properties to see which will best depict the
information one need to convey.
Types of Graphs –Bar
• Bar graphs consist of two or more parallel rectangles,
each representing a particular attribute value.
• These graphs are used to compare amounts or to
show trends—for example, monthly rainfall amounts.
• The bars can be oriented vertically or horizontally.
Histogram
• A histogram graph is a subtype of the vertical bar
graph that shows the frequency distribution of values.
A bar min and max graph
• A bar min and max graph highlights the minimum and
maximum values of a series of data.
Line graph
• A line graph consists of one or more lines connecting
successive attribute values.
• Symbols can be plotted for the values along the line.
• Line graphs show trends in values along a continuous
scale.
• The lines can be oriented horizontally or vertically.
Area graphs
• An area graph draws a straight line between
successive attribute values and fills in the area
between the line and the axis.
• Like line graphs, area graphs show trends in values,
but the shading gives greater emphasis to differences
in quantities.
• The areas can be oriented horizontally or vertically.
Scatterplot graph
• A scatterplot graph uses the attribute values as x,y
coordinates to plot points.
• The pattern may reveal a relationship between the
values plotted on the grid.
Box plot graph
• A boxplot graph is an efficient way to display the
statistical distribution of values.
• The box component indicates how spread out the
middle 50 percent of the data is, the lines extending
from the box are the range of values multiplied by a
factor outside the spread, and any points are outliers.
• Box plots are also known as box whisker plots.
Bubble graph
• The bubble graph lets you chart three variables in two
dimensions.
• It's a variation of the scatter graph, where the size of
the bubble represents a particular data value.
• For example, the size of the bubble might represent
total population; the position along the y-axis, birth
rate; and the position along the x-axis, death rate.
Polar graph
• The polar graph lets one chart variables on a circular
grid based on an angle or direction.
• Polar graphs are useful primarily in mathematical and
statistical applications.
• For example, one can chart the wind direction for
different x,y locations.
Pie graph
• The pie graph consists of a circle ("pie") divided into
two or more sections (slices or wedges).
• Pie charts show relationships between parts and the
whole and are particularly useful for showing
proportions and ratios.
• One can highlight a pie slice by "exploding" it—
moving it slightly away from the center.
Scatterplot matrix graph
• A scatterplot matrix graph is a data exploration tool
that plots several variables on the same graph.
• Scatterplot matrix graphs can be used to visualize and
help identify patterns and relationships between the
variables.
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