International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)

Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

The Evolution of Information and Communication

Technologies:
Towards uses oriented collaborative practices

Sabrina Boulesnane Benaissa Monia

Iaelyon, University Business School, Magellan laboratory Iaelyon, University Business School, Magellan laboratory
Lyon, France Lyon, France
Email: sabrina.boulesnane [AT] univ-lyon3.fr Email: monia.benaissa [AT] univ-lyon3.fr

Bouzidi Laïd
Iaelyon, University Business School, Magellan laboratory
Lyon, France
Email: laid.bouzidi [AT] univ-lyon3.fr

Abstract— In all sectors of activity, knowledge is the most important strategic lever for the management and
important strategic lever in the organizations’ management. The organizations’ development. Knowledge management and
informational practices induced by Web technologies and data business intelligence are the foundations of creativity and
exploitation are accompanied by a paradigm that disrupts the innovation. The global companies’ performance relies on the
process of sharing and communicating information in knowledge acquired and its capitalization by human resources.
organization. Knowledge generated by human and social We propose to investigate the following research question:
activities broadens the scope of knowledge management systems. How do the digital revolutions, in particular the approaches
New forms of technologies are changing system’s design resulting from Web technologies and big data, allow
approaches. It is on these evolving aspects of Information and
understanding the evolution of Knowledge Management’s
Communication Technologies (ICT) that we will highlight the
Systems and intelligence process? In this context, we faced a
different challenges faced by organizations. In reviewing the
literature on ICTs, several researches work highlight the double challenge: what is the field covered and what are the
importance of digital revolutions in the development of IS in main viewpoints related to Knowledge Management Systems?
general, and in particular Knowledge Management (KM) Our research perimeter is considered as multidisciplinary,
systems. In order to understand the evolution of KM Systems, we focusing on functional, organizational, technological, human,
carry out the postulate that different angles of view have a social and societal dimensions. Although we often associate
positive correlation with our research perimeter: We identify digital progress with technological revolutions, we must
that collaborative practices and decision-making approach are consider human and social resource aspects.
positively related to Knowledge Management systems’ design.
The conceptual model links our hypothesis with the concept of
The new informational practices developed by Web
knowledge management systems. We develop a conceptual model technologies are accompanied by a paradigm that disrupts the
according to a review of literature in information science. process of sharing and communicating information. The
Research finding can be used for designing Knowledge knowledge generated, by human and social activities, broadens
Management systems. Several actors can benefit from the the scope of knowledge management and business intelligence
repercussions on a pragmatic level. System designers can identify systems. The collaborative and strategic dimension and new
modern developments to provide more pragmatic applications. forms of mediation have a major impact on systems’ design.
Decision-makers can identify how to harness Knowledge
Management systems and also identify good practices in terms of II. FROM "CLASSIC" INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) TO
collaborative approaches and decision-making processes. COMMUNICATING IS
Keywords-Information and Communication Technologies; Every human actor, whatever his function, profile or needs,
Collaborative practices; Decision-making practices; Knowledge is required to use, produce and disseminate information and
Management systems; Web technologies; big data. knowledge as part of his activity and to share it with other
actors. Knowledge management and business intelligence
I. INTRODUCTION systems are consolidated by the integration of ICT.
Modern management relies on intangible capital,
information and knowledge, both in large companies and in
SMEs. Today, in all business sectors, knowledge is the most

www.ijcit.com 115
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

A. The evolution of IS and ICT Figure 2: Web evolution.

The evolution of IS has long been linked to technological
progress (Delmond et al., 2003). ICTs are defined in the
literature by considering their functions and also their
components. ICT include techniques for creating, refining,
storing and disseminating knowledge. This process affects the
cycle of knowledge management evolution (figure 1). From a chronological point of view, the evolution of
Figure 1: Knowledge Management cycle. technological devices, covering the 1960s to 1970s, was
characterized by the automation of organizational process. The
systems were limited to data management and process related
to the operational level. The integration of technological tools
was mostly represented by the computer, to process
information in the form of structured databases. The use of the
first computers was limited mainly because of the high cost of
acquisition and the complexity of devices’ uses. IS covered
essentially operational functions in the organization
management.
Since 1980s, with the development of IT for "individual"
The introduction of ICTs aims to maintain IS in order to use, the devices’ design considers human and social practices.
improve managerial and functional process. IS are defined as This period is characterized by users’ autonomy, made possible
"an interpretive system of a set of social actors who, in a by the growing use of microcomputers, the development of
finalized and recursive organizational context, store and interfaces and office automation tools. The integration of ICT,
transform representations via information technologies and at the strategic level, has completed the foundation of IS
operating modes" (Rowe, 2007). It is generally accepted, by implementation. Communication tools was one of the main
researchers working in the digital field, that IS groups all the priorities of researchers, particularly with the development of
information and process optimizing the activity management. two main levels:
The latter is composed by two complementary levels: the - The first covers internal communication with the growth
pilotage system and the operational system (figure 2). The first of tools helping the emergence of collective
level is related to the actors managing the activity, including communication and cooperation (cooperative tools).
decision-makers such as the general management and the board
of directors. The operational level covers the human and - The second level concerns inter-organizational
material resources directly involved in the production of goods communication, with the development and generalization
or services. Globally, IS is based on the interaction between of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and network
information flows generated from operational and pilotage communication. We are now witnessing a deep evolution
systems (Le Moigne, 1990). The IS of companies has at least of IS with the outbreak of communication tools. IS and
two purposes: ICT fluidizes communication between the organization
and its environment (internal and external stakeholders).
- The functional dimension covers information
management tools, whether it is for operational The technological revolution strengthened during the 1990s,
function (automated tasks dedicated to the day-to-day was characterized by the access to heterogeneous resources and
activity’s management), or for strategic function interfaces which are used by a various category of actor. The
(decision-making aspects).
profusion of Web technologies has made it possible to promote
- The human purpose is to develop social connections knowledge sharing within organizations through increasingly
and create a corporate culture.
communicative IS (integration of social and collective
The technological breakthrough of the last thirty years has dimension).
had an impact on the integration of ICTs into functional and At the research level, the evolution of IS has been characterized
managerial process and on the evolution of 'classic' IS towards
communicating and strategic IS. by two levels of analysis (Reix and Rowe, 2002):
- The design’s approach: covers the study of
The Internet has gone through three main phases (figure 3).
implementation and development’s process, with the aim
In the web 1.0 phase, consumer is informed via search engines
and has access to a multitude of information. Web 2.0 is the to build efficient and operational system.
phase where consumer uses social networks, conferring a - The use’s approach: covers the study of IS’s impact of use
process of interaction. Web 3.0 is distinguished by the fact that on organizational process.
Internet have the capacity to interprets information, with the ICT’s development has been diversified over the last decade,
introduction of algorithms and artificial intelligence. Regarding
e-commerce studies, Internet offers targeted content based on covering a very broad spectrum of application. Technological
actor’s browsing habits, tastes and preferences. progress in mobile tools is contributing to the growth of IS

www.ijcit.com 116
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

through the development of devices combining innovation, The evolution of 'classic' IS towards communicating IS was
technical performance and user needs. Technologically, the possible while considering knowledge as a strategic resource
devices are characterized by a hardware dimension, for organizations. This resource is managed through knowledge
heterogeneous interfaces (tablet, mobile phone…) and various management systems.
operating systems as well as information transmission
networks.
B. Knowledge Management Systems
Internet of Things generate data’s source coming from both
Knowledge Management Systems have been developed around
human actors and machines. The knowledge society integrate
1980-1990. The growth of these systems is largely related to
connected objects and innovations that provide real interaction
the rapid development in term of storage and processing
with the environment (Pucheral et al., 2016). This development
capacity of ICT.
has had an impact on the emergence of IS based on connected
The acceleration of this phenomenon can be explained mostly
technologies.
by the accessibility, diversity and heterogeneity of information
The 2000s are characterized by the creation of data, providing
and the evolution of digital media. Knowledge is becoming
from organizations and from the web. The human and
ever more important for the optimization of managerial
machines interactions generate a variety and a big mass of data,
practices and innovation process.
stored in clouds. Cloud computing is based on the use of the
All the programs identified within the French community
computing capacity of remote devices, including servers and
GecSO (Gestion des Connaissances, Société et Organisation /
networks. There is a paradigm shift in system design: the
Knowledge Management, Society and Organization) consider
traditional IT function are outsourced. The concept of cloud
knowledge as a ‘cognitive activity rather than an object'
computing, as well as the effects of new consumer practices,
(Ermine et al., 2014). The concept of knowledge is generally
are leading to the implementation of "new" design models that
characterized by a multidisciplinary and even polysemous use.
constitute a lever for IS’s transformation.
In the strict sense of the concept, data, devoid of any semantic
The challenges related to digital technologies development
content, cannot be interpreted either by technological systems
concerns both private and public organizations. The concept of
or by human actors. The transition from data to information is
"Smart Cities" or "intelligent cities" aims at the optimization of
possible when users’ attributes meaning to the manipulated
uses (Bibri and Krogstie, 2017). Today's environmental
data. The processing of information in a "process of
dimension is linked to the IS implementation process involving
interpretation" or "cognition" makes it possible to obtain
eco-responsible approaches. Companies are increasingly
knowledge (table 2). There are different kinds of knowledge:
concerned about the environmental impact of their IS: their use
- Explicit knowledge: can be easily formalized,
of technologies is described as 'green'. This evolution impacts
codified, shared and stored (in physical or electronic
the technologies’ design with the integrate of green dimension
form).
(Bouzidi and Boulesnane, 2016).
- Tacit knowledge: belongs to the world of "mental"
objects and includes personal elements linked, for
Table 1: ICT’s evolution.
example, to the knowledge, know-how and personal
experiences. This knowledge is essentially related to
intangible facts, difficult to be formalized and shared
between actors.
The research conducted in the field of Information and
Communication Science, covering the concept of knowledge,
are interested in two fundamental aspects: the process of
production and/or interpretation of knowledge (KM cycle) and
the actors who take part in the knowledge process (focus on
persons, groups of individuals and even on the mediation
devices that generate and exploit knowledge).

www.ijcit.com 117
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

Table 2: Classification - Data, Information and Knowledge. process of organization (operational and strategic levels)
(Figure 4). IS facilitate knowledge management or the
implementation of business intelligence procedures by
optimizing all operations related to the acquisition, indexing,
archiving and exchange of knowledge between actors or groups
of actors.

Knowledge Management Systems refer to the use of IS for

knowledge processing. The actors, through their
representations, attribute meaning to the information generated
by the IS. It is the representations and practices of individuals
that generate, exploit and transform knowledge for strategic
target. These systems involve several levels: technological
devices, information and knowledge, actors and informational The use of knowledge management and business intelligence
practices, procedures and operating rules. systems is based on a division of tasks between human actors
Cyberspace, where networks are interconnected and large (intelligent operations, related to the interpretation of the
quantities of information circulate constitute a source of results provided by these systems) and technological systems
opportunity in terms of industry and market change, social (repetitive operations, linked to the "mass" processing). The
innovation creation, competitive lever, research and data generated are transformed into information, then into
development opportunities and creation of new knowledge. knowledge allowing to guide the decision-making process.
Cyberspace cause difficulties linked to the variety and
heterogeneity of Web data as well as a source of threat for the
III. THE EVOLUTION OF APPROACHES TO SYSTEM DESIGN
organization (cybersecurity). The competitive advantage of an
organization depends, among other things, on the way it The system design process is defined as an intellectual and
actively monitors its environment and capitalizes on the technical operation, generated by a need, identified by the
information linked to this monitoring process. Business organization and expressed in terms of objectives and results.
intelligence approaches, as highlighted by (Sybord, 2015), aims The result of the design process (final product) must combine
at 'gaining competitive advantage through the search for, the needs and expectations of the organization’s stakeholders.
collection and transformation of key information that engages The knowledge management approaches proposed by (Hansen
the future and evolution of the organization, in relation to & al., 1999), then developed by (Scheepers & al., 2004)
changes in its environment'. The business intelligence specialist constitute a reference in several research studies. The result is a
must use cyberspace to enhance the organization’s knowledge typology based on two visions: the "codification" strategy,
and at the same time to protect itself against external which emphasizes the formalization and storage of knowledge,
aggression that could, for example, damage the organization’s and the "personalization" strategy, which focuses on the
reputation or its security. relationships between individuals. The
Decision-making and the strategic dimension represent a codification/personalization dichotomy has been developed by
driving force in the design strategies of business intelligence several researchers. In the literature, we find works that start
systems (Sfez, 1993). In this context, the challenge facing from this theoretical foundation and qualify the
organizations, in particular decision-makers, consist in the "personalization" strategy by the "behavioral dimension" (Cho
ability to manage and exploit an ever-growing mass of data. IS & al., 2009).
and decision support systems are the backbone of an economic Two fundamental approaches are exposed: a decision-making
intelligence project. These systems are dedicated to approach, dedicated to knowledge modelling and an
management activity and to individual and collective decision- exploratory approach synthesizing heterogeneous information
making process. The IS is approached from a strategic, (Crié, 2003). According to (Bayad and Simen, 2003), these
decision-making and communication point of view. trends have had an impact on the emergence of knowledge
We can deduce that a Knowledge Management System is management approaches. The implementation of Knowledge
based on the interaction between different actors (functional, Management Systems is based on two main approaches that are
technical and users); ICT and IS (hardware and software tools); often complementary. On the one hand, the "Human

www.ijcit.com 118
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

Resources" approach emphasizes the "personalization" of - The "technical and functional actors" able to ensure
knowledge. On the other hand, the "technical or IT" approach the link between the two precedent groups (this
focuses on the "codification" of knowledge. constitute the role of the Information Systems
A review of the literature on knowledge management and Department).
business intelligence reveals a multitude of definitions and We can summarize the KM system’s approach in the following
approaches often oriented towards the technical paradigm table, considering categorization from a different perspective:
(McDermott, 1999). More profoundly, according to (Mailhot & technical paradigm; human paradigm; sociotechnical paradigm.
al., 2007), there is a dilemma between 'Technology' and
'Human' centered approaches. Within the "Technological" Table 3: KM System’s approaches.
angle of view, knowledge management consider essentially the
technical tools, hardware and software interfaces. The focus is
on technical methodologies based on the recording and
archiving of knowledge (Niwa, 1990; Boisot, 1998). The
human-centered current considers knowledge management as
an activity involving actors with social interactions and links.
In the field of knowledge management, notions such as tacit
and explicit knowledge are fundamental. Moreover, from the
technology/human dilemma emerges two antagonistic visions
of knowledge management (Hansen & al., 1999; Mueller and
Dyerson, 1999). The first vision is based on a process that
makes it possible to manage essentially explicit knowledge.
The transmission of this knowledge, ensured by ICT, means
that we have to adapt actors to the system in place. A second
vision focuses on organization that manages tacit knowledge
and ensures that this knowledge is socially transmitted among
its members. ICTs represent a device for aggregating all human
and social interactions. This dichotomy is often questioned in
several research works. In this way (Jacob and Pariat, 2002)
call for knowledge management to be considered as "a strategy
aimed at formally structuring the explicit and tacit knowledge
capital of an organization". In this perspective, a number of Systems implementation process is generally based on several
works draw attention to the need to adopt an approach resulting decisive phases: the pre-design (information needs
from the combination of the two strategies: "codification" and specifications), the design (solution adaptation) and the
"personalization". In this way, authors such as (Laudon & al., development (integration of a solution and its implementation).
2006), identify an approach qualified by sociotechnical and From a methodological point of view, a positioning in the
other authors refer to "hybrid" methodologies (Jasimuddin, technical paradigm (system-oriented approach) implies that all
2008) based on the study of both technical and social aspects of these phases must be carried out only by computer actors.
ICT. This vision of the IS and ICT apprehension process is Towards the 1980s, the Human paradigm (user-oriented
more appropriate to current research and generally with the approach) allowed a progressive involvement of users in the
reality of business. system design process. The sociotechnical approach results
Focusing on 'codification' can generate inappropriate from the combination of technical aspects and user needs and
knowledge management and economic intelligence systems practices.
with organizations’ needs. The evolution of these systems is at The approaches to the design and use of IS have been
the origin of the emergence of three groups of actors: diversified by the development of ICT: from approaches based
- The "computer actors" in charge of purely technical on text mining we switched to Web mining (with the advent of
development and information processing. the Internet and Web technologies offering a gigantic data
- The "functional actors" who try to use technological storage space). These different developments have promouved
tools to carry out their support or business functions. the implementation of new knowledge management logics
(Crié, 2003).

www.ijcit.com 119
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

The current objective, in terms of IS design, is no longer to test explicit knowledge. This has led to the focus on
or experience new tools, but to reconsider existing systems communicative, strategic and cooperative IS design process.
(Favier and Coat, 1999). The studies focus more on the Modern systems include a human and social dimension which,
concepts of information, knowledge, actor and community of moreover, mobilizes a whole collective and collaborative
practice than on the technical components. However approach. In their research, (Quoniam and Lucien, 2009)
sophisticated and advanced they may be, IS cannot and must identify three key dimensions of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0:
not operate without the involvement of human actors and the - The collaborative dimension materialized by the
considering of their social and professional framework and, contribution of actors.
more recently, their environment. - The semantic dimension qualified by "interoperability
between information”.
- The community dimension understood in the sense of
IV. THE CONTRIBUTION OF DIGITAL REVOLUTIONS
creating networks of actors.
In reviewing the literature on ICTs, several researches work At a deeper level, digital technology, with Web 2.0 and Web
highlight the importance of digital revolutions in the 3.0, are reexamining knowledge management and economic
development of IS in general, and in particular knowledge intelligence systems within and between organizations through
management and business intelligence systems. Indeed, the the development of a participatory knowledge culture.
advent of ICTs has considerably changed the way that According to (Lehmans, 2015), it is essential, when dealing
organizations operate. In order to understand the evolution of with the issue of dynamics and interactions, to address three
Knowledge Management Systems, we carry out the postulate fundamental principles: openness, accessibility and
that different angles of view have a positive correlation with connectivity. Through the principle of openness, knowledge
our research perimeter (figure 5): sharing is promoted through the establishment of common
- Collective and collaborative practices (Hypothesis 1 - H1). digital spaces. The principle of digital accessibility covers at
- Decision-making and strategic process (Hypothesis 2 - least two aspects: the first is related to the competence of actors
H2). to use digital tools and the second aspect concerns the
Figure 4: conceptual model architecture. provision of digital tools (software and hardware). The
principle of linking or connectivity refers to "the action of
linking and connecting and its results" (Lehmans, 2015). Web
2.0 and Web 3.0 tools enhance the convergence between
individual info-communication practices and networked social
functioning. They constitute knowledge mediation devices that
make it possible generating a logic of creation, exchange,
circulation, storage of knowledge and innovation, which are
We carry out the assumption that the connection between these central to knowledge management and economic intelligence
different hypotheses can create a favorable context for systems.
Knowledge Management System design. The emergence of new dynamics, around social media, means
that knowledge is socially constructed, modified and shared by
A. Collective and collaborative practices members of virtual communities. The coverage of social media
As we have just highlighted in the previous paragraphs, the includes social networks, wikis, blogs, collaboration and e-
evolution of technological tools and the generalization of ICT learning tools. Wikis are based on the principle of collaboration
have brought about crucial changes in system design. For many between actors in order to enrich databases’ content. The best-
years, design methods were oriented towards data processing known example is Wikipedia, the universal free encyclopedia,
and the question of knowledge management and business network building on the knowledge’s co-construction. Users
intelligence systems was often pushed into an engineering have access to a variety of content, both reading and writing.
logic, in terms of integrating ICTs to increase the efficiency of They have the status of actors and contributors to the
monitoring devices, mapping information and communication functioning of the system.
spaces and networks. With the advent of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, The irruption of social networks, into the private sphere, has
systems have come to adapt to user requirements. Under the considerably modified our relationship with digital technology
pressure of the environment and competition, organizations and information environment. Indeed, we are certainly
integrates formal and informal information and tacit and consumers of information, but also producers. Within social

www.ijcit.com 120
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

networks, whether personal or professional, such as Facebook, platforms or databases deployed as well as the data integration
Twitter or LinkedIn, the actors themselves create individual process, their characteristics, formats and sources. This
and collective codes of communication. They identify the operation reflects a process based on knowledge sharing and
information sources that seem relevant to them, the ways of the exploitation of open data, which are at the heart of systems’
searching, accessing, sharing and validating information, as design approaches.
well as the storage media. Knowledge is socially shared and Web applications are based on a technological architecture but
the actors themselves co-construct the devices. In this context, also on a human and social dimension. In fact, for several
methodological research on these systems focusses on various years, Web application has imposed itself in the development
approaches: sociological approaches (based on interviews and of innovative tools and process that drive the emergence of
surveys, to analyses informational activities and research new forms of knowledge creation. In this context, Massive
practices, processing and knowledge representation); Online Open Courses (MOOCs) are revolutionizing the
linguistics and semiology approaches (analyzing the structures education process by creating collaborative learning spaces.
of discourse in a context of knowledge construction). They change face-to-face learning mode by considering
It is possible to apprehend the process of actors’ interaction of participatory approach in a learning mode (using of forums,
in a cyberspace through four complementary stages: social media…).
production, routing, retrieval and analysis (Lévy, 2015): Furthermore, the implementation of new knowledge
- In the production stage, the data generated, whatever its management and business intelligence practices is supported
nature (text, image, sound or video), or its origin (internal by the emergence of the crowdsourcing principle, which
sources generated from organizations or external sources appeared in 2006. The purpose is to make data available to a
coming from the web), is generally introduced in a system community that can be exploited and enriched simultaneously.
(using hardware and software tools). The concept is based on the development of digital networks
- In a second stage, the produced data is processed and then and communities. Howe (2006) considers that there are four
forwarded to the potential actors. It is on the basis of the main categories: the first is based on collective intelligence, the
"digital activity" of these actors that the systems manage second uses the individuals’ creativity, the third exploits the
information. actors’ opinions and judgements, and finally crowdsourcing,
- Then, when the actor formulates a query on a search which generate projects’ financing with platforms. The
engine, a whole data mining mechanism is triggered with different categories are based on the principle of collaborative
the ultimate goal of proposing personalized results, in line work and info-communicative practices. Crowdsourcing affects
with the identified profiles. the process of economic intelligence and disrupts digital
- Finally, the analysis of the collected data aims at defining practices and system design approaches. It represents an
'patterns and regularities' for solving complex operations innovative practice that mobilizes three categories of actors:
and making decisions. the organization that defines the activity, the community of
The design process of knowledge management and business individuals that participates and the intermediary agent whose
intelligence systems are part of an open, accessible and function is to link the first two categories by using ICT and
communicating systems approach. Actors organize themselves specialized platforms (Burger-Helmchen and Pénin, 2011). The
in networks and define community codes and rules based on design of knowledge management and intelligence systems
the social sharing of knowledge, the co-construction of the must consider these new modes of production centered around
info-communication space and participatory dimension. Web networks of actors and collective intelligence.
2.0 and Web 3.0 are transforming informational and social We can represent the key principals of Collective and
practices and encouraging a "bottom-up" knowledge collaborative practices in the figure 6.
management models in which information is generated by the
end-users. Figure 5: collective and collaborative practices.
The exploitation of open data is a major issue in the design
process of knowledge management and economic intelligence
systems. Indeed, in business intelligence practices, the
acquisition of information is a fundamental step. Open data
represents the provision of open, available and voluminous
data, covering a variety of needs and application’ fields. The
movement is approached, on a technical level, through the

www.ijcit.com 121
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

B. Decision-making and strategic practices also an operation to exploit it, with powerful and
IS design process have evolved with the focus on the efficient IS. There operation has an impact on
increasing proliferation of heterogeneous and massive data strategies actions (personalization of product and
providing from the Web. Traditional data processing systems service offers).
found their limits in the face of the "tsunami of data" generated The management of massive data is made possible thank to
by the massive use of digital technology and the Web. Big data computational and mathematical methods. Advanced IS have
involves advanced technologies and complex IS whose the ability to cross-reference data based on indicators and using
capacity exceeds the current technological devices (Azan, highly complex algorithms (predictive' models). The big data
Bolidum, 2015). project requires technological tools that ensure rapid
Big data addresses structured or unstructured data, emanating processing, correlating data from predefined combinations.
from disparate sources (computers, mobile phones, tablets, In this context, the design of knowledge management and
sites, blogs, social networks, connected objects, sensors…) and business intelligence systems integrates the notion of big data
produced in real time. According to (Brasseur, 2013), the where indicators are generated and calculated by using
phenomenon is seen as the meeting of "the multiplication of operational and strategic IS. The category of IS that responds to
unstructured data, the needs for analysis of this data and the big data projects is the decisional one, because the IS must
progress of technology". Big data does not refer exclusively to transform information flows into decisional flows in order to
data, but also to the digital tools that enable it to be managed. provide strategic action. Decision support systems are used to
The mass of data generated in this process is characterized by support the data’s strategic management.
common indicators that are qualified in the literature by the Big data is certainly accompanied by a technological
« 3Vs » (Ollion, Boelaert, 2015): revolution, but also by human and societal features: the aim is
- The "Volume" indicator should be considered in reference no longer to know which tools will be used to process the data,
to the quantity of massive data to be stored and analysed, but rather to know the purpose and goal. From a societal point
as well as its exponential evolution. of view, Big Data is moving our ways of thinking, our social
- The "Variety" of data allows to emphasize the diversity of codes and our way of understanding the world around us. The
sources (internal or external to the organization) and human or "cognitive" logic consists in interpreting and
heterogeneous formats of data (images, texts, sounds, analyzing the data collected to meet strategic objectives or for
digital traces, tweets…). Generally, the data is decision-making purposes. Indeed, the information gathered
unstructured and it is difficult to manage it using tools from the systems will be transformed into knowledge by
such as Database Management Systems. analysts, decision-makers or managers. Human actors include
- The data are characterized by a high speed, "Velocity" is in the cognitive process the anticipation of complex situations,
the third indicator. their judgements and intuitions, the personal and collective
Big data analytics is challenged to deal with these different experience.
indicators that are accentuated on the web. We can represent the key principals of decision-making and
The digital data’s accumulation is related to the accessibility of strategic practices in the figure 7.
technological devices and the capacity to process and store
information. Big data projects rely both on advanced and
complex data collection tools and on analysis and processing Figure 7: the interactions between dimensions.
procedures. The data, collected, both at the level of
organizations and from the web, is analyzed by using
specialized tools and IS. The mass of data produced is stored in
clouds. IS plays an essential role in the management of
automatic operations. Big data is characterized by data
originating from internally IS (organizations) and externally IS
(Web):
- Internally IS: one of the major challenges is to process
the data "actively" and in real time in order to
contributes to a common performance.
- Externally IS: it is not only a simply operation of
collecting data on customers and Internet users, but

www.ijcit.com 122
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Nevertheless, there are many problems posed by

Actors, increasingly connected to the Internet, mobile knowledge management systems. Among the authors who have
technologies and social networks, provide heterogeneous, examined this debate, (Lévy, 2015) identifies three main limits
unstructured data, emanating from disparate sources and of the 'contemporary algorithmic medium': cognitive limits,
characterized by diversified formats and use’s contexts. The semantic limits and limits of statistical positivism. Cognitive
administration of this mass of data cannot be made by using limits are related to the skills of the actors. Semantic limits do
traditional tools or classic database management procedures: not cover the technical capacities of the system, but those
the development of knowledge management and business related to the "communication of meaning", a phenomenon
intelligence systems relies on a complex and powerful often accentuated by the diversity of the language and socio-
technological base. However, these systems encounter cultural universes of individuals and groups of individuals. The
limitations in the level of the enormous data mass collected and limits of "statistical positivism" where we find a whole
the diversity of analysis process’ nature. questioning of the real capacity of big data to transform the
data contained in a system into exploitable and profitable
The advent of social media phenomenon makes it possible knowledge. The basic principle, before any analysis method, is
to feed knowledge management and business intelligence to find and above all ensure that the data generated is relevant
systems with data that is described as 'social' mediation. The and meets quality criteria.
process of designing systems is correlated with changing
practices, consumption habits and the increasing profusion of The exponential growth of data goes hand in hand with its
communicating technologies. Indeed, the study of the problems in terms of privacy protection. Indeed, the digital
functioning of groups and social relationships is crucial for the revolution is creating mega data on our information searches,
system design process. If we take the case of crowdsourcing, our financial transactions, our consumption habits, our
the analyze of a crowd of actors, around common data, makes movements or our communication network. The exploitation of
it possible to map customer behavior on the basis of their this "ocean of data" raises limits related to moral and ethical
interactions. In this context, it should be remembered that the issues. In his research, (Chamaret, 2014) proposes an analysis
principle of community is at the heart of economic intelligence of the "big data revolution" based on a synthesis of the authors'
approaches: the exploitation of collective information work (Mayer-Schonberger and Cukier, 2013). As with all
constitutes the basis for the development of such systems. innovative and topical subjects, it emerges that the big data
revolution is hardly risk-free. The authors point out several
The added value of Big Data is not related to the limits like the fact that: Google knows which websites we use
accumulation of large data flows, but on their interpretation, for our searches and which ones we visit regularly, Amazon is
exploitation and valorization. This principle is certainly based informed about our shopping and consumption preferences, not
on tools that provide calculation, correlation and analysis to mention the social networks that know our personal and
capabilities, but the essential part of the process is cognitive professional 'universe'. The authors underline the existence of a
and therefore human. Computer system, with its hardware and real danger in the case of massive recourse to big data and the
software components, is only a sub-set of the IS. The IS risks inherent in the misuse of data. In particular, they highlight
constitute the 'supports' for data management and it is the role of specialist "auditors" who would play the role of
essentially up to the data scientist to transform them into useful "regulators" in this digital ecosystem.
information, to constitute exploitable knowledge and therefore
a wealth for companies’ strategy and performance. As Lafrance Another controversial framework on the issue of privacy is
(2017) points out, 'data and algorithms will not replace the the collection of data on the location of an actor. Advanced
instinct and vision of the entrepreneur. But they will make that geolocation systems manage to provide personalized
instinct more reliable and more in tune with the reality of information, search results or targeted advertising in line with
things". Despite the 'ease' with which data is collected in many the user's geographical location. But beyond this seemingly
contexts, this does not necessarily lead to systematically "practical" aspect, this raises much deeper questions in terms of
making the most of it or gaining useful insights. respect for privacy.

We would like to point out that each of these dimensions Moreover, with the big data phenomenon, the issue of
plays an undeniable role in the system design process. people tracking for those who are connected to ICTs (Ramonet,
Avoiding a 'Codification/Customization' dichotomy, we 2015) is increasingly raised. In the field of health, for example,
believe that the design process should be based on a socio- the systems manage personal data, and the risk that often arises
technical approach (Laudon, Laudon, 2006) using a 'hybrid' is linked to the 'profiling of individuals' (Sybord, 2016).
methodology (Jasimuddin, 2008). More profoundly, despite the At the functional and organizational level, (Brasseur, 2013)
evolution of the digital world and its omnipresence in the highlights the risks associated with investment in complex IS.
private or professional sphere, the process of designing systems The author emphasizes in particular the degree of maturity of
must not be limited to the technical-economic aspects: the the organization in terms of 'data governance and previous
human dimension plays a primary role. Once we ask ourselves experience in the implementation of decision-making IS'. In
questions about the efficiency of these systems, it seems this context, the business intelligence manager must contribute
difficult to exclude the human aspects and the societal context to the implementation of the technological policy, in
of the evolution of the actors, their practices and their needs. conjunction with the Information Systems Department and the
IS Security Unit. His or her contribution lies in the protection

www.ijcit.com 123
 International Journal of Computer and Information Technology (ISSN: 2279 – 0764)
Volume 11 – Issue 4, August 2022

of information assets and the definition of the overall strategy [20] Lafrance S. (2017). Who is afraid of big data? Management 2017/1
(Kempf, Mazzucchi, 2015). The implementation of an (Vol. 42), pp. 6-6. DOI 10.3917/riges.421.0006.
economic intelligence system is built around a "global" project [21] Laudon et al. 2006. Laudon K., Laudon J.P., Fimbel E. Management of
information systems. 9th edition. Paris: Pearson Education. 638 p.
and mobilizes all the players at both operational and strategic
[22] Lehmans A., (2015). 'Towards participatory knowledge management in
levels. emerging communities of practice: from economics to knowledge
ecology', Communication & management 2015/1 (Vol. 12), pp. 81-95.
REFERENCES DOI 10.3917/comma.121.0081
[23] Le Moigne J.L. (1990). Modeling of complex systems, Dunod,
[1] Azan W., Bolidum S. (2015). Big Data. Myth or reality? A cognitive
Collection Sciences humaines, AFCET Systèmes.
architecture for evaluating everything, after turning everything into
numbers, International Journal of Psychosociology and Management of [24] Lévy P. (2015). The algorithmic medium. Sociétés 2015/3 (n° 129), p.
Organizational Behavior 2015/Supplement (HS), pp. 31-45. 79-96. DOI 10.3917/soc.129.0079.
[2] Bayad M. and Simen S.F. (2003). Knowledge management: state of the [25] Mailhot C. et al, (2007). The technology-individuals dilemma in the
art and perspectives. XIIth Conference of the International Association implementation of knowledge management: the case of Cossette
of Strategic Management. Les Côtes de Carthage - 3, 4, 5 and 6 June Communication Group. Gestion, 2007/2 Vol. 32, p. 43-50. DOI :
2003. 10.3917/riges.322.0043
[3] Bibri S.E., Krogstie J. (2017). Smart Sustainable Cities of the Future: An [26] Mayer-Schonberger V., Cukier K., (2013). Big data, A Revolution That
Extensive Interdisciplinary Literature Review. Sustainable Cities and Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think, London, Murray, 2013
Society (Feb 2017) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.02.016. [27] McDermott, R., (1999). Why information technology inspired butcannot
[4] Boisot, M., Knowledge Assets, Oxford, 1998. deliver knowledge management, California Management Review, vol.
41, no. 4, 1999, pp. 103-117.
[5] Bouzidi L., Boulesnane S. (2016). Le management " durable " au cœur
de l'e-administration. COSSI journal communication, organisation, [28] Mueller, F., Dyerson, R., (1999). Expert human or expert organizations?
knowledge society and information. 2016. 20, no. 2, 1999, pp. 225-256.
[6] Brasseur C. (2013). Challenges and uses of Big Data: Technologies, [29] Niwa, K., (1990). Toward successful implementation of knowledge-
methods and implementation. Hermès, Coll. Management & based systems: Expert systems vs knowledge sharing systems,
informatique, 2013, 203 pages, ISBN 978-2746245204. Transactions on Engineering Management, November 1990.
[7] Burger-Helmchen T., Pénin J., (2011). Crowdsourcing: definition, [30] Ollion É. and Boelaert J. (2015), "Beyond big data", Sociologie [En
issues, typology, Management & Avenir 2011/1 (n° 41), p. 254-269. ligne], N°3, vol. 6 | 2015, online on 20 January 2016. URL:
DOI 10.3917/mav.041.0254 http://sociologie.revues.org/2613
[8] Chamaret C. (2014). 'The big data revolution', Annales des Mines - [31] Pucheral P. et al. (2016). Privacy by design: a false good solution to the
Gérer et comprendre 2014/2 (No. 116), pp. 94-96.DOI personal data protection issues raised by Open data and connected
10.3917/geco.116.0094. objects? LEGICOM 2016/1 (N56), pp. 89-99. DOI
10.3917/legi.056.0089.
[9] Cho Y., Cho E. and McLean G.-N. (2009). HRD's Role in Knowledge
Management, Advances in Developing Human Resources, Vol. 11, No. [32] Quoniam L., Lucien A., (2009). Business intelligence 2.0? Les Cahiers
3, June, pp. 263-272.s du numérique 2009/4 (Vol. 5), p. 11-37.
[10] Crié D. (2003). From knowledge extraction to knowledge management, [33] Ramonet I. (2015). L'Empire de la surveillance, Éditions Galilée.
Revue française de gestion, 2003/5 no 146, pp. 59-79. DOI : [34] Reix R., Rowe F., (2002). Information systems research: from history to
10.3166/rfg.146.59-79. concept. In Faire de la recherche en systèmes d'information. Paris:
[11] Delmond et al (2003). Delmond M.H., Petit Y., Gautier J-M. Vuibert, Collection FNEGE. p. 01-17.
Information System Management. Paris: Dunod. Collection Gestion sup. [35] Rowe F. (2007). Information System: philosophical variations on a
222 p. proposed definition, in Connaissance et management, book dedicated to
[12] Ermine J.L., et al (2014). A francophone state of the field of knowledge R. Reix and coordinated by P.L. Dubois and Y. Dupuy, p. 165-17.
management: the GeCSO community, Management & Avenir, 2014/1 Dupuy, p. 165-173.
N° 67, p. 56-77. DOI: 10.3917/mav.067.0056. [36] Scheepers R., Venkitachalam K. and Gibbs M.-R. (2004). Knowledge
[13] Favier M., Coat F., (1999). The future of information systems. Revue strategy in organizations: refining the model of Hansen, Nohria and
française de gestion. September-October 1999. p 19-28. Tierney, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 13, pp. 201-222.
[14] Hansen, M., Nohria, N., Tierney, T., (1999). What's your strategy for [37] Sfez L., 1993. SFEZ Lucien, (1993). Critical dictionary of
managing knowledge? Harvard Business Review, Vol. 77 No. 2, communication. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. 1780 p.
March-April 1999, pp. 106-116. [38] Sybord C. (2015). "Business intelligence and decision support systems:
[15] Howe, J. (2006). The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired. from operational 'big data' to strategic 'little knowledge'", International
Journal of Business Intelligence 2015/1 (Vol. 7), pp. 83-100.
[16] Howe, J. (2008). Crowdsourcing, Why the power of the crowd is driving
the future of business, Three Rivers Press, New York. [39] Sybord C. (2016). Big data and the design of a clinical decision support
information system. Towards a socio-cognitive management of medical
[17] Jacob, R., Pariat, L., (2002). Do you really know what you know? 3, no
responsibility? ", Les Cahiers du numérique 2016/1 (Vol. 12), p. 73-108.
2, 2002, p. 3-7.
[18] Jasimuddin S.-M. (2008). A holistic view of knowledge management
strategy, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 57-66.
[19] Kempf O., Mazzucchi N. (2015). Cyberspace and economic intelligence.
Geoeconomics 2015/5 (N77), pp. 45-58.DOI 10.3917/geoec.077.0045

www.ijcit.com 124