1

IGCSE CHEMISTRY NOTES (Edexcel)

THE PERIODIC TABLE+ALKALI METALS AND HALOGENS
Reactivity Series & Metal Extraction , Acid & salts and chemical test

Name of the student…………………………………………………………………………………………

●EDCAM Education (Gulshan-

●DCS - 2 (Gulshan -2)
●ACADEMIA(MALIBAGH),
●ACADEMIA (MIRPUR)
Assessment :

Course Instructor :-
G.K. Sharif Sir

(O/A Level Physics & Chemistry)

Ex-Teacher : European Standard School (ESS)

Ex-Teacher : HEED INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL (HIS)
O/A Level Teacher: UNIQUE Science Academy , Malibagh (ACADEMIA)
O/A Level Teacher: DCS 2 Education Care(3G), Gulshan
O/A Level Teacher :: EDCAM Education ,Gulshan -1.
O/A Level Teacher: UNIQUE Science Academy , Mirpur (ACADEMIA)
COMPILER OF UNIQUE CHAPTERWSE O&A LEVEL QUESTION PAPER
 2

THE PERIODIC TABLE.

DEFINATION: A tabular arrangement of elements in rows and columns, highlighting the

regular repetition of properties of the elements is called a periodic table.

The basic structure of the periodic table is its division into rows and columns or periods and
groups.

1.The number of protons in the elements atom increases across the periodic table (the
atomic number is equal to the proton number in an atom).

GROUP

1
FACT 1: Vertical column’s in the periodic table are called groups. Each elements in the group
contains the same number of valence electron’s.

Number of the group determined by the number of free electrons in the outer most shell.
For instance, i) lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), (potassium) in group 1 as they have only one free
electron in the outer most shell.

ii)Fluorine (F), Chlorine (C1), Bromine (Br) are in group 7 as their outer most shell contains
Seven Electrons.

FACT 2: The Chemical properties of elements are determine by the ease with which they loose
or gain electrons. Since elements belonging to a electrons. Since elements belonging to a
particular group have the same numberof valence electrons,they show similarities in their
chemical property.

In other word, Since elements with similar electronic configuration have similar chemical
properties we can deduce that elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

PERIOD
Horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. The periodic number represents the
number of SHELLS in an atom.
The periodic table contain two different classification of elements.
 3

They are:
I) Metals
II) Non-Metals.
I)A metal is a substance or mixture, that has a characteristic shiny and is generally a good
conductor of heat and electricity except for mercury the metallic elements are solid at room
temperature [about 20oC].
They are more or less malleable [can be hammered in to shields] and ductile [can be drawn in
to wire].

II)A non-metal is an element that does not exhibit the characteristics of a metal. Most of the non-
metals are gases. [For example chloride and oxygen] or solids [For example, Phosphorous and
sulpher]. The solid non-metal are usually hard, brittle substances. Bromine is the only liquid
non-metal.

Differences between metals and non-metals (in accordance to chemical properties).

Metal Non-Metals
I) Usually have one-three electrons in I) Usually have four-eight electronsin
their outer shell. their outer shell.
II) Loose their valence electrons easily. II) Gain or shares balance electrons.
III) Form oxides ; that are bases. III) Are good oxidizing agents.
Na OH , KOH(in solution)
IV) Metal : G1, G2, G3 Non-Metal : G4, G5, G6, G7, G0,

Differences between metals and non-metals (in accordance to physical properties)

Metals Non-Metals
i) Good conductors of electrical and i) Poor conductors of head and
heat conductors electricity
ii) Malleable-[Can be heat and shaped] ii) Brittle[If a solid]
iii) Ductile- [can be structured into give] iii) Non-ductile
iv) Shiny iv) Not shiny
v) Solid at room temperature [except v) Solid, liquids and Gasses at room
mercury-liquid] temperature

Note:
1) The block of metals between group 2 and Group 3 are known as Transition elements or
Transition Metals.
 4

2) A metal bid is an element that has both metallic and non-metallic properties. This is also
known as semimetals. These elements, such as silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge), are
usually good semi-Conductor, Semi conductors are elements that, when pure, are poor
conductor of electricity at room temperature but become malleable good conductors at
higher temperature.

Rows <> Periods [no of shells]

Column <> Groups [no of e in outer shell]
Group numbers have/sare/similar Chemical properties.
 5

ALKALI METALS :Group-01 Elements

( Lithium, Sodium, Potassium).
The elements in group 01 in the periodic table is known as the Alkaline Metals. Lithium, Sodium,
Potassium, Rubidium are the elements of the group. Fanciers at the bottom of the group is
produced during the radio active decay of uranium-235, but is extremely short lived.
Melting Paint Boiling Point Density (glem3)
(oC) (oC)
Li 181 1342 0.53
Na 98 883 0.37
K 63 760 0.86
Rb 39 68C 1.53
Cs 2 66 1.88

Note:
1) The melting and boiling points of the elements are very low for metals and get lower
down? the group.
2) Their densities tend to increase although not as smoothly as the noble gases.
Lithium, sodium and Potassium are less dense then water and so will Float on it.
3) The metals are very soft and are easily cut with a knife. And get softer down the
group.
4) The metals are shiny and silvery when cut freshly but tarnish when exposure to air
.
5) Since they are all metals?, they are good conductors of heat and electricity.

6)All the metals of the group are extremely reactive and get even more reactive down
the group.
SAFETY:
#They all react quickly with air to form oxides, and react rapidly and violently
with water to form strongly alkaline solution of the metal hydroxides (XOH).
#To, stop them reacting from oxygen or water vapor in the air Lithium, Sodium and
Potassium are stored under the oil.

#Rubidium are so reactive that it has to be stoned in sealed glass tubes to stop any
possibility of oxygen getting them.
 6

#Create care must be taken not to touch any of these metals with bare fingers. There
could be enough sweat on our skin to give a reaction producing lots of heat and a very
corrosive metal hydroxide.

Reaction with water:

All the metals react with water to produce a metal hydroxide and a hydrogen.
Metal + could water→ metal + hydrogen,
i) Lithium: The reaction between Lithium and water is a moderate reaction.
Effervescence is observed (hydrogen gas in given off) the resulting solution is
alkaline. 2Li(s) + 2H2O→ OH (a4)+ H2 (g)

ii) Sodium: The reaction between sodium and water is vigorous and violent. Metal
darts about the surface of the water and catches fire (Golden Yellow flame)
Effervescence of hydrogen gas is observed and alkaline solutions is produced.
2Na (s) + 2 H2o (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

iii) Potassium: The reaction between potassium are water is extremely vigorous
and violent?. Metal darts about the surface of the water and catches fire (Lelac
Flame) Effervescence of hydrogen gas is scene. And an alkaline solution is
produced. 2K (s) + 2H2O (9) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
iv) Rubidium and Cesium: These reactions are even more violent than potassium,
and the reaction can be explosive. These respective hydroxides are formed.
 7

HALOGRNS(Group-07 Elements → Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine):

The halogens are not metallic elements with di-atomic molecules

F2
C12
Br2
I2
At2
•The name “Halogen” means “Salt producing”. When they react with metals, they
produce a wide range of salts, Including calcium Fluoride, Sodium Chloride, silver bromide, and
potassium iodine.

•As the molecules get larger towards the bottom of the group, the melting and boiling points
increase, chlorine and Fluorine are gases, bromine is a liquid which turns to vapor very easily,
and iodine is a solid.
•Astatine (At) is radioactive and is formed during the radioactive decay of other elements, such
as uranium. Most of its isotopes are so unstable that their lives can be measured in second or
fraction of a second.

•As the hologens are nonmetals, they will be poor conductor heat and electricity. When they are
solid (eg-iodne at room temperature), their crystals will be brittle.

Elements M.P b.P State Atomic Reactivates Colour

Radius
F2 Gas Yellow
C12 Gas Green
Br2 Liquid Dark red liquid Red
brown Vapor
I2 Solid Dark grey solid

* Safety and Precautions:

•Fluorine is highly and dangerously reactive. All the elements have extremely poisonous
vapors and have to be handled in a fume cupboard.
•Liquid bromine is also very corrosive and great care has to be taken to keep it off the skin.
 8

Properties of halogens:
1) Halogens have seven electrons in their outer most shell and form univalent
arions by gaining one electron per atom.
2) They are very reactive non-metals and have tendency to accept electrons.
3) Being electron acceptors, they are all oxidizing agents. Fluorine is the most
powerful and iodine is the least.
4) Halogens form diatomic molecules.
5) The State changes from gas to liquid and liquid to solid.
6) They have coloured poisonous vapors.
7) Each displaces other halogens lower down the group from their salts.
(displacement reaction).
8) Silver solutions of these element, that is AgCl, AgBr, AgI are insoluble in water
and dilute acid (HNO3)
O) AgCl → White precipitate (Solid)
O) AgBr → Purple yellow precipitate (solid)
O) AgI → yellow precipitate (solid)

Hydrogen Chloride and hydrochloric Acid:-

i) Both hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid have the formulae HCl. Hydrogen
Chloride is a gas and hydrochloric acid is its solution in water.
ii) When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, it reacts to give Hydroxonium ions
and chloride ions. H2O + HCl (g) → H3O+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
iii) It is the presence of the hydroxonium ions which gives hydrochloric acid its
simple acidic properties- with litmus, metals and carbonates, for example.

iv) If hydrogen chloride is dissolved in methyl benzene (an organic solvent also
known as toluene), the solution does not show hydrochloric acids simple acidic
properties.
v) It won’t turn litmus paper red (provided the paper is perfectly dry).
vi) It won’t react with magnesium ribbon to produce hydrogen.
vii) It wont react with marble chips (CaCO3)to produce carbon dioxide.

Properties of Hydrogen Chloride Gas:

1) Hydrogen chloride is a colorless gas.
2) The gas turns damp blue litmus paper red.
3) The gas is soluble in water.
4) It is denser than air (1+35.5)>(16+14).
 9

Reactivity of Halogens:-
The reactivity of the group increase up the group.

Flourine (F) Reactivity

Chlorine (C1) Decreases clown
Bromire (Br) The group
Iodine (I)
Astatine (At)

So, Fluorine can displace all other halogens from their salts. Chlorine can displace
Bromine, Florine and Astatine. Bromine can only displace iodine and Astatine. Iodine can
displace Astatine .

●Reacting Chorine with potassium bromide or potassium iodide solutions:-

# Adding chlorine solution to t he colorless potassium Bromide solution turns the solution
orange as Bromine formed.
2KBr (a) + C12 (aq) → 2KC1 (aq) + Br2 (aq)
The more reactive chlorine has displaced the less reactive Bromine from potassium
Bromide.
#The similar case is seen when chlorine Solution is added to potassium Iodide solution.
It gives a dark reddish brown solution of Iodine. If an excess of chlorine is used dark
gray precipitate of iodine may be obtained.
2KI (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2 (aq)
#Note that the chlorine is acting as an oxidizing agent. The reaction would be the same.
With soluble Bromide on Iodide.
Reacting Bromine with potassium iodide solutions. Adding Bromine solutions (Bromine
water) to the colorless Potassium Iodide solution gives a dark reddish- brown solution of
iodine
2KI(aq) + Br (aq) → I2 (aq) + KBr (aq)
Redox reaction is a reaction is which electron are transferred between species or in
which atoms change oxidation number. It is also known as oxidation- Reduction reaction.

* Displacement Reaction: A displacement reaction (also called a single-replacement reaction)

is a reaction in which an element reacts with a compound, displacing an element form it.
Note that all the above reactions of Chlorine or Bromine with Potassium Bromine or
potassium iodide are both redox reaction (show half ionic equation) and Displacement
reactions.
10
 11

* Explanation of the Trend in the Reactivity of the Halogens:

i) As moved down the group, the oxidizing ability of halogens fall. When a halogen
oxidizes something, it does so by removing electrons from it.
ii) Each halogen has the ability to oxidize the ions of those underneath it in the
Group, but not those above it.
iii) Chlorine can remove electrons from bromide or iodide ions and bromine can
remove electrons from iodide ions.
iv) Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent because its atoms readily attracts an extra
electron to make chloride ions. Bromine is less successful at attracting electrons,
and iodine is less successful still.
v) The factor that is to be considered is the amount of attraction the incoming
electron feels from the nucleus. The force of attraction between the nucleus of a
halogen atom and the electron decreases as the size of the atom in chases
clown the group.
vi)
* In simple words the smaller the size of the atom, it gain free electrons more easily. Since
nuclear force of attraction is strongest. As the size of the atom increases the distance of the
nucleases and electron increases. That means the ions is less easily formed and that is turn
means that the elements gets less reactive down the group.

* Reactions of Halogens with Hydrogen:

➢ Hydrogen + Halogens → Hydrogen Halides.
➢ The halogens react with hydrogen to form Hydrogen-Halides→ Hydrogen floride,
Hydrogen Chloride, Hydrogen Bromide and Hydrogen iodide.
For example:
O) H2 (g) + Br2 (g) → 2H Br (g)
O) H2 (g) + C12 (g) 2HCl (g)
O) H2 (g) + I2(g)→ 2HI (g)
O) H2 (g) + F2 (g) → 2HF (g)
* All the hydrogen halides are steamy acidic and poisonous gases. In common with all the
compound from between the halogens and the non-metals, the gases are covalently
bonded.
* They are very soluble in water, reacting with it to produced solutions of acids.
For example, Hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride in water.
*
 12

The reactivity falls quickly down the group.

Halogens Reaction with hydrogen

i) Flourine Violent explosion, even in the cold and
dark.
ii) Chlorine Violent explosion if exposed to a flame or
sunlight.
iii) Bromine Mild explosion, if a bromine vapor and
hydrogen mixture is exposed to a flame
iv) Iodine Partial reaction to form hydrogen iodide,
if iodine vapor is heated continuously
with hydrogen.

Reaction of halogens with group 01 and Group-02 elements:-

i) When halogens react with metals to form group 01 and group 02, they form ions. For
example, sodium bonus, in chlorine with its arrange flame to produce a white solid /
compound sodium chloride, Which is ionic compound / solid.
2Na (S) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl (s)
 13

Reactivity Series:
Flements ● Reactivity
Potassium PLEASE These metals (excluding
Sodium SEND carbon) are alone Hydrogen in Decreases
Lithium LION the reactivity series, so the Down
Calcium CATS react with acids to produce salt The
Magnesium MONKEY and hydrogen Metal + Acid Group
Aluminum AND →Salt + H2

Carbon CUTE
ZEBRA
Zinc
INTO
Iron
Tin
Lead

Decreases
HYDROGEN HOT Down the
Group

Copper COUNTRIES
Mercury - SIGNED H+ ions are responsible for
Silver SENCITIVE acidic properties.

Gold GOVERNMENT,S These elements are below

Platinum PRIME hydrogen, so they do not react
MINISTER with acids.
 14

Explaining the increase in reactivity:

•In all these reactions, the metal atoms are loosing electrons and forming metal ions in
solution. For example :
Na (s) – e-
→ Na (aq).
•The electrons released by the metals are gained by the water molecules provide
hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas:
2H20+e- →2OH (aq) +H2(g)

•The differences between the reactions depends in part on how easily the outer electron
of the metal is lost in each case. That depends on how strongly it is attracted to the
nucleus in the original atom.

•Remember that the nucleus of the atom contains protons, and so attracts the negative
electrons.In every single atom ion this group, the outer electron will fill an overall
attractive force of 1+ form the nucleus, but the effect of the force falls very quickly as the
distance increases. The bigger the atom, the more easily the outer electron is lost.

●Metals + H2O → Metal Hydroxide(Na OH) + H2 (g)

● Metal + Air → metal oxide(CaO)
● Non-metal + 02 → Non metaloxides(CO2).

Summary
Metals-
1) Group -1 elements are Soft with low melting points and boiling points and
comparative densities are very low as metals.
2) Have to be stored out of contact with air and water(easily react with air and water )
3) React rapidly with air to form gratings of the metal oxides.
4) React with water to produce metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
5) Increase in reactivity down the group.
6) Form compounds in which the metals has 1+ ion.
7) Have mainly white compounds which dissolve to produce a colorless solution.

Compounds of the alkaline metals:

All group 01 metal ions, are colorless. That mean that their compound will be colorless
or white unless they are combined with a colored negative ions. For example, Potassium
dichromate(vi), is orange because the dichromate (vi) ion is orange, Group-01 compounds are
typically ionic solids and are mostly soluble in water
 15

Group-02 elements are less reactive than group-1:

Elements Reactivity Melting point Atomicradius.
Beryllium (Be) Increases Decreases Increases
Magnesium Mg Down Down Down the
Calcium (ca) The The group Group
Strontium (Sr)
Group
Boron. B

Because ,more energy is required to remove 2 electrons form the outer most shell of group 2
than to remove 1 electron from the outer most shell of group -1.

Reaction with water and acid :

1) Magnesium → Mg (s) +2H2O(lq) → Mg(OH)2+ H2 (g)

Mg (s) H2O(g) → MgO(s)+H2(g)

Mg does not react with cold water, even if it does. The reaction is very slow. Mg reacts with
steam. (water vapour) to produce MgO +H2 

2)Calcium → Reacts with cold water the metal sinks. Effervescence is seen (H2 gas given off) A
cloudy solution of Ca(oH)2 is produced which is alkaline in nature.
Ca (s) + 2H2o ( ) → Ca (OH)2 (aq) + H2 

The table below illustrates the observations taken when different metals are placed in
water:
Order of Products:
Metal Reaction
reactivity
Violent reaction with cold water. 1st - most Potassium hydroxide, KOH
Potassium
Floats and catches fire. reactive and hydrogen gas.
Very vigorous reaction with cold
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Sodium water. Floats. Can be lit with alighted 2nd
and hydrogen gas.
splint.
Calcium hydroxide,Ca(OH)2
Calcium Less vigorous with cold water. 3rd
and hydrogen gas.
Very slow with cold water, Magnesium oxide, MgO and
Magnesium 4th
butvigorouswith steam hydrogen gas.
 16

Zinc Zinc oxide, ZnO and

Quite slow with steam. 5th
hydrogen gas.
Iron Iron oxide, Fe2O3 and
Slow with steam. 6th
hydrogen gas.
Lead
Copper
No reaction with steam. 7th-least
Mercury
reactive.
Silver
Platinum

Note: The first three in the table above produce hydroxides and the rest, if they react, produce
oxides.

Observations:
i. Metal solid disappears
ii. Effervescence/fizzing/bubbles of gas
iii. Metal solid moves randomly (for K & Na)

Reactivity with acids:

Most metals react with dilute acids such as HCl .
When acids and metals react, the hydrogen atom in the acid is replaced by the metal atom to
produce a salt and hydrogen gas. For example iron:

metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Fe (s) + 2HCl (aq) → FeCl (aq) + H2 (g)

Reaction of metals with hydrochloric acid:

Let's now look at the reaction between metals and acids to see if they can also help distinguish
difference in reactivity.
Order of Products:
Metal Reaction with hydrochloric acid:
reactivity
 17

Potassium
Violently reacts with a stream of gas 1st - most
Sodium Salt and hydrogen gas
evolving reactive
Calcium
Vigorously reacts with a stream of Magnesium chloride,
Magnesium 2nd
gas evolving. MgCl₂ and hydrogen gas.
Zinc Quite slow reaction with a steady Zinc chloride, ZnCl₂ and
3rd
stream of gas evolving. hydrogen gas.
Iron Slow reaction with a gentle stream of Iron chloride, FeCl₂ and
4th
gas evolving. hydrogen gas.
Lead Very slow and acid must be 5th - least Lead chloride, PbCl2 and
concentrated. reactive. hydrogen gas.
Copper
No reaction

Reactivity with oxygen:

Un reactive metals such as gold and platinum do not react with oxygen.
Some reactive metals such as the alkali metals react easily with oxygen . Copper and iron can
also react with oxygen although much more slowly.
When metals react with oxygen a metal oxide is formed, for example copper:
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
2Cu (s) + O (g) → 2CuO (s)
Metals Heating
Observations
needed
Potassium K burns violently with lilac flame. K₂O
Gentle Potassium oxide
Sodium Na burns violently with golden yellow flame. Na₂O
Sodium oxide
Calcium Ca burns quite violently with a brick red CaO
flame. Calcium oxide
Magnesium Mg Strong burns with a very bright light. MgO
Magnesium oxide
Aluminium Al A white powder produced. Aluminium Al₂O3
oxide
 18

Zinc Zn A powder produced (yellow when hot, ZnO

white when cold). Zinc oxide
Iron Fe burns with sparks. Iron (II) oxide FeO
Lead Pb A powder on suface (orange when hot, PbO
yellow when cold). Lead (II) oxide
Copper Cu Black powder produced on surface. CuO
Very Copper(II) oxide
Mercury Hg strong red powder produced on surface. HgO
heat Mercury(II) oxide
Silver Ag NO apparent reaction

Reduction by carbon:
The reaction with metal oxides and carbon can be used to compare the reactivity of metals. The
more reactive a metal is, the more difficult it is to split its oxide up. We can compare these two
reactions:

MgO(s) + C(s) → no reaction, (Magnesium oxide is not reduced by carbon).

2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO₂(g) (Copper oxide reduced to copper)

Magnesium being a more reactive metal than copper in the reactivity series did not decompose
when heated with carbon.
K> Na >Ca> Mg > Zn> Fe >Pb> Cu > Ag

● Metals below aluminum in the reactivity series can be reduced by carbon. Metals can be
extracted from their ores by reduction with carbon. This includes metals from zinc to gold in the
reactivity series. Oxides of metals above zinc in the reactivity series cannot be reduced by
carbon. These metal oxides are very stable. They can be reduced by electrolysis.

Tendency of a metal to form its positive ion:

Reactivity of a metal depends on the ease with which it forms metal ions.

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Zinc "wins" against copper. It displaces the copper from the copper(II)sulfate solution All of
 19

these are REDOX reactions - we can also call them DISPLACEMENT reactions because zinc
and copper displaced each other. A metal that is higher up in the reactivity series has a higher
tendency to form its positive ion. K> Na>Ca> Mg > Zn> Fe >Pb> Cu > Ag

Thermal stability of carbonates:

Metal carbonates break down when heated strongly to give metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
Thermal stability decreases down the reactivity series and so requires less heat to decompose
to metal oxide and carbon dioxide. Copper (II) carbonate is decomposed at less heat than
calcium carbonate.

heat
CaCO3→CaO + CO2

heat
CuCO3→CuO + CO₂

Summary:
1. The reactivity series is a list of the metals in order of their drive to form positive ions
(therefore as table outer shell). The more easily its atoms give up electrons, the more reactive
the metal is.
2. A metal will react with a compound of a less reactive metal (an oxide, an aqueous salt) by
pushing the less reactive metal out of the compound and taking its place.
3. The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds are. They do not break down.
4. The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its ores (they are stable).
For the most reactive metals we need the toughest method of extraction - electrolysis.
5. The less reactive the metal, the less it likes to form compounds. This is why copper, silver,
and gold are found as elements and not potassium, sodium, or calcium. These elements are
always found as compounds.
 20

Properties & Uses of Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon.
Alloys often have properties that can be very different from the metals they contain, for example,
they can have more strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures.
These enhanced properties can make alloys more useful than pure metals.

Common alloys and their uses:

● Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is much stronger than either metal . It is used in
musical instruments, ornaments and door knobs
● Stainless steel is a mixture of iron and other elements, for example, chromium, nickel and
carbon
It is used in cutlery because of its hardness and resistance to corrosion
●Alloys of iron with tungsten are extremely hard and resistant to high temperatures
●Alloys of iron mixed with chromium or nickel are resistant to corrosion
●Aluminium is mixed with copper, manganese and silicon for aircraft body production as the
alloy is stronger but still has a low density.
 21

Transition Metals:
A series of elements between group 2 and 3 of the periodic table is known as transition metals,
they are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are denser and harder because their strength of the metallic bonds are strong .

Characteristics or Properties if Transition Metals:

1) Variable valenge or variable oxidation state. For example:
Cu+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+
2) Transition metals and their compound have good catalytic properties
Uses of transition Metals.

Name of catalyst Uses in industrial process

1) Iron Haber’s Process (Manufacturer of
Ammonia)
2) Vanadium (v) oxide Contact Process [Manufacturer of
Sulphuric Process]
3) Nickel Conversion of unsaturated fat
4) Platinum In the manufacturer of nitric acid

Rusting of Iron:
●Rust is a chemical reaction between iron, water and oxygen to form the compound
hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust)
●Oxygen and water must be present for rust to occur
During rusting, iron is oxidized .
iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide
 22

Rust prevention methods:

Barrier methods
Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the iron from
coming into contact with water and oxygen.
However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the iron is once again
exposed to water and oxygen and will rust.

Galvanising & Sacrificial Protection:

Iron can be prevented from rusting using the reactivity series .

Sacrificial Protection
A more reactive metal can be attached to a less reactive metal
The more reactive metal will oxidise and therefore corrode first, protecting the less
reactive metal from corrosion
E.g. using zinc bars on the side of steel ships:

Zinc is more reactive than iron therefore will lose its electrons more easily than
iron and is oxidised more easily:
Zn → Zn + 2e-
The iron is less reactive therefore will not lose its electrons as easily so it is not
oxidised; the zinc is sacrificed to protect the steel.

For continued protection, the zinc bars have to be replaced before they completely Corrode .

Galvanizing:

Galvanising is a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of

Zinc.

This can be done by electroplating or dipping it into molten zinc.

ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air and
protects the iron by the barrier method
If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still protected from rusting by sacrificial
protection.
 23

Metal Extraction
1.The method used to extract a metal depends on its position in the reactivity series.

2. The stability of a metal compound (ore) high up in the series is greater than that of one
lower down.
Therefore, it is more difficult to extract sodium from sodium chloride than it is to extract
copper from copper ore. If we heat sodium chloride, it is extremely stable and eventually just
forms molten sodium chloride at about 800 °C. This is because sodium ions are very stable.

However, by just heating mercury ore, mercury metal can be obtained. This is because the
mercury ions are not ver y stable.

3.Every time a metal is extracted from its ore, it involves reduction of the metal. This is because
in the ore, the metal is an ion, and to be extracted as a metal, it has to gain electrons. This is called
reduction.

4.a)Metals which are high in the Reactivity Series require strong reduction of their ores, ai,.d this
is usually. achieved by electrolysis.
b)Middle-order metals such'as iron can be reduced by heating strongly with a reducing agent like
coke. This is called smelting.
c)Low reacti vity metals like mercury are extracted just by heating.

Metals
Potassium K
ELECTROLYSIS METHOD
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al HEATING WITH REDUCING
Zinc Zn AGENT SUCH AS CARBON
Iron Fe
Lead Pb
Copper Cu NO
 24

Mercury Hg CHEMICALREACTIONREQUIRED
Silver Ag

Metal ores are finite resource and hence need to recycle metals e.g. Aluminium and copper.

Advantages and Disadvantages of recycling metals

Advantages Disadvantages
• Recycling helps to limit the amount of • The collection and sorting of domestic
metals that must be produced. This will materials to be recycled can be
end with less garbage in landfills because expensive, time consuming and require
it's being reused. energy.
• Adds jobs to the economy • Requires energy to transport metals to
• Slows the consuming of natural resources recycling centre
• Promotes scientific advancements in
recyclable and biodegradable materials.
• Process of recycling metals usually
creates (much) less pollutants and
greenhouse gases than extracting that
metal from its ore.
• Uses less energy therefore less fossil
fuels are being burnt.

Carbon and Reactivity Series :

Fact1: Carbon will reduce middle order metals like zinc, iron and lead. For example, if lead(II)
oxide is heated up in a charcoal block using a blowpipe, silvery globules of lead metal can be
seen.
lead(II) oxide + carbon --, lead + carbon dioxide
2PbO (s) + C (s) --- 2Pb (1) + CO2 (g)
This reduction with carbon will only work with middle order metals and the more reactive
the metal is, the harder it is for the carbon to take oxygen from the oxide. Iron is more
reactive than lead and iron oxide and carbon must be heated to high temperatures (see the
blast furnace) for the reaction to take place.
Fact 2: One of the reasons why carbon is used to extract metals is because it is so cheap. The
type of carbon used is coke which is obtained by heating coal in the absence of air.
25
26
27
 28

Uses of aluminium:
Pure aluminium isn't very strong, so aluminium alloys are normally used instead. The
aluminium can be strengthened by adding other elements, such as silicon, copper or
magnesium.

1.Aluminium's uses depend on its low density and strength (when alloyed-structure of aircraft ),
2.It has ability to conduct electricity and heat(House wiring)

3.Its appearance, and its ability to resist corrosion (structure of aircraft) .Aluminium resists
corrosion because it has a very thin, but very strong, laver of aluminium oxide on the surface. This
prevents anything else getting to the surface and reacting with it.

Properties and uses of the different kinds of iron

1.although cast iron is very hard, it is also very brittle — tending to shatter if it is hit hard. It is used
for things like manhole covers, guttering and drainpipes, and cylinder blocks in car engines.
Mild steel

2.Mild steel is iron containing up to about 0.25% of carbon. This small amount of carbon increases
the hardness and strength of the iron. It is used for (among other things) wire, nails, car bodies,
ship building, girders and bridges.

3. Pure iron is known as wrought iron. It was once used to make decorative gates and railings,
but has now been largely replaced by mild steel.
4.High-carbon steel is iron containing up to 1.5% carbon. Increasing the carbon content makes the
iron harder, but at the same time it gets more brittle. High-carbon steel is used for cutting tools
and masonry nails.

5.Stainless steel is an alloy of iron with chromium and nickel. Chromium and nickel form strong
oxide layers in the same way as aluminium, and these oxide layers protect the iron as well. Stainless
steel is therefore very resistant to corrosion.
Obvious uses include kitchen sinks, saucepans, knives and forks, and gardening tools, but there
are also major uses for it in the brewing, dairy and chemical industries, where corrosion-resistant
vessels are essential.