SIT 107

Introduction to Computer Systems

 Context
• This session will cover:
• Definitions
• History
• Characteristics
• Classifications
• Components
 Expected Learning Outcomes
• By the end of this session, you should be able to:
i. Explain the evolution of computing technology and the
technological advancement in computer architecture to current
technologies.
ii. Explain the characteristics of computers and how they are different
from humans.
iii. Explain the different types of computers categorized based on size,
price and capabilities.
 Basic Computer Concepts
A. Definition
• A computer is an electronic device capable of executing instructions,
developed based on algorithms stored in its memory, to process data
fed to it and produce the required results faster than human beings.
• It is an electronic device which processes given data to derive the
required and useful information.
• During the processing the computer has to perform various functions
like, Accepting Instructions & data from the user, performing various
arithmetic and Logical operations as per Instructions given and
presenting the Information or Output to the user.
 Cont.
B. Other Definitions
• The definition from the Merriam-Webster Dictionary: "one that
computes; specifically : a programmable electronic device that can
store, retrieve, and process data" A computer is a device that accepts
data in one form and processes it to produce data in another form
i.e. information.
• An electronic device that takes data and instructions as an input from
the users. Processes data and provides useful information known as
output.
 Cont.
C. Illustration
• A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of
a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit.
• A computer accepts data from an input device and processes it into
useful information which it displays on its output device.
• Actually, a computer is a collection of hardware and software
components that help you accomplish many different tasks.
• Hardware consists of the computer itself, and any equipment
connected to it. Software is the set of instructions that the computer
follows in performing a task.
The relationship between Computer, Data and
Information can be depicted as follows
 D. Definition of terms
• Data: basic facts that have not been processed and have no meaning
• Information: processed data, useful and have meaning.
• Program: set or series of instructions that is written in the language
of the computer, which specifies processing / tasks that the computer
is to carry out on data.
• Hardware: is the name given to all the physical and tangible devices
found in a computer system.
• Software: is the general term used to describe all the various
programs that may be used on a computer system together with their
associated documentation.
 Introduction to
History/Generation of Computers
 1. First Generation (1951-1958) by John W. Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert
• The first generation of computers started with the UNIVAC I (Universal
Automatic Computer) built by Mauchly and Eckert in 1951. It was sold to
the U.S. Census Bureau.
• This machine was dedicated to business data processing example payroll
and record keeping and not military or scientific purposes.

Characteristics
• Use of vacuum tubes in electronic circuits: These tubes controlled internal
operations and were huge. As a consequence the machines were large.
• Magnetic drum; used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents passed
through wires which magnetized the core to represent on and off states
• Limited main-storage capacity:
 Cont.
• Slow input/output, punched-card-oriented: Operators performed input and
output operations through the use of punched cards.
• Low level symbolic-language programming: The computer used machine
language which was cumbersome and accomplished through long strings of
numbers made up of Zeroes and Ones.
• In 1952, Dr. Grace Hopper (University of Pennsylvania) developed a symbolic
language called mnemonics (instructions written with symbolic codes).
• Rather than writing instructions with Zeroes and Ones, the mnemonics were
translated into binary code. Dr. Hopper developed the first set of programs or
instructions to tell computers how to translate the mnemonics.
• Heat and maintenance problems: Special air-conditioning and maintenance were
required of the machines. The tubes gave off tremendous amounts of heat.
• Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I
UNIVAC
2. Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)
Characteristics
• Use of transistors for internal operations: tiny solid state transistors
replace vacuum tubes in computers.
• The heat problem was then minimized and computers could be made
smaller and faster. The cost of the computers also reduced. Data access
time was measured in micro-seconds.
• Magnetic core as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents
pass through wires which magnetize the core to represent on and off
states. Data in the cores can be found and retrieved for processing in a
few millionths of a second.
 Cont.
• Increased main-storage capacity: The internal or main storage was
supplemented by use of magnetic tapes for external storage.
• These tapes substituted the punched cards or paper. Magnetic disks
were also developed that stored information on circular tracks that
looked like phonograph records.
• The disks provided direct or random access to records in a file.
• Faster input/output; tape orientation: Devices could be connected
directly to the computer and considered "on-line". This allowed for
faster printing and detection and correction of errors.
 Cont.
• High-level programming languages (COBOL,FORTRAN):These
languages resembled English.
• FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was the first high-level language that was
accepted widely. This language was used mostly for scientific applications.
• COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) was developed in 1961 for
business data processing. Its main features include: file-processing, editing,
and input/output capabilities.
• Increased speed and reliability: Modular-hardware was developed
through the design of electronic circuits.
• Complete modules called "breadboards" could be replaced if malfunctions
occurred, or the machine "crashed".
• This decreased lost time and also new modules could be added for added
features such as file-processing, editing and input/output features
 Cont.
• Batch-oriented applications: billing, payroll processing, updating and
inventory files: Batch processing allowed for collection of data over a
period time and then one processed in one computer run.
• The results were then stored on magnetic tapes. Examples: IBM
1401*(most popular business-oriented computer. Honeywell 200 CDC
1604
 3. Third generation computers (1965-1970)
Characteristics
• Use of integrated circuits: The use of integrated circuits (Ics) replaced
the transistors of the second generation machines.
• The circuits are etched and printed and hundreds of electronic components could
be put on silicon circuit chips less than one-eighth of an inch square.
• Magnetic core and solid-state main storage: Greater storage capacity
was developed. They have higher main memory capacity, reliable and
increased processing power (have the capability of holding more than
one set of instructions and operate on them) than the second generation
computers.
• More flexibility with input/output; disk-oriented:
 Cont.
• Smaller size and better performance and reliability: Advances in
solid-state technology allowed for the design and building of smaller
and faster computers.
• The small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times
the past.
• The speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000
of a second).
• Extensive use of high-level programming languages: The software
industry evolved during this time.
• Many users found that it was more cost effective to buy pre-programmed
packages than to write the programs themselves..
Cont.
• Emergence of minicomputers: The mini computers offered many of
the same features as the mainframe computers only on a smaller
scale. These machines filled the needs of the small business owner.
• Remote processing and time-sharing through communication:
Computers were then able to perform several operations at the same
time.
• Remote terminals were developed to communicate with a central
computer over a specific geographic location. Time sharing
environments were established.
 Cont.
• Availability of operating-systems (software) to control I/O and do
tasks handled by human operators: Software was developed to take
care of routine tasks required of the computer freed up the human
operator.
• Applications such as airline reservation systems, market forecasting,
credit card billing: The applications also included inventory, control,
and scheduling labor and materials.
• Multitasking was also accomplished. Both scientific and business
applications could be run on the same machine. Examples: IBM
System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500
4. Fourth Generation (1970-)
• Use of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
circuits which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which are
between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC.
• Smaller and cheaper
• Increased storage capacity and speed. Memory used includes magnetic
disc and optical disc.
• Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster.
• Modular design and compatibility between equipment
• Special application programs
• Versatility of input/ output devices
Cont.
• Increased use of minicomputers
• Introduction of microcomputers. This generation marked the origin
of microcomputers in use today
• Applications: mathematical modeling and simulation, electronic
funds transfer, computer-aided instruction and home computers.
Internet Explosion.
• Enabled creation of Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area
Networks (WAN) which facilitates connection and communication of
hundred of computers located across multiple locations.
 Cont.
• Operating systems included; DOS and Windows. Use of GUI –
Graphical User Interface – a user friendly interface that provides
ICONS and Menus to the user to interact with the various computer
applications.
5. Fifth generation computers (1990-current)
• The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an
initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry,
begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" which was
supposed to perform much calculation using massive parallel
processing.
• The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large-scale
integration) technology, the microchip technology that gave rise to
the smaller computers known as the micro computers in use today.
 Cont.
• These computers are used in networking. Examples of
microcomputers are IBM PCs BBC micro etc.
• The micro computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or
desktop computers because they were designed primarily to serve
single person at a time.
• The fifth generation is still a state-of-the-art technology that relies on
predictions and further technological refinements.
• It has been predicted that such a computer will be able to
communicate in natural spoken language with its user.
 Summary
• Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is
that there is;
• Continual decrease in computer physical size
• Improved speed and power processing
• Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
• Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over
500,000 physical elements e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc. per chip(IC).
• Emergence and prevalence of distributed computing. To learn more about
distributed computing watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kNHyMq27uV8
 Current Trend
• Quantum Computing – Research about it
Characteristics, Limitations and
Application Areas of a Computer
Characteristics of Computers
• Perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately.
• Store large amounts of data and information for subsequent manipulation.
• Compare items and make decisions.
• Provide information to the users in many different forms
• Automatically correct or modify the parameters of a system under control
• Converse with the users interactively
• Receive and display audio and video signals
• Speed – a computer is a very fast machine. It can perform in a very few
seconds the amount of work that a human being can do in a year if he/she
worked day and night doing nothing else.
 Cont.
• Accuracy – the computer accuracy is consistently high.
• Diligence – computers are free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration etc. It can therefore work for hours without creating an
error.
• For example if 10 million calculations are to be done, a computer will do the
tenth million calculations with exactly the same speed and accuracy as the
first one.
• Power of remembering – a computer can store and recall any
information due to its secondary storage capability.
• No feelings – computers are devoid of emotions. They have no
feelings or instincts and none possesses the equivalent of a human
heart and soul.
 Cont.
• Versatility – a computer performs various tasks with ease. The
computer perform three basic operations.
• It is capable to access and accept information through various input-output
devices from the user.
• It performs basic Arithmetic and Logic operations on data as desired.
• It is capable to generate the desired output in the desired form.
• Example i.e. it can search for a letter, the next moment prepare an electricity
bill, and write a report next then do an arithmetic calculation all with ease.
 Limitation of Computers
• Computer does not work on itself, it requires set of instructions to be
provided, else computer (Hardware) is waste.
• Computer are not intelligent, they have to be instructed about each
and every step which they have to perform
• Computers cannot take decisions on its own, one has to program the
computer to take an action if some conditional prevail.
• Computers use the concept of GIGO (Garbage in Garbage Out)
 Application Areas
• Data processing (Commercial use).
• Numerical computing (Scientific use).
• Internet browsing
• Text (word) processing (Office and Education)
• Image processing (Animation and industrial use).
• Voice recognition (Multimedia)
• Research
• Software development
• Military
Classification of Computers
 Classification of Computers
• By Type:
· Digital computers: process data that is represented in the form of
discrete values (eg. 0,1 ) by operating on its in steps. Discrete values
occur at each step in the operation
· Analog Computers: akin to measuring instruments such as
thermometers and voltmeters with pointers on circular dials. They
process data in the form of electrical voltages, which are variable like
the positions of a pointer on a dial.
· Hybrid: computers that have the combined features of digital and
analog computers.
 Classification of Computers Cont.
• Classification by purpose
This gives rise to;
· Special purpose computers: designed for a particular job only; to
solve problems of a restricted nature, example computers used in
digital watches, programmable pocket calculators, petrol pumps etc.
· General purpose computers: designed to solve a wide variety of
problems
Classification by function
• Classification by the work the computer is used for. This results in;-
• Home Computers: designed for domestic use, have limited capacity
etc. eg, computer games
• Desktop computers: designed for use on an office desktop
• Workstation: have more features and capabilities than the desktop
computers, such as inbuilt capabilities for interconnection and
operation in conjunction with other computers.
• Lap-top: smaller than a PC and portable.
• Embedded computers: inserted within some device or system and are
not accessed directly.
 Classification by size
• Super Computers
• They are very large in size and use multiple processors and
superior technology. Super computers are biggest in size, the most
expensive in price.
• It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is
not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.
• Governments specially use this type of computer for their different
calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use it for
designing their products.
• In most of the Hollywood’s movies it is used for animation
purposes.
 Cont.
• This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather
reports worldwide. They are known for von Newman’s design i.e.
multiple processor system with parallel processing.
• In such a system a task is broken down and shared among
processes for faster execution. They are used for complex tasks
requiring a lot of computational power.
• They are also referred to as high performance computers: To learn
more about HPC:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ke8Q2HggEqk
 Cont.
• Mainframe computers
• A mainframe is another giant computer after the super computer and can
also process millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing
billions of data .
• They have high capacity of main memory and processing power.
• This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, airline reservations
companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of
its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.
• They can be linked to smaller computers and handle hundreds of users
they are also used in space exploration.
• They are expensive to install.
 Cont.
• Minicomputers
• They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than
microcomputers.
• They support concurrent users. They can be used as servers in
companies.
• They are slower and less costly compared to mainframe computers
but more powerful, reliable and expensive than microcomputers.
 Cont.
• Microcomputers
• They are of advanced technology i.e. the microchip era based on large
scale integration that confines several physical components per small
elements thumb size IC, hence the size reduced.
• It is the smallest of the three computers. They are usually called
personal computers since they are designed to be used by individuals.
• The microchip technology has enabled reduction of size of
computers. Microcomputers can be a desktop, laptop, notebooks, or
even palmtop
 Microcomputers Cont.

• Notebook computer: An extremely lightweight personal computer.

Notebook computers typically weigh less than 2.7 kgs and are small
enough to fit easily in a briefcase.
• Aside from size and portability, Notebook computers use a variety of
techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and
non-bulky display screen.
• Desktop Computer: It is an independent personal computer that is
made especially for use on a desk in an office or home.
• The term is used mainly to distinguish this type of personal computer
from portable computers and laptops, but also to distinguish other
types of computers like the server or mainframe.
 Microcomputers Cont.

• Laptop: A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably,

with a flat screen and keyboard that fold together.
• Laptops are battery-operated, often have a thin, backlit or sidelit LCD
display screen, and some models can even mate with a docking
station to perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the office.
• Advances in battery technology allow laptop computers to run for many hours
between charges, and some models have a set of business applications built
into ROM.
• Today's high-end (Advanced) laptops provide all the capabilities of most
desktop computers.
 Classification by size cont.
• Palmtop: A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared
to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are
practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars.
• Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often
called hand-held computers or PDAs.
• Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk
drives.
• However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives,
modems, memory, and other devices.
• Nowadays palmtops are being integrated into the mobile phones as
multipurpose devices.
Components of a Computer
Cont.
• A computer has two main components;
• Hardware
• Software
• Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer
such as the monitor, Keyboard, Mouse, system unit etc.
• Computer software refers to a set of programs associated with the
operation of a computer.
• The two components (hardware, software) will be discussed later in
other chapters.
The primary / basic component of a computers
are
• Input: devices used to capture and send data and instructions to the processing
component / unit of the computer
• Storage: used to store the data and instructions until needed to be worked on.
Also used to hold the processed information until required for output. There are
two types of storage; main memory(storage) and secondary storage
• Control: used to fetch instructions from the main storage, interprets them, and
issues the necessary signals to the components making the computer system. It
directs all hardware operations necessary in obeying instructions.
• Processing: processing is done by the Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) which obeys
the instructions and performs the required arithmetic operations, and logical
operations
• Output: devices used to output the processed data (information). This includes,
screen, printer etc.
The Relationship can be depicted as follows
 Features that affect the performance of the
computer include:
• Microprocessor
• Operating System
• RAM
• disk drives
• Display
• input/output ports
• Device drivers
 The End

Q & A Session