MIDTERM FORENSIC SCIENCE 3

Fire, defined.
Fire is a chemical reaction (rapid oxidation) that produces physical effects with evolution of heat and light. This
reaction is called combustion.
Fire Investigation is the comprehensive analytical approach by understanding the fundamental property of fire
by determining the chemistry of fires, fuels, and combustion. It is advantageous for an investigator and lawyer
on case if they have at least basic knowledge about fire.

Objectives / Purpose of Fire Investigation

1. To save lives and to prevent injuries
2. To determine the origin and cause of fire
3. To provide proof of fact during trial
4. To prepare to defend those conclusions in rational and logical manner supported by scientific valid data.

Classification of Fire Investigation

1. Natural
2. Accidental
3. Unknown origin
4. Suspicious
5. Incendiary (obvious arson)

Incendiary fire
This is the largest and most obvious fire investigated. The primordial intent is to destroy property/ies of
another.

Issues in Fire Investigation

1. Lack of time
2. Misidentified as accidental fire due to lack of experience
3. Intentionally made to avoid complication of identifying a fire as a criminal act (long investigative time,
generates negative publicity on the community).

Arson Investigation
Under the law, arson is the malicious burning of dwelling, house, or building of another. In all fires, there must
be a cause before an effect is produced. This cause is known as combustion. Combustion is the effect of
certain causes and if these causes are not present, there can be no combustion, spontaneous or otherwise.
The assistance of a Forensic expert plays an important role in arson investigation. Oftentimes, fire has been
done maliciously, hence, the determination of the nature and cause of the fire depends on the result of
examination of an expert based on the evidence collected from the crime scene. The examination will not only
save the time of the investigator but also prevent the accusation of an innocent person.

Technical Aspects of Arson Cases

Burning or combustion is the rapid oxidation of substances accompanied by the generation of heat and light.
Burning occurs only when three (3) essential ingredients are present: fuel, oxygen, and heat. Obviously, to
create a fire, there must be combustible materials. It may be solid, liquid or gas. Strictly speaking, only gases
burn.
The solids and liquids must be heated to liberate flammable gases. The gases in turn must rise to the proper
temperature before ignition occurs. Hence, there must be presence of combustible materials to burn and a
source of heat to raise the temperature of the fuel to the kindling point.
Finally, there must be a supply of oxygen since burning is a process of oxidation. Oxygen may be supplied
from the air or from oxidizing agents.

Causes of Fire
A fire may be produced intentionally or accidentally. One of the methods of proving arson is to determine
systematically the presence of malice and intent in burning the property of another.
An accidental fire may arise from the working of certain forces of nature or from negligence in the use of
equipment and materials.
Natural causes of fire
Sunrays are focused by bubbles in windowpanes, shaving mirrors or by some other peculiarly shaped glass
article, which may serve as convex lens.
Lightning usually strikes a high point of the building and may be traced in its path Traces of lightning are
melting of metal to the ground. parts of of the building streaked paint with burned ores, cracks in the walls,
broken bricks and soot driven into rooms from the chimney
Indications of Arson Fire
Arson fire is generally indicated by:
1. Burning faster and larger than normal
2. Often having multiple points of origin
3. Use of accelerants
4. A time delay device (a matchbox and cigarette is a 22 minute fuse)
5. Cans and containers are usually found at the crime scene

Heat can be estimated by the condition of window glass place. Small shards of glass mean an explosion took
"Crazing" means a hot fire
Melted copper, aluminum and other metals usually mean an accelerant was used.
Soot that wipes off easily from glass or slightly charred studs behind the walls means a quick fire.

COMBUSTION, NATURE AND BEHAVIOR OF FIRE Combustion, defined.

Combustion is a burning reaction in which a substance combines with a gas. Heat and light usually
accompanied by combustion reaction and most of this reaction involve oxygen.
Example: Hydrogen combined with oxygen will undergo rapid oxidation and produces water and heat.

Two types of Combustion

1. Flaming-destructive, gaseous combustion where both the fuel and oxidizer are gases. Flaming fire is
achieved when gas or vapor is continuously burning.
2. Glowing absence of fire but presence of very hot materials on surface of which combustion is proceeding.

Two kinds of Combustion

a. Complete combustion - all of the reactants are consumed
b. Incomplete combustion - only some parts of the reactant are consumed
Basic Combustion Condition
1. Presence of Combustible fuel
2. Oxidizer
3. Energy of ignition (heat) applied
4. Interaction of fuel and oxidizer to sustain chain reaction

Matter elements and compounds: composed of atoms combined forming molecules

Air composed of 21% oxygen and 75% Nitrogen
Oxidation-is a combination of elements and compounds with oxygen producing stable substances. Those
compounds and elements that combine with oxygen and produces fire are called flammable substance and the
process is called combustion
Pyrolisis comes from the Greek word pyro (fire) and lysis (decompose); process of decomposition of material
to simpler compounds brought about by heat from fire.
Flame is a gaseous reaction where plume of hot gases rises by convection when air and its oxygen is
maintained by solid (soot) or liquid (aerosol) in a closed room.

Theoretically,
If oxygen falls below 15%, combustion rate decreases.
If the temperature reaches 900-1000 degree C, post flashover room roo is only 5-8%. fires which oxygen
concentration
If 0-5% and the temperature reaches 1000 degree C-flaming hot.
Nitrogen, N presence of nitrogen helps/ delivers extra oxygen to continue the combustion reaction.
Example: presence of Nitrates (NO3) in fuel

Color Temperature of Incandescent hot object (glowing fire)

1. Dark red - 500 to 600deg C
2. Dull red-600-800deg C
3. Bright cherry red - 800 - 1000deg C
4. Orange-1000-1200deg C
5. Bright yellow - 1200-1400deg C
6. white-1400-1600deg C

Fire Triangle Explosive Triangle

1. Fuel 1. Fuel
2. Heat. Ignition 2. Ignition
3. Oxidant 3. Oxidant

Color of Smoke and Odor being evolved

1. White humid materials
2. Light gray - hay and vegetable matter
3. Black lack of air with huge flames usually petroleum based.
4. Reddish brown/thick yellow/brownish yellow- nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and sulfuric, nitric or other
chemicals.
5. Biting smoke - indicates the presence of sulfur
6. Rotten-Cabbage like odor - indicates the presence of carbon disulfide
7. Garlic odor- indicates the presence of phosphorous

Application of Heat to Fire investigation

1. Heat as applied for igniting fire
2. Heat as applied for increasing rate of chemical reaction
3. Transfer of heat.

Transfer of Heat
1. Conduction - transfer by contact between moving molecules from hot to cold areas.
2. Convection - distribution of heat by circulating medium
3. Radiation critical where it aids fire to spread and promotes ignition of other fuels.

Two types of Heat Reaction

1. exothermic - heat is released from the system
2. endothermic - heat is absorbed to the system.

SOURCES OF IGNITION
Ignition involves burning the fuel to characteristic temperature by convection, conduction or radiation of heat
until it can sustain combustion. The following are the sources of ignition:
Sparks/ Arks
Primary Igniters
Lighters
Hot object/surface
Friction

Primary Igniters

Matches
is the most common device for kindling a flame. It is composed of combustible material combined with head
containing both fuel and oxidizer that can be ignited by friction.
Two types of primary igniters:
1. Strike anywhere/kitchen match - the tip contains a high percentage of Phosphorous sesquisulfide (P4S3)
and ground glass.
Component: oxidant = Potassium Chlorate
Fuel= Sulfur or paraffin + binder or glue + filler (silica)
2. Safety match will ignite only using abrasives (rough) materials
Component: oxidant = red phosphorous
Fuel=sulfur

Lighters
Lighters can explode when exposed to a high temperature an and form a leakage when exposed to a reduced
atmospheric pressure such as airplane.
Two types of lighter:
a. Electrical/element type - electrically connected to a battery of vehicles, current, etc.
b. Liquid fuel lighters contain liquid butane or light petroleum as fuel in a compartment under pressure.

Sparks/Arks
Sparks/Arks can be produced using electrical current discharging through the air or insulator, or tiny fragment
of burning or glowing solid.

Hot object/surface
Hot object may convert the fuel to vapor which eventually starts a fire.

Friction
Friction between two moving objects/surfaces generates heat.
Example: brake shoes of automobiles can become extremely hot.

LABORATORY IDENTIFICATION
Recognition, Collection and Preservation of Physical evidence
In recognizing fire, identify first the origin. In this case, many any evidence can be recovered such as partially
burned and unburned fuels. This is usually trapped in crevices or under the collapsed chimneys, etc.
In collecting physical evidence such as debris, use your nose if a vapor detector is not available. Collect as
many as you can until the container is completely filled. If the container is completely filled with debris,
evaporation of volatile accelerants will be prevented even if the container is opened.
Preservation: usual container used is unused metal paint cans or glass with a screw cap.

Laboratory Examination
1. Color test using "Sudan Black".
In this method of examination, the accelerants are allowed to evaporate and the vapors are rea reacted with
this color of solution will chemical until pink appear which in indicates the presence of any accelerant.
2. Confirmatory examination: Gas chromatography with Headspace
This analytical method is used to detect the specific volatile accelerants by comparing it with known standard
such as kerosene, gasoline, etc.

How to minimize the fire

Fire incidents can be prevented by:
1. Better building designs
2. Fire safety practices

TOOLMARK
A tool is an instrument or object capable of making a mark on another object. mark is defined as any
impression, cut,
A tool scratch, gouge, or abrasion, or any other marking left on an object by another harder object or
instrument. A tool mark may be classified as a negative impression, as an abrasion or friction-type mark or as
a combination of the two.
Negative impression - is made when a tool is pressed against or into a receiving surface. This type of mark is
usually made when a crowbar is used to pry open a door or a window.
Abrasion or friction mark is made when a tool cuts into or slides across a surface. This type of mark may be
made by a pair of pliers, a bolt cutter, knife, ax, saw, drill, plane, or a die used in the manufacture of wire.
Combination mark is made, for example, when a crowbar is forcefully inserted into the space between a door
and the door facing and pressure is applied to the handle of the tool to force the door open. The forceful
insertion of the crowbar produces an abrasion or friction mark and the levering action produces a negative
impression.
Application of Tool Mark
1. Knife marks on bone
2. Fractured knife blades
3. Homemade explosive devises
4. Crimp marks on detonation
5. Cut marks on wire
6. Pry marks on a window or door

What information can a tool mark provide?

1. The type of tool
2. Shape of the cutting edge of a blade
3. Blade width
4. Color of the tool (based on the paint transfer from the tool)
5. Class characteristics of the tool
6. Unique identifying marks

Uses of Tool Mark Evidence

Tool mark may be used to:
a. links a person who used the tool in the commission of the crime, or some other acts material to the
commission of the crime;
b. establishes whether a given tool or weapon found at the crime scene has made a mark that is material to the
crime;
c. establishes a connection between similar evidence discovered in a series of crimes;
d. determines whether a door or window was forced open from the inside or outside;
e. compares a tool mark from a crime scene with a tool mark found on the property, equipment, or vehicle of a
suspect; and
f. facilitates and narrow the search for a given tool or weapon.

Why are tool marks important in the crime scene investigation?

Tool marks are important in crime scene investigation because you can tell what kind of tool was used, and by
that you can see if the suspect's tools match the tool mark.
Tool marks are usually discovered on doors, windows and other openings that may have been used by a
criminal in their forcible entry or exit. Particular attention must be focused on broken, forced or cut lock and the
immediate area surrounding these fastenings. Entire crime scene and its vicinity must be searched for tool that
may have been used.
Whenever possible, submit the whole object containing tool marks ks to the laboratory instead of just the area
containing the mark. If this is not possible, carefully photograph and sketch the area containing the mark.
Casts of tool marks can be made by a person who has had considerable experience in this work. Poor casts
are useless for comparison purposes and some marks will be damaged if improper methods are used.

Preservation and Packaging of Tools

Package the object containing tool marks so that no alteration or damage will occur during shipment. Small
objects should be wrapped with clean paper and placed in envelopes or boxes, while important areas or larger
objects can be protected with paper. Whole, large objects can be packed in cartons or crates, if not delivered in
person.
Test marks are made with suspected tools on material similar to those on which the tool marks are present and
compared with suspected tool marks by using comparison microscope.

GLASS AND GLASS FRACTURE

Glass, defined.
Glass is an inorganic substance in a condition which is continuous with, and analogous to, the liquid state of
that substance, but which, as the result of reversible change in viscosity as to be, for all practical purposes,
rigid.
Glass is normally a fused mixture of silica usually in the form of natural sand and two or more alkaline bases
such as soda, lime, or potash. It also contains quantities of various other elements and metals present either
as incidental impurities in the basic constituents or added to them for color, degrees of hardness, heat
resistance, and other specific purposes.

Properties of Glass
1. Glass is somewhat flexible; it tends to bend upon application of force.
2. Glass bends on the direction where force is applied causing the opposite side to stretch.
3. Glass can withstand more bending rather than stretching causing the opposite side to start breaking.

The significance of knowing the characteristics of glass, either as evidence or in the development of
investigative leads, lies mainly in its physical properties. These properties make it possible to determine that
glass fragments did or did not originate from the same source, or to determine the manner in which a piece of
glass was broken.

Glass fractures
Glass fractures may be caused by excessive exposure to heat or caused by impact of a blunt instrument or
object, or caused by projectiles.

Types of Glass fracture:

1. Radial Fractures primary fracture resembles the spokes of a wheel where the radiating rod originates at a
common point. When glass breaks, the lines that radiate from the hole are caused by the glass bending away
from the point of impact. The radial fractures originate on the opposite side of the glass, because this is the
surface which is the first to feel the tension. As the front of the glass is pushed in, the opposite side is bent
backwards. When the limit of glad elasticity is reached, it breaks, with cracking resulting along the radial lines.
2. Concentric Fractures secondary fracture having the appearance of circles around the point of impact
connecting one radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular pieces of glass. While the radial fractures
are forming, triangles are created between the fractures. The newly formed triangle glass between the radial
fractures also bends away from the direction of force. When the limit of elasticity for this triangles is reached,
the glass breaks in concentric lines. Concentric fractures originate on the front of the glass.
3. Conchoidal Fractures - A characteristic of glad is that when it breaks, the frature edges appear shell-like in
form that is, having elevations or depressions in the shape of a shell The technical name for this condition is
"conchoid" fracture.

Fractures Caused by Heat

Fractures caused by excessive exposure to heat can be distinguished from those caused by impact since
those due to heat do not show a regular pattern of radial and concentric lines. Heat fractures are
characteristically wave-shaped.
Heat fractures also show curve patterns (stress lines) along the edges. Expansion of the glass (stretching
action) occurs first on the side exposed to the heat and glass splinters are usually towards that side.
Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat will disclose the wave-shaped fracture pattern.

Fractures Caused by a Blunt Instrument/Object

Thorough examination of glass fractures caused by the impact of a blunt instrument/object will reveal a pattern
of radial and concentric fractures.
When glass fractures are caused by the impact of a blunt instrument/object, stress lines on the edges of both
the radial and concentric fractures can be seen.

Fractures Caused by Projectiles

A small dense object such as bullet, pebble, or steel ball may impact upon a pane of glass with such a little
force, or at such a high speed, that there is no bulging of the glass, and therefore, no radial cracks Penetration
of high velocity projectiles will produce a coning or catering effect, where opening is larger on the exit side.

Significance of determining the types of glass fractures

From the study of the types of glass fractures, one may arrive at the following conclusions:
1. Point of Impact
Glass is at its maximum strength gth under compression, but weak in tension. An impact on a pane of glass
causes it to bulge. Since the side opposite the impact is stretched more, it ruptures first. Radial cracks are
rapidly propagated away from the point of impact in short segments. Ridges will be seen as irregularities on
the broken edge of a radial crack. These ridges tend to be perpendicular to the side opposite the impact and
parallel to the side of impact. If there is high stress, minute stress cracks called hackles or hackle marks may
also be observed under the microscope at right angles to the ridges.
2. Direction of Impact
Generally, the hole produced in the glass by a bullet is small and has sharp edges. However, if a bullet has
been fired from a very long distance and hits a window at low speed, it will break the pane in much same
manner as a stone. A shot few inches from a glass will produce a similar result, because the pressure of the
powder gas itself will smash the glass.
A bullet will make a clear-cut hole in the side of entrance rather than on the exit side. If a shot is fired
perpendicularly, it will give a crater of uniform flaking. If the shot is fired at an angle from the right, the left exit
side of the glass will give more flaking and vice versa. Depression will be produced on the exit side of the glass
due to the rebound of the glass. Radial fracture can be seen on the exit side and the concentric fracture on the
entrance side.
3. Entrance and Exit Hole
Point of entry is where the force is being applied and it may produce a smaller hole than the exit. The exit is
bigger than the entry for the reason that the force applied at the glass exceeded its desired force. Point of entry
has a smooth hole while the exit hole has the characteristic of roughness.

Causes of Glass Fracture

Glass fracture may be due to the following:
1. Due to Natural Means - exhibits plain wavy lines
2. Due to Mechanical Means exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture

Factors to be determined in glass fracture

A. Point of Impact:
Entrance Side Exit Side
1. Concentric fracture 1. Radial fracture
2. Clear cut edges 2. Rugged edges
3. Absence of depression 3. With depression
4. Absence of flaking 4. With flakings

B. Position of the Shooter

1. Perpendicular Shot-exhibits an even distribution of chippings on the exit side of the glass from the Right
heavy flakings or
2. Angle chippings on the left side of the glass
3. Angle from the Left - heavy flakings on the right side of the glass

C. Age of Fracture
1. Fresh Fracture exhibits a regular pattern of radial/concentric fracture
2. Old Fracture presence of a short extension lines at the end of the radial fracture
HAIR
Hair is the outermost covering of the different parts of the body with the exception of the palm of the hand and
the sole of the foot.
Through microscopic examination, the forensic examiner will first determine if the hair samples are of animal or
human origin. If the hair is of animal origin, a general determination as to species may be made, i.e., cat, dog,
horse, cow, carabao, etc.

In the case of human hair, the following can be determined:

1. The race of the person the hair originated from Negroid, Mongolian, and Caucasian
2. The area of the body surface that the hair originated from head, face, chest, axilla, and pubic region
3. How hair was removed - naturally or forcibly
4. Whether the hair was cut with dull or sharp instrument or was crushed or burned
5. Usually examination will not permit conclusive determination of age and sex.

Structural Parts of the Hair

A. Inner Aspect: B. Outer Aspect:
1. Cuticle - outermost part which is scale-like in 1. Tip - the distal end portion of the hair
appearance 2. Shaft - portion of the hair above the surface of
2. Cortex - the innermost portion that contains the the skull
pigment 3. Root - portion that is embedded in the skin
3. Medulla - the central canal of the hair

ULTRAVIOLET EXAMINATION
Is a method of scientific examination of evidence using ultraviolet light. Documents, weapons, chemicals,
minerals, petroleum products and other items of evidence should be observed routinely under the he ultraviolet
lamp.
Method of examination
Only suitable ultraviolet lamp and darkroom are necessary for ultraviolet examination. The room should contain
adequate table space on which garments and other items to be examined may be spread. The evidence is
being placed under the ultraviolet lamp.
FIBER
Fabric, composed of knotted or woven yarns, shall be examined in terms of color, composition and
construction. Questioned fabric may be determined if similar to known fabrics. Positive identification may be
made where a questioned piece of fabric may be fitted back into the known fabrics. This type of fabric
examination is based on matching broken ends of yarn together.
Fiber may be identified as to type, color and matching characteristics based on laboratory microscopic, micro
chemical and melting point examinations. Generally, fiber matches are not positive evidence, and require
substantiation with other corroborative evidence.
TAPE
The examination is similar to fabrics examination which generally involves the matching of the ends of pieces
of tapes used at the scene of a crime with the end of tape on a roll found in the possession of a suspect.
Cordage in the form of rope and string is examined in terms of composition, color, diameter and construction.
The known sample is compared with the unknown and occasionally, ends may be matched or the
manufacturer may be determined.
PAINT
Paint specimen is examined and compared by using a microscope to determine the color, texture, layer,
structure and any unique characteristics which may serve as points of similarity or dissimilarity.
Paint specimen or scraping is further analyzed using Quarts Spectrograph in determining and comparing the
elemental composition of the questioned and standard. A very small amount of specimen is sufficient and even
trace elements can be detected. The spectrum resulting from burning a small particle of paint between carbon
electrode is recorded on a photographic plate which becomes a permanent record

MACRO-ETCHING
Macro-etching (also known as Acid-etching method) is a technique employed in number restoration which
involves the application of chemical solution on the metal surface where the serial number is normally located.

Chemicals/Reagents examination Used in Macro etching

1. For Iron and Steel: Cupric Chloride + Hydrochloric Acid + water
2. For Aluminum: Nitric Acid + water
3. For Lead: Glacial acetic acid+ Hydrogen peroxide
Number Restoration
When a letter or number is stamped into a metal surface, a molecular disturbance occurs beneath the visible
portion of the letter or number erased
Serial Number
A series of number that is punched or pressed into a particular object/material to distinguish that object from
one another. A serial number is sometimes preceded with or followed by letters and symbols.

Types of Number
1. Stamped number: number that is pressed or punched into a metal surface.
2. Engraved number: number that is pressed intendedly using electrical or mechanical gadget.
3. Embossed number: number that is raised from the surface.

Preliminary Examination in Number Restoration

Important points in the preliminary examination in number restoration:
1. A careful search for the location of the serial number must be made before the start of the restoration
process.
2. Grease and oil must be removed using gasoline, alcohol, etc.
3. Clean or polish the area using sandpaper.
4. Photograph the affected area.

Spot Detection of Tampered/Obliterated Serial Number

1. Presence of any sign of welding surrounding the serial number.
2. Presence of several scratches and filing marks on the serial surface.
3. Presence of any sign of concavity on the serial number surface.
4. Presence of any difference in the style of letters and numbers.
5. Appearance of fragmentary marks which could not be properly identified because part of it is superimposed
by letters and numbers.
6. Presence of any difference in the spacing of individual letters and numbers.
7. Misalignment of letters and numbers. 8. Absence of one or more letters before, in-between or after a set of
sequential numbers.
9. Letters and numbers are stamped on places where the serial is normally located.
10. Sizes of letters and numbers are sharper and coarser than the others.
11. Presence of any irregularities in the depth of individual letters and numbers.
12. Model of the vehicle in the chassis number does not tally with that of the rating plate. 13. Absence of rating
plate.
14. Alteration of the production number.

LIQUIOR TEST
What is the purpose of this test?
Basically, the purpose of this test is to determine whether or not a person is intoxicated with liquor. This test is
being conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol present in the blood sample taken from the person
suspected to have been intoxicated with alcohol.

Laboratory Examination
Quantitative examination is conducted to determine the amount of ethyl alcohol present in the blood.

Significance of determining whether a person is intoxicated with alcohol

Intoxication as an alternative circumstance must be taken into consideration as aggravating or mitigating
according to the nature and effects of the crime and the other conditions attending its commission.
The intoxication of the offender shall be taken into consideration as a mitigating circumstance when the
offender has committed a felony in a state of intoxication, if the same is not habitual or subsequent to the
plan to commit said felony; but when the intoxication is habitual or intentional, it shall be considered as
an aggravating circumstances.