CSIR/UGC-NET/JRF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE: ONLINE COURSE

SUBJECT: Real Analysis - TOPIC: Continuity

Continuity: Let f : A → B be a function, A, B ⊆ R, let a ∈ A, f is said to be left continuous at x = a if
f (a− ) = f (a+ ) and f is said to be right continuous at x = a if f (a+ ) = f (a− ). f is said to be continuous at
x = a, if f (a− ) = f (a+ ) = f (a). i.e., f is said to be continuous at x = a, limx→a f (x) = f (a).
 - δ Definition: Let f : A → B be a real function, and let a ∈ A, f is said to be continuous at x = a,if for
any  > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |x − a| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (a)| < .
Sequential Definition: Let f : A → B be a real function and let a ∈ A, f is said to be continuous at x = a,
if for any (xn ) → a the image sequence (f (xn )) → f (a).
Example:
1. Every polynomial are continuous on R.
2. Rational functions are continuous on their domains.
3. Trigonometric functions are continuous on their domains.
4. Modulus function is continuous.
5. Exponential function is continuous on R.
6. Log is continuous on (0, ∞)
Counter examples:
1. Greatest or least integer function is discontinuous at every integer points.
2. Fraction function is discontinuous at integer points.
3. Signum function is discontinuous at x = 0
4. sin x1 and cos x1 are not continuous at x = 0.
Discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a, if it is
not continuous at x = a.
1. Removable discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to have a removable
discontinuity at x = a, if limx→a f (x) exists but limx→a f (x) 6= f (a). To remove this discontinuity we
have to redefine f (a) = limx→a f (x).
2. Non-Removable discontinuity:
(i) First kind/simple discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to have
a first kind discontinuity at x = a, if both f (a− ) and f (a+ ) exists, but they are not equal .
(ii) Second kind discontinuity: Let f : A → B be a real function, let a ∈ A, f is said to have a
second kind discontinuity at x = a, if either f (a− ) or f (a+ ) does not exists.
Result:
1. Monotone functions cannot have a discontinuity of the second kind.
2. The set of discontinuity of monotone function is almost countable.
3. Let f be monotonically increasing on (a, b), then f (x− ) and f (x+ ) exists at every point x ∈ (a, b) and
f (x− ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (x+ ) if a < x < y < b then f (x+ ) ≤ f (y − ).
4. Let f be monotonically decreasing on (a, b), then f (x− ) and f (x+ ) exists at any point x ∈ (a, b) and
f (x− ) ≥ f (x) ≥ f (x+ ) .
Algebra of continuous function: Let f and g be two constant functions, then f +g, f −g, f g, fg , f og, gof, f of, gog
etc are also continuous provided they exists.
Theorems on Continuity:
(I) Extreme Value Theorem
 (i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, then f is bounded on [a, b].
(ii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, then f attains its bounds atleast once in [a, b].
(iii) Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous, then f has the least and the largest values, say l = inf f (x), L =
sup f (x). Also, the range of f is the interval [l, L]
Intermediate Value Theorem:
(i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, if f (a) 6= f (b) then f assumes every value between
f (a) and f (b).
Note: If l = inf(f ), L = sup(f ), then f assumes every value between [l, L].
(ii) Location Roots Theorem:
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, and let f (a) and f (b) be of opposite signs, then there
exists atleast one point c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
Note: If there exists two distinct points x0 and y0 with x0 < y0 in [a, b] such that f (x0 ) and f (y0 )
are of opposite signs. Then there exists atleast one point z0 ∈ (x0 , y0 ) such that f (z0 ) = 0.
(iii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function and c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) 6= 0, then there exists
δ > 0 such that f (x) has the same sign as that of f (c), ∀x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ)
Result: Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous,
(i) If f is monotonically increasing, then R(f ) = [f (a), f (b)]
(ii) If f is monotonically decreasing, then R(f ) = [f (b), f (a)]
Observations:
(a) If a function does not satisfy IVT(IVP) on an interval [a, b], then the function is discontinuous on
[a, b].
(b) If a function satisfies IVP, on an interval [a, b], then it need not be continuous on [a, b].

Eg:sin x1 , x ∈ [0, 1] not continuous at 0, it attains all values in [0, 1].

Darboux function: A function which satisfies IVP, in a certain interval is called a Darboux function.
Result:
(i) Let f : [a, b] → R be a differential function, then its derivative f 0 is a Darboux function.
(ii) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, if f (a) = f (b), then there exists atleast one pair a0
and b0 in (a, b) such that f (a0 ) = f (b0 )
(II) Fixed Point Theorem
Let f : [a, b] → [a, b] be a continuous function, then there exists atleast one point c in [a, b] such that
f (c) = c.
i.e., f has atleast one fixed point.
Result:
(i) f : [a, b] → [a, b] be a continuous function, then it has a unique fixed point.
(ii) If f (x) = x, every point is a fixed point.
(iii) Let f : R → R be a differential function such that f 0 (x) 6= 1, ∀x ∈ R then f has atmost one fixed
point.
(iv) Let f : R → R be a continuous function, if f is bounded, then it has atleast one fixed point.
(v) Let f : R → R be a differential function such that |f 0 (x)| ≤ r < 1, ∀x ∈ R then there exists a
unique fixed point x0 of the function f such that x0 = limn→∞ xn , where xn is a sequence in which
x1 is arbitrary and xn+1 = f (xn ), ∀n = 1, 2, ..., n, ....
(vi) Let f be a real function which is continuous and periodic then it attains its supremum and infimum.
Moreover it is bounded.
(vii) Let f : R → R be a non-constant, periodic continuous function, then it has a smallest positive
period, called the fundamental period.
T1
(viii) Let f : R → R be a continuous periodic functions with T1 and T2 such that ∈
/ Q, then f is a
T2
 constant function.
(ix) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, defined
m(x) = inf t {f (t); t ∈ [a, x]}
M (x) = supt {f (t); t ∈ [a, x]}
m(x) and M (x) are also continuous in [a, b]
(x) Let f be continuous
 on R, let (xn ) be a bounded sequence, then
lim f (xn ) ≤ f lim xn
x→∞  x→∞ 
lim f (xn ) ≥ f lim xn
n→∞ n→∞
(xi) Let f be a monotone
  continuous on R ,let (xn ) be bounded sequence in R, then
and
lim f (xn ) = f lim xn
x→∞  x→∞ 
lim f (xn ) = f lim xn
n→∞ n→∞
(xii) Let f : A → B, where A, B ⊆ R be a function, and let x0 ∈ A be an isolated point of A, then f is
continuous at x0 .
(xiii) Let f : N → R be any function, then f is continuous on N.
Any such function is a sequence and any sequence is a continuous function.
Maximum and Minimum functions: Let f and g be two real functions, then we can define two
functions given by
1
min(f, g)(x) = [(f (x) + g(x)) − |f (x) − g(x)|]
2
1
max(f, g)(x) = [(f (x) + g(x)) + |f (x) − g(x)|] Eg:Draw the graphs of min{x, x2 }, max{x, x2 }
2