International Journal of Food Properties

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/ljfp20

Physical, morphological, and mechanical

properties of raw and steamed cashew nuts
(Anacardium occidentale L.)

Anderson Sanchez, Hernan Camilo Pacheco Barragán, Javier Urbano-T,

Camilo Ayala-Garcia, Oscar Alberto Alvarez Solano, Alejandro Maranon,
Alicia Porras & Camilo Hernandez

To cite this article: Anderson Sanchez, Hernan Camilo Pacheco Barragán, Javier Urbano-
T, Camilo Ayala-Garcia, Oscar Alberto Alvarez Solano, Alejandro Maranon, Alicia Porras &
Camilo Hernandez (2024) Physical, morphological, and mechanical properties of raw and
steamed cashew nuts (Anacardium occidentale L.), International Journal of Food Properties,
27:1, 224-244, DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2024.2304271

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2024.2304271

Published with license by Taylor & Francis Published online: 21 Jan 2024.
Group, LLC.© 2024 Anderson Sanchez,
Hernan Camilo Pacheco Barragán, Javier
Urbano-T, Camilo Ayala-Garcia, Oscar
Alberto Alvarez Solano, Alejandro Maranon,
Alicia Porras and Camilo Hernandez

Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1605

View related articles View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 3 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ljfp20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES
2024, VOL. 27, NO. 1, 224–244
https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2024.2304271

Physical, morphological, and mechanical properties of raw and

steamed cashew nuts (Anacardium occidentale L.)
Anderson Sancheza, Hernan Camilo Pacheco Barragána, Javier Urbano-Ta, Camilo Ayala-
Garciab, Oscar Alberto Alvarez Solanoc, Alejandro Maranond, Alicia Porrasc,
and Camilo Hernandeza
a
Sustainable Design in Mechanical Engineering Research Group (DSIM), Mechanical Engineering, Escuela Colombiana
de Ingeniería Julio Garavito, Bogotá, Colombia; bGrupo de Investigación en Diseño, Department of Design, Universidad
de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia; cGrupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP), Department of Chemical and Food
Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia; dStructural Integrity Research Group, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) plays an important role in global agriculture, Received 30 August 2023
particularly in commercializing the cashew kernel. Nevertheless, kernel extraction Revised 1 January 2024
poses a challenge due to the nut variable shape and size. Characterizing the Accepted 5 January 2024
properties of the cashew nut becomes a pivotal input for the advancement of KEYWORDS
processes and machinery. This work presents a comprehensive characterization Cashew nut; morphological
of raw and steamed cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño, Colombia, with focus on properties; nut size; physical
morphological, physical, and mechanical properties. Cashew nut samples from properties; mechanical
different farms in the region were collected. Morphological properties, including properties
size and shape, were analyzed by measuring length, width, and thickness for 100
nuts from each supplier, both in their raw state and after steaming. Geometric
diameter and sphericity were calculated, and qualitative shape characterization
was performed. Physical properties, such as mass, bulk density, true density, and
moisture content, were also measured. Angle of repose and coefficient of friction
were determined to assess flow and frictional behavior. Additionally, compres­
sive mechanical properties were evaluated through uniaxial compression testing
along three orientations. The findings indicated significant differences in mor­
phological and mechanical properties between raw and steamed cashew nuts.
Conversely, the results demonstrated that cashew nuts from Vichada region
exhibit a noteworthy degree of dispersion and larger dimensions than those
from Asia and Africa, comparable to those from Brazil. The findings guide
machinery design in the cashew industry and offer insights into the physical,
morphological, and mechanical properties of cashew nuts in Puerto Carreño,
contributing to understanding and enabling quality assessment, processing
optimization, and product development.

Introduction
Cashew trees (Anacardium occidentale L.) are an important food crop in global agriculture and trade,
which originated in South America, specifically northeastern Brazil, and were introduced to India and
Africa in the 16th century, resulting in global spread and the evolution of diverse variations within the
species. While the pseudofruit dominated early interest, modern international cashew trade revolves

CONTACT Alicia Porras [email protected] Grupo de Diseño de Productos y Procesos (GDPP), Department of
Chemical and Food Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, CR 1 ESTE 19A 40, Bogotá, 111711, Colombia
© 2024 Anderson Sanchez, Hernan Camilo Pacheco Barragán, Javier Urbano-T, Camilo Ayala-Garcia, Oscar Alberto Alvarez Solano, Alejandro Maranon,
Alicia Porras and Camilo Hernandez Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with
their consent.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 225

around the commercialization of the cashew kernel and its precursor, the in-shell cashew nut or Raw
Cashew Nut.
Between 2015 and 2021, the global production of Raw Cashew Nut increased significantly, reaching
a total of 24.37 million tons. This was matched by consistent export market performance, with an
aggregate export volume of 12.17 million tons over the same time period. Notably, Ivory Coast
accounted for 36.87% of this export landscape, followed by the United Republic of Tanzania at
13.26%, Ghana at 12.66%, Nigeria at 7.44%, Guinea-Bissau at 6.45%, Burkina Faso at 5.49%, Benin
at 5.43%, and Indonesia at 4.03%.[1]
In contrast, the market for cashew kernels, also known as shelled cashew, grew at a rate of 20%
during this time period. This increase was accompanied by a significant increase in exports, which
totaled 4.27 million tons. Vietnam emerged as the dominant exporter, with 62.07% share, followed by
India at 21.21%, the Netherlands at 6.23%, the United Arab Emirates at 2.77%, Germany at 2.69%,
Brazil at 2.36%, Ivory Coast at 1.77%, Ghana at 1.70%, Indonesia at 1.50%, and Mozambique at
1.20%.[1]
This significant increase in demand for cashew is driving exploration into untapped cultiva­
tion potential in a variety of geographic regions, including Colombia. This South American
country, endowed with fertile landscapes and favorable climatic conditions conducive to cashew
growth, has begun to establish itself as a promising contender in cashew production, displaying
a production volume of 6,510 tons between 2019 and 2021, accompanied by cumulative Raw
Cashew Nut exports of 229 tons during the same period.[1] Notably, the Vichada Department
has emerged as a cashew production hotspot, with the highest production rates. This region has
seen the birth of numerous initiatives, ranging from cultivation to post-processing, with
a particular emphasis on marketing the cashew kernel, which has the highest value in the
markets.[2]
Within cashew kernel production, efficient processing is a critical link in the value chain. The
transformation of Raw Cashew Nut into cashew kernels requires a series of processes, each of which
has a significant impact on the final product’s quality and market value. The process initiates with the
collection under the cashew trees,[3] followed by sun-drying and a period of rest for the raw cashew
nuts, and then moves into a phase of softening the nut’s shell. This critical softening process is
primarily accomplished through two primary methods: frying or steaming. In the case of Raw Cashew
Nut frying, the nuts are immersed in a bath of palm oil or cashew shell oil, heated to temperatures
ranging from 190°C to 210°C for 90 seconds, and then cooled.[4–6] The steaming method, on the other
hand, involves the use of steam autoclaves, which subject the Raw Cashew Nut to pressures of 7 Bar for
28 to 34 minutes, followed by an 18-hour cooling period.[5,7] Due to quality requirements, the
steaming process has been preferred over frying in recent times. In the frying process, certain
attributes, such as color, flavor, and texture, may be compromised due to reactions between sugars
and amino acids. Moreover, this method generates thick fumes, contributing to environmental
pollution. On the other hand, the steaming process preserves the mentioned characteristics of the
almond. Notably, almonds maintain their white color, a crucial factor for exportation, as international
buyers often favor this quality. Then, after cooking, the shelling process emerges as a complex
juncture, influenced by the irregular shape and size variations of the nuts, the presence of Cashew
Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) content, and the inherent hardness of the kernel.[8]
The physical properties – such as mass, volume, density, and angle of repose – are closely
intertwined with critical aspects of cashew nut storage, transportation, and handling capabilities,
significantly impacting the dynamics of movement and the materials essential for manufacturing
processing equipment.[8] Morphological aspects are commonly associated with the overall dimen­
sions of the nut and its variability, directly influencing the design and sizing of equipment
involved in the shell-opening process and subsequent separation.[9] Likewise, mechanical proper­
ties facilitate the identification of relationships between pre-opening treatments and the mechan­
ical requirements of the equipment necessary for the cashew nut processing[6,10] ensuring optimal
conditions for obtaining almonds with the highest quality standards. Addressing these challenges
226 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

requires a comprehensive understanding of the physical, morphological and mechanical properties

of cashew nuts.
Existing research has investigated various aspects of cashew nuts, including their morphological,
physical, and mechanical properties. Qualitative and quantitative descriptors have been used to
delineate the general and specific shapes of various nut parts,[11–13] while dimensions and related
attributes such as sphericity and mean geometric diameter have been evaluated while accounting for
humidity and shell softening processes.[6,12,14,15] Furthermore, researchers have concentrated on
physical parameters with historical relevance to nut selection, such as mass, volume, true density,
and bulk density.[16–19] Meanwhile, mechanical properties, which are critical for designing effective
processing equipment, have been studied using compression load tests under a variety of
conditions.[5,19,20]
A research gap emerges in this context, necessitating a deeper exploration of the physical and
mechanical characteristics of cashew nuts, particularly in the Colombian context. Colombia’s desire to
strengthen its cashew processing chain and achieve greater integration into the global cashew trade
necessitates a deeper comprehension of the local raw nut and its processing requirements.[21]
Specifically, attention is directed toward Puerto Carreño, Vichada region, for being the largest planted
area for cashew trees in Colombia, encompassing 4300 hectares with the potential for expansion to
7000 hectares. This considerable scale of cultivation establishes Puerto Carreño as a pivotal player in
cashew nut production, not only within the country but also in South America. The extensive cashew
plantations in this region offer a representative sample of the variations present in the Colombian
cashew industry.
In this work a comprehensive characterization of cashew nuts produced in Puerto Carreño,
Vichada region of Colombia is performed. The study aims to investigate the physical, morphological,
and mechanical properties of the nuts, considering their potential implications for the cashew nut
industry. By examining the size, shape, mass, density, moisture content, angle of repose, and coeffi­
cient of friction, it is established a detailed profile of the nuts’ physical properties. Furthermore, the
morphological analysis enables the identification of qualitative features of the cashew nut produced in
the Vichada region. Additionally, the mechanical characterization through uniaxial compression tests
provides valuable insights into the nuts’ structural behavior, shedding light on their mechanical
properties along different axes. The findings of this study contribute to the existing scientific knowl­
edge of cashew nuts, supporting farmers, researchers, and industries in their pursuit of improved
production, processing, and product development.

Materials and methods

Raw and steamed cashew nut sampling
To ensure a comprehensive characterization of cashew nuts produced in Puerto Carreño, a town
located at 6°11’16“north latitude and 67° 28’ 57” west longitude, in the department of Vichada, part of
Colombia in South America, with an elevation of 51 meters above sea level (masl) and an average
temperature of 36°C, along with an annual precipitation average reaching 2233 mm, a sampling
strategy was implemented. This strategy included cashew nut clones from various farms in the region.
The collected samples comprised a mix of regional clones: Corpoica Mapiria Ao1, Corpoica Yopare
Ao2, Corpoica Yucao Ao3. These clones, which have been developed by the Colombian Corporation
for Agricultural Research (Corpoica – Agrosavia), are widely used in the country’s cashew nut industry
due to their high yield and quality.[22] The study identified these variants (Mapiria, Yucao, and
Yopare) as exhibiting superior performance in terms of productivity, resistance to pests, and nutrient
utilization. As a result, the local government initiated a widespread distribution of these genetically
superior clones in the region. Farmers predominantly adopted these clones for grafting onto native
trees as rootstocks, fostering a shift toward exclusive cultivation of these clones in Puerto Carreño.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 227

The primary advantage distinguishing these tree clones from others lies in their robust disease
resistance and their prolific nut production tailored for the specific conditions of the western plains in
Colombia. The Corpoica Mapiria Ao1, a cashew tree variant, attains a height of up to 4.5 m. It showcases
a capacity to yield approximately 14 kg of nuts, each with an average weight of 11 g and a count of 90 nuts
per kilogram. Pertaining to their cashew kernels, an average weight of 3.3 g is observed, corresponding to
roughly 30% kernel yield.[22] Similarly, the Corpoica Yopare Ao2, another cashew tree variant, shares
comparable characteristics with a height limit of 4.5 m. Its nut production reaches around 12 kg,
featuring an average individual nut weight of 12 g and an aggregate of 83 nuts per kilogram.
Analogous to the Corpoica Mapiria Ao1, this variant manifests an average kernel weight of 3.3 g, but
with a slightly lower kernel yield of 28%.[22] Diverging in stature, the Corpoica Yucao Ao3, yet another
cashew tree variant, achieves a height of 5.5 m. Its nut output amounts to approximately 11 kg, each nut
weighing approximately 13 g and totaling 77 nuts per kilogram. In terms of kernel attributes, these
exhibit an average weight of 3.2 g, translating to an approximate kernel yield of 25%.[22]
The cashew nut samples utilized in this study were predominantly collected during the period of
January to March 2022, coinciding with optimal environmental conditions for nut production.
Harvesting focused on mature trees, approximately five years old, with a spacing of 12 × 12 meters
(69 trees per hectare). These trees, fertilized twice a year, were selected for their high nut yield. The
harvesting process included depitting, which involves the removal of the false fruit (peduncle),
followed by sun-drying for one to two days. This step was taken to ensure that the nuts could be
stored for subsequent processing.
To obtain a representative sample of the cashew nuts produced in the region, a total of eight
different farm suppliers were included in the study. 5 kg of raw cashew nuts were collected from each
supplier. In addition, cashew nut clones were collected indistinctively in all farms to ensure random­
ness in the sample.
After collection, each sample was quartered according to Method-B from ASTM C702 standard[23]
to take a small representative sample from a large and inhomogeneous sample. This method is most
often used for powders or granular aggregate but extended to other granular materials. Raw cashew
nut subsamples for each characterization test were taken from each supplier and individually marked
to maintain traceability. Once the raw cashew nut properties were measured, the samples were
steamed under local conditions and procedures. This process was chosen because it effectively
separated the kernel, improved its toughness, and did not alter its flavor. Additionally, steam cooking
helped to preserve the quality of the cashew nut shell liquid, which is a valuable byproduct. The nuts
were steamed for 20 minutes under a pressure ranging from 168 kPa to 306 kPa. This process is the
standard method in the region for extracting and commercializing the cashew kernel. After steaming,
the nuts were cooled to room temperature, and their properties were measured again.
This comprehensive sampling strategy allowed for a thorough analysis of the physical, morpholo­
gical, and mechanical properties of cashew nuts produced in the region, including variations in
properties across different clones, farms, and steaming processing.

Morphological properties
The size of cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño was analyzed by measuring the Length (L), Width (W),
and Thickness (T) of 100 sampled nuts obtained from each of the eight different suppliers using the
described sampling method, for a total of 800 nuts measured. The nuts were first measured in their raw
form, and then measured again after steaming, to account for any changes in size and shape due to
processing. Individual records were kept for each nut to analyze changes in size and shape before and
after steaming. A sketch of the measured dimensions is shown in Figure 1. A digital caliper with
a resolution of 0.01 mm was used to measure the nuts.
The geometric mean diameter (D) of both raw and steamed nuts was calculated using
Equation 1 Additionally, the sphericity (φ) of the cashew nuts was determined using
Equation 2.[24]
228 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

Figure 1. Measured dimensions of Cashew nuts.

1
D ¼ ðL � W � T Þ3 (1)

D
φ¼ (2)
L

Shape qualitative characterization

On the other hand, the qualitative features of cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño were also character­
ized using the method proposed by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR).[25]
This method enables the identification and description of specific qualitative aspects of plant genetic
resources, including color, shape, and size, through a list of descriptors and coding classification.
Specific qualitative aspects of cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño were identified using this list of
descriptors and coding classification.[16,18,26,27]
For this study, the sampled cashew nuts collected from local suppliers and farms were visually
inspected and compared to the descriptors provided by IBPGR to characterize their morphological
features. The main descriptors measured in this study included nut shape, shape of the nut base, suture
of the nut, flanks of the nut, stylar scar on the nut, shape of the nut apex, and the relative position of the
suture and apex. The data fields for these descriptors in the IBPGR were numbered as 34, 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, and 56, respectively. Correspondingly, the IBPGR codes assigned to these descriptors were 4.2.7,
6.2.25, 6.2.26, 6.2.27, 6.2.28, 6.2.29, and 6.2.30, respectively.[11] These descriptors were assessed
through visual analysis, employing a random selection using the quarter method.

Mass, bulk density and true density

To measure the mass of raw and steamed cashew nuts, an electronic balance (OHAUS, USA; Model:
PA214) with a precision of 0.001 g was used. Each nut’s mass was recorded individually for every nut
from each of the eight suppliers. In total, 100 nuts per supplier were measured, resulting in a total of
800 nuts measured in this study.
The bulk density of raw and steamed cashew nuts was determined by filling a wooden box with
internal dimensions of 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm, resulting in a total internal volume of the box
(Vb ) of 1000 cm3. The mass of both the empty box (mb ) and the filled box (mt ) were measured using an
electronic balance with a precision of 0.001 g. The bulk densities (ρb ) were then calculated using
Equation 3.[28] Bulk density was determined for 10 samples for raw and steamed cashew nuts, for
a total of 20 measurements.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 229

mb mt
ρb ¼ (3)
Vb
The true density of raw and steamed cashew nuts was determined using the displacement method
with ethanol as the liquid medium.[24] Ten raw and ten steamed cashew nuts were randomly
selected from each supplier using the curtail method, and their masses (mn ) were measured
individually. Each nut was then placed into 60 ml of ethanol in a calibrated beaker, and the liquid
displaced by the nut (Vn ) was recorded with a precision of 1 ml. The true density was calculated
using Equation 4.
mn
ρt ¼ (4)
Vn

Moisture content
The moisture content of raw and steamed cashew nuts was measured using the Whole Pod Method
proposed in ASAE/ASABE S410.3 standard for moisture measurement in peanuts.[29] For each
supplier, 10 samples of 200 g of both raw and steamed cashew nuts were randomly selected using
the quartering method. The initial mass (m0 ) of each sample was recorded using an electronic balance
(RADWAG Balances and Scales, Poland; Model: PS4500.R2) with a precision of 0.01 g. The samples
were then introduced to a forced-draft oven (EQ, Model: HDN-30A-EQ) at 130°C for 4.5 hours.
Afterward, the samples were taken out of the oven and cooled to room temperature, and their masses
were recorded again (mf ). The whole pod moisture content (MCP ) was calculated.

Angle of repose
The angle of repose β is the angle between the horizontal plane and the mound formed by the nuts
after a free fall on static surface of a given material. This angle is directly related with the friction forces
between the nuts and defines the filling or emptying behavior of granular materials. There are four
main methods for measuring the angle of repose: funnel method, box with emptying removable side,
revolving cylinder and sliding.[30–33]
In this work, to determine the angle of repose for raw and steamed cashew nuts the box with
removable side method was selected.[34] The wooden box shown in Figure 2 was used, with dimen­
sions of 300 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm. Four different materials were used as the base of the box,
including galvanized steel, stainless steel, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), and ultra-high mole­
cular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), to investigate changes in the angle of repose. 1 kg of nuts from
each of the eight selected suppliers in the region were mixed to create a sample of 8 kg. The testing box
was filled with the sample, and the slide gate was moved up to allow the nuts to flow freely and form
a mound. The angle between the horizontal plane and the pile of nuts was measured using a digital
protractor goniometer Medigauge 900,100 with a precision of 0.05°. The procedure was repeated five
times, for every base material and for raw and steamed cashew nuts.

Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction between raw and steamed cashew nuts and various materials was deter­
mined using the Tilting Table Test method, as proposed in the USBR 6258–09 procedure.[35] The
device used in the experiment is shown in Figure 3 which features a tilting platform capable of
changing the angle of inclination and its contact surface.
To begin, a group of 50 nuts was randomly selected from a mixture of cashew nuts from the eight
suppliers using the quartering method. From this sample, arbitrarily selected subgroups of 12 nuts
were placed on a wooden box without a lid or bottom and positioned on the platform surface. The
230 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

Figure 2. Repose angle measuring box with removable side. Dimensions in mm.

Figure 3. Tilting Table for Coefficient of friction measuring.

tabletop was gradually tilted until the specimen box started to slide. The angle of tilt at this point was
measured and recorded as the angle of static friction (θ). The coefficient of friction (μ) was then
calculated using Equation 5
This process was repeated 10 times for both raw and steamed cashew nuts with four different
contact surface materials: galvanized steel, stainless steel, MDF, and UHMWPE.

sin θ
μ¼ ¼ tan θ (5)
cos θ
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 231

Mechanical properties
The compressive mechanical properties of raw cashew nuts were measured under uniaxial loading
using the ASAE S368.4 standard, Compression Test of Food Materials of Convex Shape.[36] Each
cashew nut was individually positioned between parallel plates, and a uniaxial compression load was
applied using a universal testing machine (Shimadzu, Japan; Model: AGS-X). During the test, the
compressive load and displacement were measured at a crosshead speed of 1.8 mm/min. Three
different orientation positions of the nut were tested to determine the compressive properties along
the length (x axis), thickness (y axis), and width (z axis), as shown in Figure 4.
Then, the procedure was repeated for steamed nuts to determine the changes in the mechanical
properties after processing. 5 cashew nuts, selected using the quartering method, were tested for each
axis and for four suppliers in both conditions, raw and steamed, for a total of 120 nuts tested. Load-
displacement curves were obtained for each nut and for the three loading axes. Mean fracture load for
both conditions and for each supplier were determined and compared to determine differences
between suppliers and a comparison conducted to assess the effect of the steaming process on the
mechanical properties of the cashew nut.

Statistical analysis of data

Each measured property was categorized in groups based on the supplier and the processing condi­
tion, either raw or steamed, and then analyzed statistically using Minitab 19 software (2023 Minitab,
LLC. USA). The first step in the analysis involved applying Grubbs’ test to each group to detect outliers
in each data set, which was assumed to come from a normally distributed population. Atypical values
were then rejected and removed from all the groups. Next, the Shapiro-Wilks normality test was
applied to each group to confirm that the data sets were well-modeled by a normal distribution.
For each property and group, descriptive statistic as the mean and standard deviation were
calculated individually for each group and for all the sample. Then, an analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and a Tukey test were applied between suppliers and processing conditions to determine
if there were significant differences in the property means.
These statistical analyses were conducted to infer the type of relation between suppliers and the
differences in properties due to the steaming process. Also, a paired sample T-test was applied for the
mean dimensions and mass to determine if the steaming process change the nut properties. These statistical
analyses were conducted to infer the type of relation between suppliers and the differences in properties due
to the steaming process. A 95% confidence level was used for all the statistical analyses reported.

Figure 4. Compression test directions. (a) length (x axis), (b) thickness (y axis), and (c) width (z axis).
232 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

Results and discussion

Morphological properties
The length (L), width (W), and thickness (T) of a representative sample of both raw and steamed
cashew nuts of Puerto Carreño region of Vichada, Colombia were measured. Tables 1 and 2 present
a consolidated summary of the means of the main dimensions measured, grouped by supplier.
Additionally, the geometric mean diameter (D) and sphericity (φ) are reported. At the bottom of
the tables, the maximum and minimum values of all the samples are reported. Finally, the means for all
the sample are provided.
The mean length, width, and thickness of raw cashew nuts harvested in Puerto Carreño were found
to be 33.87 mm, 25.95 mm, and 21.58 mm, respectively. These results indicate that, on average, cashew
nuts from Puerto Carreño are larger in size than those from some traditional producer countries, such
as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Ghana, Indonesia, India, and Burkina Faso. The reported average sizes for
these countries ranged from 28.0 mm to 33.7 mm for length, 17.81 mm to 25.40 mm for width, and
14.13 mm to 18.38 mm for thickness.[10,15,18,37] However, when compared to other cashew nut
producers from South America, the nuts from Puerto Carreño are smaller in average. For example,
in Brazil, the reported sizes range from 34.86 mm to 46.35 mm for length, 22.56 mm to 28.46 mm for
width, and 18.78 mm to 22.86 mm for thickness.[38,39] See Figure 5.
Also, the cashew nuts harvested from the Puerto Carreño region exhibited a considerable wider
range in size, with lengths varying from 17 mm to 50 mm. This wide range poses a significant
challenge for the processing industry. In comparison to other countries, the length of cashew nuts
from Puerto Carreño is particularly diverse. While traditional producer countries like Ivory Coast,
Nigeria, Ghana, Indonesia, India, and Burkina Faso reported compact length ranges, the cashew nuts
from Puerto Carreño demonstrate a broader spectrum of sizes.

Table 1. Dimensions and mass of raw cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño.
Length (L) Width (W) Thickness (T)
Supplier Mass(g) (mm) (mm) (mm) D(mm) φ(%)
Supplier 1 9±1 33 ± 1 25 ± 1 20 ± 1 26 ± 1 78 ± 2
Supplier 2 10 ± 1 34 ± 2 26 ± 1 23 ± 2 27 ± 1 80 ± 2
Supplier 3 9±1 34 ± 2 27 ± 1 21 ± 1 26 ± 1 78 ± 2
Supplier 4 8±1 33 ± 2 26 ± 1 21 ± 2 26 ± 1 80 ± 3
Supplier 5 12 ± 1 36 ± 2 29 ± 1 24 ± 2 29 ± 1 81 ± 3
Supplier 6 9±1 35 ± 2 26 ± 1 21 ± 1 27 ± 1 77 ± 2
Supplier 7 9±1 34 ± 2 25 ± 1 21 ± 1 26 ± 1 77 ± 2
Supplier 8 8±1 32 ± 2 25 ± 1 21 ± 2 26 ± 1 79 ± 3
Minimum 3.50 25.64 20.66 12.59 21.72 64.46
Maximum 15.88 40.70 31.85 33.43 32.50 98.48
Total mean 9±1 34 ± 1 26 ± 1 22 ± 1 27 ± 1 79 ± 2

Table 2. Dimensions and mass of steamed cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño.
Mass Length (L) Width (W) Thickness (T)
Supplier Steamed (mm) (mm) (mm) D(mm) φ(%)
Supplier 1 9±1 33 ± 2 25 ± 1 20 ± 1 26 ± 1 78 ± 2
Supplier 2 10 ± 1 34 ± 2 26 ± 1 23 ± 2 27 ± 1 80 ± 2
Supplier 3 9±1 34 ± 2 26 ± 1 22 ± 1 26 ± 1 78 ± 2
Supplier 4 8 ± 1. 34 ± 2 25 ± 1 21 ± 1 26 ± 1 78 ± 2
Supplier 5 12 ± 1 37 ± 1 28 ± 1 25 ± 1 29 ± 1 79 ± 2
Supplier 6 9±1 35 ± 2 27 ± 1 21 ± 1 27 ± 1 77 ± 3
Supplier 7 9±1 34 ± 2 25 ± 1 21 ± 1 26 ± 1 77 ± 2
Supplier 8 9±1 32 ± 2 25 ± 1 21 ± 2 26 ± 1 80 ± 3
Minimum 3.60 25.80 20.56 14.49 22.16 61.78
Maximum 15.85 50.56 30.90 27.62 32.02 91.89
Total mean 9±1 34 ± 1 26 ± 1 22 ± 1 27 ± 1 78 ± 1
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 233

55

50 50

46
45
42
40 40.8
38
37
Length [mm]

35
35
34 33.9 32 33.7
31.5 33.1
31.2
30
28.0
27
25
24
22
20
19
18
17
15

Brazil Vichada Ivory Coast Burkina Nigeria Indonesia India

[38,39] Puerto Carreño [40] Faso [8] [41] [10]
[18]

Figure 5. Cashew nut length ranges and mean from different countries.

The large size of the cashew nuts in Puerto Carreño is explained by the combination of favorable
environmental conditions found naturally in the region (humidity, hours of sunlight per day, UV
index, among others). Also, production practices adopted in Vichada such as soil preparation
processes, fertilization, and irrigation cycles, among other factors, promote nut growth and high
yields.
On the other hand, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey tests were performed to
investigate the presence of significant differences in nut size among the various suppliers. The
Tukey test revealed a p-value below 0.05 when comparing the length, width, and thickness of cashew
nuts, indicating the absence of similarity among nuts harvested by each supplier. Specifically, the
statistical analysis revealed that in general cashew nuts exhibited distinct sizes among suppliers.
Specifically, Figure 6 illustrates the Tukey test results for length of the cashew nuts of each supplier
studied and compared in pairs. In this figure, each pair of suppliers is characterized by a confidence
interval. If the interval does not encompass the zero line, it indicates a significant difference between
the corresponding pair of suppliers. Consequently, suppliers 1 and 2 exhibit dissimilarity with all other
suppliers. Suppliers 3, 4, and 5, on the other hand, share similarity with each other. And finally,
suppliers 6, 7, and 8 demonstrate similar length. This observed variation in cashew nut sizes can be
attributed to the varying levels of technification in crop cultivation implemented by the different
suppliers in the region.
After processing the cashew nuts, they were remeasured. The mean length, width, and thickness of
steamed cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño were 34.28 mm, 25.80 mm, and 21.79 mm, respectively.
This was larger than the average sizes of steamed cashew nuts from other countries such as India,
Nigeria, and Indonesia which had lengths, widths, and thicknesses in the range of 27.98 mm to 32.13
mm, 21.91 mm to 24.42 mm, and 14.13 mm to 18.63 mm, respectively.[5,8,40,41]
To test if the steaming process caused a significant change in nut dimensions, a paired
T-test with 95% confidence was performed. The results showed p-values lower than 0.05 for
the comparison of length, width, and thickness before and after steaming. Consequently, after
234 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

Figure 6. Graphical display of pair-wise comparisons from Tukey’s HSD for the cashew nut length measured in Puerto Carreño. Any
confidence intervals that do not contain 0 provide evidence of a difference in the suppliers.

the steaming process, there are notable change in the mean dimensions of the nut. Specifically,
the length mean transitions from 34 ± 1 mm to 34 ± 1 mm, the width mean shifts from 26 ± 1
mm to 26 ± 1 mm, and the thickness undergoes a change from 22 ± 1 mm to 22 ± 1 mm. Using
the T-test with the assumption of equal variance at a significance level of 0.05, it is deter­
mined that (mean raw – mean steamed) is significantly different from zero. These statistical
tests indicated a significant difference in the measures, revealing an increase in the length and
thickness of the nuts and a decrease in the width of the nuts. Similar studies have also
reported changes in cashew nut size after processing.[5] These changes are attributed to water
absorption and an increase in moisture content during the steaming process.
This result showed that the cashew nuts harvested in Puerto Carreño were significantly larger than
those from other countries in Africa and Asia and similar to those in South America. This finding has
significant benefits for the region, as larger nut sizes are known to be appreciated and have an
increasing demand, especially for the complete kernel in jumbo sizes, according to the International
Nut and Dried Fruit Council.[42]
Additionally, the geometric mean diameter and sphericity of both raw and steamed cashew
nuts from Puerto Carreño are reported. The geometric mean diameter and sphericity averages
for raw cashew nuts were 26.65 mm and 78.74%, respectively, while those for steamed cashew
nuts were 26.79 mm and 78.22%, respectively. The geometric mean diameter showed
a significant increase due to the boiling process, but sphericity did not show a significant
change. The geometric mean diameter is used to predict nut behavior in various environments
and the ease with which unwanted materials can be separated during the cleaning process. It
provides useful information about the size distribution of nuts and their ability to interact
with various sieves or separators. Understanding the sphericity of nuts is also important for
designing efficient screening systems. When considering sieve or separator design, sphericity
refers to a nut’s ability to occupy the same volume as a sphere. It aids in determining the best
shape and dimensions for the screening elements in order to achieve effective separation. The
geometric mean diameter and sphericity both play important roles in evaluating the physical
properties of nuts and optimizing processing operations.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 235

Table 3. IBPGR Qualitative characterization of cashew nuts form Puerto Carreño.

IBPGR Descriptor Name Class Class Name
34 Nut Shape 1 Kidney-Shape
51 Shape of Nut Base 1 Round
52 Suture of Nut 2 Angular
53 Flanks of Nut 5 Round
54 Stylar Scar on Nut 7 Large
55 Shape of Nut Apex 2 Intermediate
56 Relative Position of Suture an Apex 1 Suture projection in front of apex

Shape qualitative characterization

Furthermore, a morphological characterization was conducted on a total of 72 cashew nuts obtained
from eight suppliers in Puerto Carreño. The descriptors provided by the International Board for Plant
Genetic Resources (IBPGR) were used for this analysis. The findings revealed the prevalence of certain
dominant class descriptors throughout the entire sample, highlighting the consistency of certain
morphological traits across suppliers. The main descriptors evaluated, and their corresponding results
can be found in Table 3.
This morphological characterization serves as a qualitative comparison tool to describe the shape
and distinctive features of the cashew nuts. While there is a lack of studies indicating superior
characteristics over others in this regard, it is worth noting that such features become particularly
relevant during the transformation processes. It is also important to consider that studies focusing on
the specific traits of the cashew kernel are relatively scarce in comparison.
In previous studies conducted in countries like India,[11] similar descriptors were identified for
cashew nuts harvested in that region. However, it is important to note that certain descriptors
exhibited more variability compared to others. For instance, in the case of descriptors 51, 52, and
55, multiple classes were observed within the population. This variability can be attributed to the
presence of over 500 different varieties of clones in India, which differs from the situation in Puerto
Carreño, where only four clones are present. This discrepancy in the number of clones between the
regions can significantly impact the consistency of specific morphological traits observed in cashew
nuts. The genetic diversity inherent in a larger number of clones can lead to greater variation in
descriptors related to nut shape and other characteristics.
In conclusion, the observed variations in cashew nut morphological properties, particularly dimen­
sions, carry significant implications for the industrialization of cashew nut production. The length,
width, and thickness of raw cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño were found to be larger on average
compared to some traditional producer countries that design and produce the currently available
processing machinery. This diversity in size, coupled with the considerable range observed, poses
challenges for the processing industry, especially in deshelling processes, where forces must be care­
fully controlled to prevent damage to the valuable kernel. Furthermore, the differences in cashew nut
sizes among suppliers indicate varying levels of technification in crop cultivation, emphasizing the
need for tailored processing approaches. Results also shed light on the impact of processing, specifi­
cally steaming, on nut dimensions. The increase in length and thickness highlights the dynamic nature
of cashew nuts during processing. These changes are crucial considerations for the design of tools used
in the deshelling process, specifically tailored to accommodate the cashew nut sizes found in the
Puerto Carreño region.

Mass, bulk density and true density

The mass of both raw and steamed cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño was measured for a sample size
of 100 nuts obtained from eight different suppliers in the region. The mean and 95% confidence
interval for both raw and steamed nuts are presented in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. In addition, the
236 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

minimum and maximum measures are reported, along with the mean and confidence interval for the
entire sample of 800 nuts.
The results reveal that the mean mass of raw cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño is 9.37 g. Compared
to other producer countries such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Ghana, India, Burkina Faso, and
Indonesia,[10,15,41] the measured nut is heavier. These countries show a range of 3.82 g to 9.10 g.
However, the cashew nut variety from Brazil has a range of 11.00 g to 15.73 g,[38,39] making the nut
from Puerto Carreño lighter in comparison (see Figure 7).
On the other side, while Agrosavia’s study aimed at developing cashew clones has yielded nuts
averaging around 11–13 grams,[43] the current investigation unveils a broader spectrum of nut sizes,
ranging from 8.5 to 16.8 grams, with a mean of 9.37 grams. While the potential for larger nut sizes
exists within the ambit of these clones, prevailing cultivation practices have restrained their growth,
resulting in slightly smaller dimensions. However, this presents a promising juncture, as the enhance­
ment of cultivation practices within the region holds the potential to unlock larger nut sizes. The
prospect of optimizing cultivation techniques emerges as a pathway to harnessing the full scope of
these cashew clones and yielding nuts of more substantial proportions.
The cashew nuts harvested from the Puerto Carreño region exhibited a significantly wider range in
mass, with masses varying from 3.5 g to 15.8 g, mirroring the findings for length. In comparison to
other countries, the mass of cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño shows remarkable diversity. Traditional
producer countries such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Ghana, Indonesia, India, and Burkina Faso reported
more compact mass ranges, whereas the cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño demonstrate a broader
spectrum of masses.
Additionally, Tukey tests were conducted to investigate the presence of significant differences in
nut mass among the suppliers. The Tukey test comparing the mass of cashew nuts between suppliers
yielded a p-value below 0.05, indicating the absence of similarity among nuts harvested by each
supplier. Notably, in general the suppliers exhibited cashew nuts with statistically different masses.
Specifically, Figure 8 illustrates the comparison in pairs of suppliers. It shows that suppliers 1 and 3

18
16.8
16 15.8

14
13,5
12
Mass [g]

10 9.7 9.4
9.4 9.0
8.3
8 8.5

6.7
6 5.5 5.6
5.3 5.4
4.4 4.6
4
4.0
3.5 3.6 3.4 3.5
2
Brazil Vichada Ivory Coast Burkina Nigeria Indonesia India
[38,39] Puerto Carreño [40] Faso [8] [41] [10]
[18]

Figure 7. Cashew nut mass ranges and mass mean from different countries.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 237

Figure 8. Graphical display of pair-wise comparisons from Tukey’s HSD for the cashew nut mass measured in Puerto Carreño. Any
confidence intervals that do not contain 0 provide evidence of a difference in the suppliers.

exhibit dissimilarity with all other suppliers, while suppliers (2, 4, 5), (4, 5, 6), (5, 6, 7), and (6, 7, 8)
demonstrate similarity among themselves. It is crucial to note, however, that most comparisons in the
Tukey test yield statistically significant differences.
After steaming the nuts, they were remeasured and found to have a mass of 9.39 g. A paired T-test
with 95% confidence was performed, which showed a p-value below 0.05 for the comparison of masses
before and after steaming. Overall, after the steaming process, the mean mass shifts from 9 ± 1 g to 9 ±
1 g. Under the T-test assumptions at a 0.05 significance level with equal variance, it is established that
(mean raw – mean steamed) is significantly different from zero. The statistical tests indicated
a significant difference in the measures, revealing an increase in mass of the nuts. These changes are
attributed to water absorption and an increase in moisture content during the steaming process. These
results are in contrast to mass changes observed with other processing conditions, such as roasting,
where the mass of the nuts decreases due to CNSL and humidity loss.[8]
The bulk density and true density measurements of raw and steamed cashew nuts from Puerto
Carreño are presented in Table 4. The bulk density of raw nuts was found to be 600.82 kg/m3, while
steamed nuts had a bulk density of 570.40 kg/m3. These results are consistent with bulk densities found
in other producer countries, such as Nigeria, India, and Indonesia.[5,8,28,41,44] Statistical analysis of the
samples using a T-test yielded a p-value below 0.05, indicating that there is a significant difference in
bulk density between raw and steamed nuts. This decrease in bulk density is attributed to the
expansion of the nuts during the boiling process, resulting in a larger volume for the same mass.
Similar behavior has been reported for boiled cashew nuts in India, where changes from 596.67 kg/m3
to 523.79 kg/m3 have been observed.[5]
The true density of cashew nuts from Vichada is also reported in Table 4. The mean density for raw
nuts was found to be 1029 kg/m3, while steamed nuts had a mean density of 922 kg/m3. These values

Table 4. Densities and moisture content of raw and steamed cashew nuts
from Puerto Carreño.
Property Raw Steamed
Bulk density (kg/m3) 6011 ± 9 570 ± 13
True density (kg/m3) 1029.43 ± 0.04 922.40 ± 0.06
Moisture content (%) 10 ± 1 11 ± 1
238 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

are consistent with reported densities of cashew nuts from Nigeria, India, Burkina Faso, and Indonesia
which fall in the range of 934.6 kg/m3 to 1240 kg/m3 for raw nuts and 685 kg/m3 to 777 kg/m3 for
processed nuts.[18,19,26,41] A two-sample t-test was performed to compare the two samples, and the
resulting p-value less than the significance level of 0.05, indicating that the samples are significantly
different. The observed decrease in true density after steaming is explained by the change in volume
during processing. Although the nuts absorb water and therefore increase in mass, the increase in
volume is more significant.

Moisture content
Likewise, Table 4 shows the moisture content of both raw and steamed cashew nuts from Puerto
Carreño. The mean moisture content of raw nuts stored at room temperature for 5 days after
harvesting was found to be 10.25%. After steaming the nuts and allowing them to stabilize at room
temperature for 10 days, the moisture content was remeasured and found to be 11.17%. A two-sample
t-test was performed on the measurements, yielding a p-value lower than the significance level of 0.05.
This result confirms that the two samples are statistically different. As expected, the steaming process
increased the moisture content of the nuts. These moisture content values are consistent with those
reported in the literature for different countries, with values ranging from 7.1% to 14%.[15,28,38,44]
The moisture content of the nuts is critical in the cashew nut processing. According to the
literature, high moisture content in the nut causes the shell to be more tenacious, making shelling
more difficult. Furthermore, high moisture causes the nuts to have a higher angle of repose, obstruct­
ing their transport. High moisture content, on the other hand, makes the kernel more fragile due to the
testa’s adherence to the nutshell. These findings highlight the importance of moisture control during
the storage and processing of nuts in order to optimize their processing and final product quality.

Angle of repose
The angle of repose of cashew nuts with for four different contact materials were measured: galvanized
steel, stainless steel, MDF, and UHMWPE. Results, shown in Table 5, for all four materials are in the
range of 28.76° to 31.07° for raw nuts and 28.83° to 32.03° for steamed nuts. Although the results found
are higher than those reported in the literature (ranging from 20.9° to 28.6°), it must be considered that
the method used to determine the dynamic angle of repose is different. Previous studies used the
funnel method, while this study used the box with removable side method. In addition, a paired t-test
was performed to determine whether there are differences between the raw and steamed nuts. The
analysis showed that the steaming process does not affect the angle of repose of the nuts against any of
the materials tested.
The angle of repose obtained from the experimentation provide valuable insights for the design of
a hopper or receiving element to ensure proper material flow without the need for additional stimuli
such as extra loads. Additionally, these results offer a starting point for the design of transport
elements such as channels or rails. This information can be used to optimize the efficiency of cashew
nut handling processes.

Table 5. Angle of repose and coefficient of friction of raw and steamed cashew nuts from Puerto Carreño using
different contact materials.
Angle of repose Coefficient of friction
Contact Material Raw Steamed Raw Steamed
Galvanized steel (°) 31.1 ± 0.7 32.0 ± 0.2 0.37 ± 0.01 0.39 ± 0.01
Stainless steel (°) 30.1 ± 0.6 28.8 ± 0.8 0.30 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.01
MDF (°) 30 ± 2 30 ± 1 0.32 ± 0.01 0.39 ± 0.01
UHMWPE (°) 29 ± 1 32 ± 2 0.30 ± 0.02 0.30 ± 0.01
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 239

Coefficient of friction
Also, Table 5 displays the coefficients of friction of both raw and steamed cashew nuts sourced from
Vichada, Colombia, in contact with four different materials: galvanized steel, stainless steel, MDF, and
UHMWPE. The static coefficients of friction for the cashew nuts on the tested materials range from
0.30 to 0.37 for raw nuts and from 0.30 to 0.39 for steamed nuts. A paired t-test was conducted, and the
p-values were found to be below 0.05, which concluded that there were no significant differences in the
coefficients of friction between raw and steamed nuts.
The values obtained in this study are higher than the values reported by.[44] They reported
a coefficient of friction in the range of 0.26 to 0.30 for galvanized steel for a nut with 10% moisture
content. It should be noted that the pulley method was used in their study, which does not provide
progressive and precise control over the force applied.
In conclusion, regarding the physical properties of the cashew nut produced in Puerto Carreño, the
study emphasizes the importance of moisture control, as seen in the significant increase in moisture
content after steaming, influencing the tenacity of the shell and the overall processing efficiency. The
findings regarding bulk density, and true density provide valuable insights for optimizing processing
operations. The decrease in bulk density after steaming indicates the expansion of nuts during boiling,
impacting their behavior during handling and transportation. Additionally, the differences in true
density highlight the change in volume during processing. The moisture content results further
underscore the critical role of moisture control in the processing and final product quality of cashew
nuts. Also, the angle of repose and coefficients of friction findings offer practical implications for the
design of processing equipment, specifically for the design of loading and unloading hoppers and
chutes. The relatively stable angle of repose after steaming suggests that the steaming process does not
significantly affect the flow behavior of cashew nuts. The coefficients of friction data, while slightly
higher than reported values, provide essential information for designing elements like hoppers and
transport channels, contributing to the overall efficiency of cashew nut handling processes.

Mechanical properties
The characteristic uniaxial force-displacement curves for each supplier and loading axis are shown in
Figure 9 for raw nuts and in Figure 10 for steamed nuts. All curves, for both processing states and the
three loading axes, exhibit an initial compression stage that is almost linear until the first fracture
occurs. At this point, the force at fracture is measured and recorded. After the first fracture, the
x axis loading shows multiple consecutive fractures characterized by an increase in loading force
followed by sudden drops when cracking occurs. In contrast, for the y axis loading, after the initial
fracture, the load remains constant, forming a plateau, followed by a densification stage where the load
increases exponentially. Finally, the z axis loading exhibits a similar behavior to the x axis, with
multiple fractures indicated by rises in load, subsequent fractures, and sudden drops in force.
The force at the first fracture of both raw and steamed nuts is presented in Table 6 for the four
suppliers. These results indicate a compressive force range of 410 N to 900 N for raw nuts and 220 N to
830 N for steamed nuts. A t-student test was used to compare these results, demonstrating a significant
reduction in compressive strength following the steaming process. The results indicate that the
steaming process influenced the compression force at fracture of the cashew nuts. In general, the
force at fracture decreased after steaming, suggesting a reduction in the mechanical strength of the
nuts. At the same time, force-displacement curves reveal that damage to the cashew nut occurs in
distinct steps, commencing with the outer layer of the nut shell and propagating through its internal
layers. It is crucial for nut processing, specifically deshelling, to identify and consider the fracture
values. This identification aids in determining the forces necessary to open the shell during deshelling
without surpassing these values to safeguard the kernel from undesired damage. Whole kernels hold
higher value in the international cashew nut market.
240 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

Figure 9. Compressive mechanical behavior of raw cashew nuts.

Moreover, the findings reveal notable variations among the different suppliers. A Tukey test was
conducted, comparing the results among suppliers, revealing significant differences among the
suppliers with a 95% of confidence level. The specific effects varied among the suppliers.
Additionally, the compression force at fracture analysis revealed the presence of anisotropic
mechanical behavior in cashew nuts. The variations observed in the force at fracture along different
orientations (x, y, and z axes) indicate that the nuts possess different mechanical properties depending
on the loading direction. This anisotropic response can be attributed to the structural composition and
organization of fibers or cells within the nuts. Understanding this anisotropy is crucial for proper
handling, processing, and product design.
These findings emphasize the importance of considering supplier variations and processing
techniques in the cashew nut industry. By understanding the mechanical behavior of cashew nuts
from different suppliers and the impact of processing, manufacturers can make informed decisions
regarding product quality, processing parameters, and packaging. Furthermore, these results can
contribute to the development of strategies for optimizing cashew nut processing techniques and
enhancing the overall quality and shelf life of cashew-based products.
Furthermore, the mechanical characterization of cashew nuts plays a pivotal role in design­
ing effective tools for deshelling processes within the cashew industry. The revealed aniso­
tropic mechanical behavior, showing variations in force at fracture along different
orientations, highlights the structural composition of fibers within the nuts. This anisotropic
response requires an approach in tool design, ensuring adaptability to diverse loading direc­
tions for the proper handling and processing of cashew nuts but is also indispensable for
designing tools that can optimize deshelling efficiency while minimizing the risk of damaging
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 241

Figure 10. Compressive mechanical behavior of steamed cashew nuts.

Table 6. Compression force at fracture of raw and steamed cashew nuts from four suppliers at x, y and z orientations.
Force at Fracture Supplier 1 Supplier 2 Supplier 3 Supplier 4
Raw x axis (N) 451 ± 32 810 ± 30 575 ± 22 557 ± 11
y axis (N) 452 ± 23 626 ± 59 499 ± 22 415 ± 30
z axis (N) 810 ± 36 903 ± 17 861 ± 38 842 ± 42
Steamed x axis (N) 382 ± 15 619 ± 68 365 ± 11 464 ± 23
y axis (N) 223 ± 14 391 ± 19 229 ± 20 341 ± 31
z axis (N) 662 ± 67 814 ± 56 636 ± 58 833 ± 35

the kernel. By incorporating these mechanical findings into tool design, manufacturers can
enhance the precision and efficacy of deshelling processes, contributing to the production of
whole and high-quality cashew kernels. This, in turn, aligns with the industry’s objective of
meeting strict quality standards and catering to the preferences of the international cashew
nut market, where the value of whole kernels is vital.

Conclusion
The morphological, physical, and mechanical properties of raw and steamed cashew nuts from
multiple suppliers in Puerto Carreño, located in the Vichada region of Colombia, were measured in
this study. The findings revealed that cashew nuts harvested in the Vichada region varied in size and
exhibited a kidney-shaped morphology. Compared to nuts from other African and Asian countries,
the cashew nuts from Vichada displayed similar sizes and mass, with some even larger in size. This
242 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

discovery is significant as the preference for larger nut sizes, particularly for complete kernels in jumbo
sizes, has contributed to an increased demand. Thus, the cashew industry in the Vichada region has
the potential to establish strong competitiveness in the global market.
Furthermore, the cashew nuts exhibited lightweight characteristics, low moisture content, and favor­
able flowability and frictional resistance. The mechanical tests conducted revealed that cashew nuts
possessed a relatively high compressive strength and displayed an anisotropic mechanical response and
significant differences among suppliers. Additionally, the results indicated that the steaming process
reduced their mechanical properties, enhancing the subsequent opening process of the nut.
The findings of this study carry important implications for the cashew nut industry. The physical
properties provide valuable insights into the handling and storage requirements of cashew nuts, while
the morphological features can guide breeding programs aimed at improving yield and quality.
Moreover, the mechanical characterization offers valuable information for optimizing processing
techniques and designing cashew-based products.
By enhancing our understanding of the physical, morphological, and mechanical properties of
cashew nuts from the Vichada region, this research contributes to the advancement of the cashew nut
industry. The knowledge gained from this study can inform strategies for cultivation, processing, and
product innovation, leading to increased efficiency, improved quality, and expanded market oppor­
tunities. Ultimately, these advancements have the potential to benefit both producers and consumers,
promoting a sustainable and thriving cashew nut industry.

Nomenclature
D Geometric diameter of the nut
L Length of the nut
m0 Initial mass
mb Mass of empty box
mf Final mass
mn Mass of nuts
mt Mass of filled box
MCP Whole pod moisture content
T Thickness of the nut
Vb Volume of the box
Vn Volume of nuts
W Width of the nut
μ Coefficient of friction
φ Sphericity of the nut
ρt True density
ρb Bulk density
θ Angle of static friction

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación de Colombia and
OCAD de CTeI who carried out the viability, prioritization, and approval of this research with resources from
Sistema General de Regalías - SGR in the call No. 6 of the Project “Aprovechamiento de los subproductos
Agroindustriales en la producción del marañón en el departamento del Vichada - BPIN 2020000100571”.
Likewise, the authors thank the government and the community of the department of Vichada in general for
their interest and participation.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 243

Funding
The work was supported by the Sistema General de Regalías de Colombia [call No. 6 - BPIN 2020000100571].

References
[1] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, “Crop and Livestock Statistics (FAOSTAT).” 2022.
[Online]. Available: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL
[2] Orduz-Rodríguez, J. O.; Rodríguez-Polanco, E. Cashew (Anacardium Occidentale L.) a Crop with Productive
Potential: Technological Development and Prospects in Colombia. Agronomía Mesoamericana. 2022, 33(2),
47268. Doi: 10.15517/am.v33i2.47268.
[3] Dakuyo, R.; Konaté, K.; Sanou, A.; Kaboré, K.; Sama, H.; Bazié, D.; Diao, M.; Dicko, M. H. Comparison of
Proximate and Phytonutrient Compositions of Cashew Nuts and Apples from Different Geographical Areas of
Burkina Faso. Biomed Res. Int. Oct, 2022, 2022, 1–12. DOI: 10.1155/2022/1800091.
[4] Oluwaseun, K. Effect of Pre-Shelling Treatment on Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cashew Nut. In IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; Ota, Nigeria, July 9-13, 2018; IOP Publishing, 2018; pp.
012038.
[5] Ogunsina, B.; Bamgboye, A. Effects of Pre-Shelling Treatment on the Physical Properties of Cashew Nut
[Anacardium Occidentale]. Int. Agrophys. 2007, 21(4), 385–389.
[6] Oloso, A.; Clarke, B. Some Aspects of Strength Properties of Cashew Nuts. J. Agri. Eng. Res. 1993, 55(1), 27–43.
DOI: 10.1006/jaer.1993.1030.
[7] Ogunsina, B. S.; Bamgboye, A. I. Pre-Shelling Parameters and Conditions That Influence the Whole Kernel Out-Turn
of Steam-Boiled Cashew Nuts. J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci. 2014, 13(1), 29–34. DOI: 10.1016/j.jssas.2012.12.005.
[8] Kilanko, O. Design and Performance Evaluation of Centrifugal Cashew Nut Sheller. Agric. Eng. Int. Cigr J. 2018,
20(1), 162–170.
[9] Ojolo, S. J.; Damisa, O.; Orisaleye, J. I.; Ogbonnaya, C. Design and Development of Cashew Nut Shelling
Machine. J. Eng. Des. Techn. Jul 2010, 8(2), 146–157. doi:10.1108/17260531011062528.
[10] Swami, S. B.; Thakor, N. S. J.; Gawai, A. M. Mechanical Properties of Cashew Nut Under Compression Loading at
Varied Moisture Contents. Agric. Res. Sep 2018, 7(3), 347–359. DOI: 10.1007/s40003-018-0307-9.
[11] Nayak, M.; Mohana, G.; Bhat, P.; Saroj, P.; Swamy, K.; Bhat, M. Minimum Descriptors of Cashew Germplasm
Accessions. ICAR-Directorate Of Cashew Research Puttur. 2014, 574, 202.
[12] Bart-Plange, A.; Mohammed-Kamil, A.; Addo, A.; Teye, E. Some Physical and Mechanical Properties of Cashew
Nut and Kernel Grown in Ghana. International Journal Of Science And Nature. 2012, 3(2), 406–415.
[13] Dakuyo, R.; Konaté, K.; Bazié, D.; Sanou, A.; Kaboré, K.; Sama, H.; Santara, B.; Konkobo, F. A.; Dicko, M. H.
Correlating the Morphology of Anacardium Occidentale L. Fruits from 30 Orchards with Their Physicochemical
and Nutritional Properties. Front Plant Sci. Dec, 2022, 13, 1033577. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1033577.
[14] Stéphane, K. Y.; Halbin, K. J.; Charlemagne, N. Comparative Study of Physical Properties of Cashew Nuts from
Three Main Production Areas in Côte d’Ivoire. AS. 2020, 11(12), 1232. DOI: 10.4236/as.2020.1112081.
[15] Nath, R.; Chauhan, N. S. Effect of Moisture Content on Engineering Properties of Cashew Nut. Int. J. Curr.
Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 2021, 10(2), 3042–3052. DOI: 10.20546/ijcmas.2021.1002.333.
[16] Chipojola, F. M.; Mwase, W. F.; Kwapata, M. B.; Bokosi, J. M.; Njoloma, J. P.; Maliro, M. F. Morphological
Characterization of Cashew (Anacardium Occidentale L.) in Four Populations in Malawi. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009, 8
(20), 5173–5181.
[17] Castro, A.; Sobreira Júnior, O.; Bordallo, P.; Oliveira, K.; Bezerra, C., Morphological Variability of Cashews from
the Brazilian Savannah. In XXVIII International Horticultural Congress on Science and Horticulture for People
(IHC2010): III International Symposium on 918, Lisbon, Portugal; 2010; pp. 863–869.
[18] Semporé, J. N.; Songré-Ouattara, L. T.; Tarpaga, W. V.; Bationo, F.; Dicko, M. H. Morphological Characterization
and Quality Assessment of Cashew (Anacardium Occidentale L.) Nuts from 53 Accessions of Burkina Faso.
J. Agric. Food. Res. 2021, 6, 100219. DOI: 10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100219.
[19] Aneke, N.; Ojike, O.; Ozor, K. Evaluation of the Engineering Properties of Cashew Kernel Obtained from
Different Plantations in Nsukka. Nig. J. Tech. 2019, 38(2), 520–525. DOI: 10.4314/njt.v38i2.31.
[20] Ogunsina, B.; Bamgboye, A. Fracture Resistance of Cashew Nuts as Influenced by Pre-Shelling Treatment. Int.
J. Food Prop. 2013, 16(7), 1452–1459. DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2011.595026.
[21] Cano, F.; Rincón Reina, A.; González Chavarro, C. F.; Mateus Cagua, D.; Orduz Rodríguez, J. O.; Pisco, Y. C.
Marañón: un acercamiento al contexto productivo, social, ambiental y agroindustrial en la altillanura de Vichada.
Agrosavia. 2022. DOI: 10.21930/agrosavia.cartilla.2022.1.
[22] Clímaco Hio, J.; Guevara Agudelo, E. J.; Navas Arboleda, A. A.; Arango Wiesner, L. V. Corpoica Mapiria Ao1,
Corpoica Yopare Ao2, Corpoica Yucao Ao3.: clones de marañón para la altillanura plana de la Orinoquía
colombiana. Corporación colombiana de investigación agropecuaria-
AGROSAVIA. 2016, 12324(11), 535. hdl.handle.net/20.500.12324/11535.
244 A. SANCHEZ ET AL.

[23] ASTM International. ASTM C702-98 Standard Practice for Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size; ASTM
International: West Conshohocken, PA, Standard, 2017.
[24] Mohsenin, N. N. Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials: V. 1: Physical Characteristics and Mechanical
Properties; New York: Routledge, 2020.
[25] International Board for Plant Genetics Resources. Cashew Descriptors; IBPGR: Rome, Italy, 1986.
[26] Aliyu, O.; Awopetu, J. Multivariate Analysis of Cashew (Anacardium Occidentale L.) Germplasm in Nigeria.
Silvae Genetica. 2007, 56(1–6), 170–179. DOI: 10.1515/sg-2007-0026.
[27] Chabi Sika, K. Morphological Characterization and Agronomic Performances of Cashew (Anacardium
Occidentale L.) Accessions from Benin. Journal Of Agricultural And Crop Research. 2015, 3(2), 27–40.
[28] Jain, R.; Kumar, S. Development of a Cashew Nut Sheller. J. Food Eng. 1997, 32(3), 339–345. DOI: 10.1016/S0260-
8774(97)00020-4.
[29] American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, “ASAE/ASABE S410.3 Moisture Measurement -
Peanuts,” ASABE, St. Joseph, MI, Standard, 2020.
[30] Kruszelnicka, W.; Macko, M.; Laczny, D.; Baldowska-Witos, P.; Lewandowski, J. The Use of Simulation Software
Using the Discrete Element Method (DEM) for the Process of Materials Comminution. In MATEC Web of
Conferences, Tleń, Poland; EDP Sciences; 2022; p. 07005.
[31] Bhadra, R. Field-Observed Angles of Repose for Stored Grain in the United States. Appl. Eng. Agric. 2017, 33(1),
131–137.
[32] Anderson, G.; Bern, C. J. Dynamic Angle of Repose of Corncobs Placed by Three Mechanical Means. Trans.
ASAE. 1984, 27(3), 935–0936. DOI: 10.13031/2013.32898.
[33] Ileleji, K.; Zhou, B. The Angle of Repose of Bulk Corn Stover Particles. Powder Technology. 2008, 187(2), 110–118.
DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2008.01.029.
[34] Oliveros, C.; ROA, G. Coeficiente de fricción ángulo de reposo y densidades aparentes de granos de café coffea
Arábica variedad Caturra. Cenicafé. 1985, 36(1), 22–38.
[35] U. S. B. Of Reclamation, USBR 6258 - Determining the Angle of Basic Friction (Static) Using a Tilting Table Test;
United States Bureau of Reclamation: Denver, Colorado, Standard, 2009.
[36] American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. ASAE S368.4 - Compression Test of Food Materials of
Convex Shape; American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, St. Joseph: Michigan, Standard, 2000.
[37] Nejo, R.; Oloko, S. Determination of Some Physical Properties of Cashew Nut. Intl. J. Innov. Sci., Eng. And Techn.
2016, 3(10), 167–173.
[38] de Araújo, M. C.; de, A. C.; Ferraz, O. Características físicas e mecânicas do endocarpo e da amêndoa da castanha
de caju ’CCP 76’ antes e após tratamento térmico. Eng. Agríc. 2008, 28(3), 565–578. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-
69162008000300017.
[39] Lopes Serrano, L. A.; Vidal Neto, F. D. C.; Melo, D. S.; Cardoso, J. E. Influência do Oídio nas Castanhas de
Diferentes Genótipos de Cajueiro. Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical: Fortaleza, Brasil, 2013.
[40] Kumar, P. A.; Kiran, N.; Patil, S.; Palanimuthu, V. Effect of Moisture Content on the Engineering Properties of
Cashew Nuts. International Journal Of Advanced Research In Biological Sciences. 2014, 1(7), 36–41.
[41] Sudaryanto, A.; Hidayat, D. D.; Sagita, D.; Indriati, A.; Rahayuningtyas, A. Engineering Properties of the Cashew
Nut in Context of Designing Post-Harvest Handling and Processing Machinery. Res. Agric. Eng. Apr 2022, 68(4),
201–209. doi:10.17221/83/2021-RAE.
[42] Global Cashew Council. Cashew Technical Information. International Nut and Dried Fruit Council; Reus,
España, 2016.
[43] Agrosavia: Corporación colombiana de investigación agropecuaria, “Corpoica Yopare Ao2 Ficha Comercial.”
2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.agrosavia.co/media/bccdgo4k/2-ficha-mara%C3%B1on_yopare.pdf
[44] Balasubramanian, D. PH—Postharvest Technology: Physical Properties of Raw Cashew Nut. J. Agri. Eng. Res.
2001, 78(3), 291–297. DOI: 10.1006/jaer.2000.0603.