Handout 14: Interference and diffraction

Optical path length

When light of wavelength 𝜆 (measured in air/vacuum)

travels in a medium, the wavelength is shortened by a factor of 1⁄𝑛,
where 𝑛 (𝑛 > 1) is the refractive index of the medium. Suppose the
thickness of the medium is 𝐿 as shown in Fig. 1. The number of waves
in the medium is given by

𝐿 𝑛𝐿
𝑁 = = . (1)
𝜆 ⁄𝑛 𝜆

It can be seen in Eq. (1) that the optical path length can be defined as
Figure 1: Optical path length in a material
Optical path length = 𝑛𝐿. (2)

Phase difference

Figure 2 shows a wave function. We can locate a point on the

wave function by distance 𝑥 from a reference point. Alternatively, we
can locate the point by its phase 𝜙. When the distance 𝑥 is changed by
one wavelength, the phase 𝜙 is changed by 2𝜋. Hence, the two points
Δ𝑥 apart have phase difference of

2𝜋
Δ𝜙 = Δ𝑥. (3)
𝜆 Figure 2: Phase of a wave

In a medium with refractive index 𝑛, Δ𝑥 in Eq. (3) must be replaced

with optical path difference. Figure 3 shows two light beams
travelling through different media of the same thickness 𝐿 . They
cover optical path lengths of 𝑛1 𝐿 and 𝑛2 𝐿 and hence optical path
difference Δ𝑥 = (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )𝐿 . Assume that the beams are in phase
before entering the media, on the exit they have phase difference

2𝜋
Δ𝜙 = 𝐿(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ). (4)
𝜆

Interference Figure 3: Optical path difference

Interference refers to addition (superposition) of two or

more waves. The main feature of the interference is the resulting
amplitude of the added waves which can be maximum (constructive
interference) and minimum (destructive interference) as shown in
Fig. 4. The constructive interference occurs when the two waves
possess phase difference Δ𝜙 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, … whereas when the phase
difference Δ𝜙 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, …, the destructive interference occurs.

Figure 4: Constructive and destructive

interference

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 The two light waves that are represented by the rays have
wavelength 550.0 nm before entering media 1 and 2. They also have
equal amplitudes and are in phase. Medium 1 is just air, and medium
2 is a transparent plastic layer of index of refraction 1.600 and
thickness 2.600 mm.

a) What is the phase difference of the emerging waves?

b) If the waves reached the same point on a distant screen, what
type of interference would they produce?

Double-slit experiment

Figure 5 shows a plane wave incident on a single slit 𝑆0 .

Diffraction (bending of wave fronts) occurs and 𝑆0 now serves a light
source of curved wave fronts. These wave fronts hit a pair of slits 𝑆1
and 𝑆2 . The waves emerging from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 interfere on the screen,
resulting in a pattern of alternating bright (constructive interference)
and dark (destructive interference) regions.
Figure 5: Double-slit experiment
The locations of the bright and dark regions can be
determined from the phase difference of the waves from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 .
Figure 6 shows the paths of the waves meeting at a point 𝑃 on the
screen at distance 𝐷 away. The point 𝑃 is at distance 𝑦 and angle 𝜃 as
shown in Fig. 6. The slits 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are 𝑑 apart. If the screen is placed
far away from the slits (𝐷 ≫ 𝑑), the paths can be taken to be parallel
and the path difference Δ𝐿 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 . By using Eq. (3), the phase
difference of the two waves arriving at point 𝑃 is

2𝜋
Δ𝜙 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃. (5)
𝜆

Point 𝑃 is the point of constructive interference (bright spot) when

Δ𝜙 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, … = 2𝑚𝜋 (𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … ). Hence,

2𝜋
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑚𝜋 Figure 6: Optical path difference of waves emerging
𝜆 from double-slit
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 = 0,1,2, … (6)

2
Point 𝑃 is the point of destructive interference (dark spot) when
Δ𝜙 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, … = (2𝑚 − 1)𝜋 (𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, … ). Hence,

2𝜋
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑚 − 1)𝜋
𝜆
1
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 − ) 𝜆, 𝑚 = 1,2,3, .. (7)
2

Equations (6) and (7) determine the angle 𝜃 of point 𝑃 where the
Figure 7: Orders of bright spots
constructive or destructive interference occurs. Since the screen is a
far away, 𝜃 is small and in Fig. 6, we can approximate
𝑦
sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = . (8)
𝐷

Equations (6) and (7) determine the angles 𝜃 of the bright

and dark spots (or fringes) of order 𝑚. The order 𝑚 = 0 is the central
bright spot and the other orders are on both sides of the central bright
spot (Fig. 7)

 Suppose that Young’s experiment is performed with blue-green

light of wavelength 500 nm. The slits are 1.20 mm apart, and the
viewing screen is 5.40 m from the slits. How far apart are the bright
fringes?

 A double-slit arrangement produces interference fringes for

sodium light ( 𝜆 = 589 nm) that have an angular separation of
3.50 × 10−3 rad. For what wavelength would the angular separation
be 10.0% greater?

3
Intensity in double-slit experiment

Interference means superposition of the waves and for light,

their electric field components add. For light waves in the double-slit
experiment, the addition of the electric field vectors is illustrated in
the phasor diagram in Fig. 8. The electric field vectors from the two
slits have the same amplitude 𝐸0 but one has phase Δ𝜙 (Eq. (5))
different from the other. The amplitude 𝐸 of the resultant electric
field can be found by using cosine’s rule: Figure 8: Addition of electric field vectors

𝐸 2 = 𝐸02 + 𝐸02 − 2𝐸02 cos(𝜋 − ∆𝜙)

= 2𝐸02 (1 − cos(𝜋 − ∆𝜙) )
= 2𝐸02 (1 + cos ∆𝜙)
∆𝜙
= 2𝐸02 (1 + 2 cos 2 ( ) − 1)
2
2 2
∆𝜙
= 4𝐸0 cos ( ).
2

Hence,

∆𝜙
𝐸 = 2𝐸0 |cos ( )|. (9)
2
Figure 9: VariationFigure
of intensity
9: of light on the
The intensity 𝐼 of light is proportional to the amplitude of the wave. screen
Therefore,

∆𝜙
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 ( ), (10)
2

where 𝐼0 is the constant of proportionality which is taken to be the

maximum intensity.
Equation (10) is plotted in Fig. 9. It can be seen from either
Fig. 8, Eq. (9) or Eq. (10) that the maximum wave amplitude 𝐸 = 2𝐸0
and the maximum intensity 𝐼 = 𝐼0 occur when Δ𝜙 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, …
(constructive interference). The minimum wave amplitude 𝐸 =
0 and the minimum intensity 𝐼 = 0 occur when Δ𝜙 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, …
(destructive interference).

Thin film interference

Figure 10 shows a monochromatic light beam shone onto a

transparent film of thickness 𝐿. There is a partial beam reflection at
the interface and a partial beam transmission into the film. The
transmitted beam reflects on the other side of film and emerges on
same side as the incident beam. These two beams interfere.
It must be noted that upon reflection on a medium with
higher refractive index, there is a phase change of 𝜋 for beam 1. Beam
2 enters the film and travels an optical path length of 2𝐿𝑛2 . Assume
that the two beams in Fig. 10 are in phase before hitting the interface. Figure 10: An incident ray on an air-medium
Beam 1 and beam 2 have their phase as follows. interface splits into two rays.
Beam 1: phase 𝜙1 = 𝜋
Beam 2: phase 𝜙2 = 2𝜋(Δ𝑥)⁄𝜆 = 2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 )⁄𝜆

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Hence, the phase difference

2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 )
Δ𝜙 = − 𝜋. (11)
𝜆

The interference is constructive and the film appears bright when

Δ𝜙 = 2𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 0,1,2, …
Figure 11: Thin film interference on soap film
2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 ) and Blue Morpho butteryfly
− 𝜋 = 2𝑚𝜋,
𝜆
2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 )
= (2𝑚 + 1)𝜋
𝜆
1
2𝐿𝑛2 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆, 𝑚 = 0,1,2, … (12)
2

The interference is destructive and the film appears dark when

Δ𝜙 = (2𝑚 − 1)𝜋, 𝑚 = 1,2,3, …

2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 )
− 𝜋 = (2𝑚 − 1)𝜋,
𝜆
2𝜋(2𝐿𝑛2 )
= 2𝑚𝜋
𝜆
2𝐿𝑛2 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 = 1,2,3, … (13)

For a certain film thickness, Eqs. (12) and (13) tell us the
wavelengths of light for which the film appears bright and dark,
respectively, one wavelength for each value of 𝑚 . For a given
wavelength, Eqs (12) and (13) tells us the thicknesses of the films
that appear bright and dark, respectively, one thickness for each
value of 𝑚. Intermediate thicknesses give intermediate brightnesses.
Thin film interference is responsible for colors on the soap film and
on wings of some butterflies as shown in Fig. 11.

 Light of wavelength 624 nm is incident perpendicularly on a soap

film (𝑛 = 1.33) suspended in air. Consider the reflections from the
film which undergo fully constructive interference.
a) What is the least thickness of the film?
b) What is the second least thickness of the film?

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Single slit diffraction

Figure 12 shows light beam shone onto a single slit of width

𝑎. The diffraction pattern that appears on the screen behind the slit
consists of alternating bright and dark regions. The central bright
region seems to be the brightest and twice as thick as the other bright
regions.
Huygen’s principle states that every point on the wave front
serves as a source of waves. Figure 13 shows a wave front of light
wave at the aperture of a single slit. Consider a number of points on
this wave front emitting light waves at angle 𝜃 to the direction of the
incident light. These waves interfere and the electric field vectors Figure 12: Diffraction pattern of a single slit
add. Since the number of these vectors is large and the adjacent
vectors have slight phase difference, these vectors form an arc 𝑆 of a
circle of radius 𝑟 as shown in Fig. 14. The resultant electric field is
given by 𝐸. For slit width 𝑎, the two vectors at the edge of the slit have
the phase difference of ∆𝜙 = (2𝜋⁄𝜆)𝑎 sin 𝜃. From geometry,

∆𝜙
𝐸 = 2𝑟 sin
2
𝑆 ∆𝜙
= 2 sin ( ),
∆𝜙 2
∆𝜙
sin ( )
= 𝑆 2 . (14) Figure 13: Addition of electric vectors
∆𝜙
2

The intensity of light 𝐼 ∝ 𝐸 2 . Therefore,

∆𝜙 2
sin ( )
𝐼 = 𝐼0 [ 2 ] , (15)
∆𝜙
2

Equation (15) contains function like 𝑓(𝑥) = (sin 𝑥 ⁄𝑥 )2 and the graph
is shown in Fig. 14. The graph peaks at 𝑥 = 0. According to Eq. (15),
the maximum intensity occurs at ∆𝜙 = 0 or 𝜃 = 0 (central bright
spot which is the brightest). We are interested in the location of the Figure 14: Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = (sin 𝑥 ⁄𝑥 )2
intensity minima. Of course, the graph 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum of zero
when 𝑥 = 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, … . From Eq. (15), the condition for the
dark region on the screen is given by

∆𝜙
= 𝑚𝜋
2
𝜋
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜋
𝜆
𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, … (16)

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 The distance between the first and fifth minima of a single-slit
diffraction pattern is 0.35 mm with the screen 40 cm away from the
slit, when light of wavelength 550 nm is used.
a) Find the slit width.
b) Calculate the angle 𝜃 of the first diffraction minimum.

Double-slit interference with effect of slit-width

When we studied double-slit interference, we consider the

slit separation 𝑑 without consider the width of each slit. The slit
width 𝑎 brings in the effect of single-slit diffraction. The combined
interference pattern is shown in Fig. 15. The equally spaced bright
regions are contained in single slit diffraction envelope.
Figure 16 shows double slit with finite slit width. The Figure 15: Interference pattern from double slit
intensity of light on the screen is proportional to the product of the of finite slit width
intensity due to double-slit interference (slit separation 𝑑) and that
due to single-slit diffraction (slit width 𝑎). Double-slit interference
gives peak by Eq. (6) at sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆⁄𝑑 . Single-slit diffraction gives the
first intensity minimum, from Eq. (16), at sin 𝜃 = 𝜆⁄𝑎 . When these
locations coincide, the 𝑚-th peak is missing.

Figure 16: Double-slit interference gives intensity

maxima at sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆⁄𝑑 . Single-slit diffraction gives
first intensity minimum at sin 𝜃 = 𝜆⁄𝑎.