IMMUNE RESPONSE

The Immune System

• Immunity: the body’s specific protective
response to invading foreign agent or
organism
• Immunopathology: the study of diseases
that result from dysfunction of the
immune system
 Bone
marrow
Thymus
WBC
gland

Lymphoid
Adenoids
tissues

Tonsils Spleen
Lymph
node
Central and Peripheral Lymphoid
Organs
Bone marrow
 CELLS of the IMMUNE SYSTEM
*WBC *T cells

*B cells
 WBC
1. Neutrophils
*40-70% 0f WBC; circulating phagocytes
that are poised to respond quickly & in
vast #s where the tissue injury occurred;
*the first cells to arrive at the site; leave
vascular compartment & enter tissue
spaces searching out bacteria or cell
debris
*
 WBC
2. Eosinophils
*2-5% of WBCs; Phagocytic, but not as
effective as Neutrophils
*are thought to protect humans against
parasitic worm infection e.g. pin worms,
tapeworms. Also, have a role in allergic
reactions
3. Basophils
*0.2% of leukocytes. Functions in allergic
reactions.
 WBC
4. Monocytes
*circulate in the blood; mature becomes
macrophages & migrate to tissues
*literally means big eaters
*responsible for removing antigens, damaged
cells, cellular debris by phagocytosis
5. Lymphocytes
*originate from stem cells in the bone marrow
and mature into either T cells or B cells
 Lymphocytes
• B lymphocytes mature in the bone
marrow; T lymphocytes mature in the
thymus where they also differentiate into
cells with various functions
Development of Cells of the
Immune System
 T cells
*are cells produced in the bone marrow; they
migrate to the thymus where they mature
*are primarily responsible for cellular
immunity
*by spending time in the thymus, these cells
are programmed to become T cell rather
than an anti-body producing B lymphocytes
*attack foreign invaders directly rather than
producing antibodies
T cells
• Include:

1. Effector T cells
a. Helper T cells
b. Cytotoxic T cells
2. Suppressor T cells
3. Memory T cells
 Types of T cells
• Helper t cells
-when activated, secrete
cytokines which attract
& activate B cells,
cytotoxic T cells,
macrophages
-produce different types of
cytokines & determine
whether the immune
response will be the
production of anti-
bodies or cell mediated
 Types of T cells
• Cytotoxic T cells
(Killer T cells)
-attack the antigen
directly by altering
the cell membrane
& causing all lysis
(disintegration)
 Types of T cells
• Suppressor T cells
-has the ability to
decrease B cell
production, thereby
keeping the immune
response at a level that
is compatible with
health-> that is keeping
immune response
sufficient to fight
infection without
attacking the body’s
healthy tissues
 Types of T cells
• Memory cell
-remain in the lymph
nodes & retain a
memory for the antigen
-responsible for
recognizing antigens
from previous exposure
 B Lymphocytes

-produce antibodies that have affinity

with a particular epitopes
-its surface are coated with
immunoglobulin or antibody
-once activated, B cells develop into
either plasma cell (antibody
producing cells) or memory cells .
*B lymphocytes
 Immune Function
Natural immunity: nonspecific response to any
foreign invader (present at birth)
- Has broad spectrum of defense and resistance to
infection.
- Ability to distinguish between friend and foe or
“self” and “non-self”.
- Activate cells for control of pathogen (by
elimination) or promote the dev. Of acquired
immune response.
- Immediate - w/in 4 hrs
- Delayed – bet. 4 and 96 hrs.
White blood cell action:
WBCs – natural and acquired immune responses.
Granulocytes - release cell mediators such as
histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins, and
engulf (phagocytize) foreign substances.
neutrophils (PMN) – first cell to arrive at the site
of inflammation.
eosinophils and basophils - allergy and stress.
Non-granular
Monocytes or macrophages – function as
phagocytic cells.
 Inflammatory response
- is a major function of the natural immune
system in response to tissue injury or invading
organism.
- Assisted by chemical mediators.
Physical barriers and chemical barriers
-intact skin & mucous membranes
-> cover the body surfaces preventing microorganisms
& other agents from entering tissues beneath the skin
- acidic gastric secretions or enzymes in tears and
saliva - act in a non-specific way to destroy
invading bacteria and fungi
- Viruses are countered by interferon
 Acquired immunity:
specific against a foreign antigen
– Result of prior exposure to an antigen through
immunization or by contracting a disease.
2 mechanisms:
Active – developed by the person’s own body.
can be acquired through inoculation of Vaccine which
is composed of killed/attenuated bacteria
Ex. OPV, TT
Passive – temporary immunity transmitted from a
source outside the body.
Ex. A child receiving antibodies from
mother transplacentally
Receiving of antibodies by
injection with therapeutic serum e.g.
ATS
Milk- colostrums (which
contains immunoglobulin)
 Defenses
• Phagocytic immune response

• Humoral or antibody response

• Cellular immune response

• Phagocytic Immune Response
- 1st line of defense
- Involves WBCs (granulocytes and
macrophages)
- Also remove the body’s own dying or
dead cells.
Apoptosis (programmed cell death)
- body’s way of destroying worn-out cells
(blood or skin cells) that need to be
renewed.
• Humoral Immune Response
(antibody response)
- 2nd protective response
- Begins with B-lymphocytes
Antibody – blood stream – attack organism –
combine w/ antigen – interlock.
Cellular Immune Response
- 3rd protective response
- Involves T-lymphocytes
Not all antigens are immunogenic; some must be coupled to
other molecules to stimulate immune response.
 4 Stages of Immune Response

• Recognition
• Proliferation
• Response
• Effector
 *Recognition stage

-antigens recognized through

patrolling lymphocytes (lymph
nodes)
-lymphocytes re circulate from
lymph nodes back into the blood
stream (which is a never ending
process)
-lymphocytes are familiar with the
surface marker on self of its own
body
 *Proliferation Stage

-lymphocyte which has the antigenic

message return to the nearest
lymph nodes -> stimulate some of
the resident/dormant T & B cells to
enlarge & proliferate
 *Response Stage

-lymphocytes function either in a

humoral or a cellular fashion

*Effector Stage
-destruction of the invading
microbes or the complete
neutralization of the toxin
Stages of Immune Response
 Humoral Immune
Response
• Production of antibodies by B-lymphocytes.
• Need assistance of T-cells to trigger antibody
formation.
- picks up antigenic message – lymph node
– B-lymph stimulated to enlarge, divide,
proliferate.
 Role of Antibodies
• Agglutination of antigens

• Opsonization

• Promote release of vasoactive substances;

• activation of complement system and phagocytosis

• Act in concert with other components of the immune system

• Types of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE,IgG, and IgM

*The immune globulins/antibodies

1. Ig G
2. Ig A
3. Ig M
4. Ig E
5. Ig D
Antibody Molecule
Antigen–Antibody Binding
 Cellular Immune Response
T cells interact closely with B cells, indicating that
humoral and cellular immune responses are not
separate, unrelated processes, but rather
branches of the immune response that interact.

Types of T lymphocytes
• Effector T cells
- helper T cells
- cytotoxic T cells
• Suppresor T cells
• Memory T cells
• Helper T cells – activated on recognition
of antigen; stimulate the immune
system; secrete cytokines – attract B
cells, killer T cells, macrophages, etc.;
also produce lymphokines.

• Cytotoxic T cells – attack antigen directly

by cell lysis.
• Suppresor T cells - B-cell production.
• Memory T cells – recognize antigens
from previous exposure.

Non-specific
• Null lymphocytes – destroy antigen
already coated with antibody.
• Natural Killer (NK) cells – secrete
macrophage-activating cytokines.
 *Complement system
Circulating plasma proteins, known
as complement, are made in the
liver and activated when an
antibody connects with its antigen.
Complement has three major
physiologic functions:
• defending the body against
bacterial infection and
inflammation
• bridging natural and acquired
immunity
• disposing of immune complexes
and the byproducts associated with
with inflammation
 *Complement system

*effect of complement activation:

-coating/opsonisation of microbes
-chemotaxis & activation of phagocytosis
-lysis of target cells
IMMUNODULATORS

I. Interferons - one type of biologic

response modifier, is a non- specific
viricidal protein that is naturally
produced by the body and is capable of
activating other components of the
immune system
II. Colony-stimulating factors - are a
group of naturally occurring
glycoprotein cytokines that regulate
production, differentiation, survival,
and activation of hematopoietic cells.
 Genetic Engineering
One of the more remarkable evolving technologies is
genetic engineering, which uses recombinant
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology.
Two facets of this technology exist.
• The first permits scientists to combine genes from
one type of organism with genes of a second
organism.
-This type of technology allows cells and
microorganisms to manufacture proteins, monokines,
and lymphokines, which can alter and enhance
immune system function.
• The second facet of recombinant DNA
technology involves gene therapy. If a
particular gene is abnormal or missing,
experimental recombinant DNA
technology may be capable of restoring
normal gene function.
 Stem cells
• Stem cells are capable of self-renewal and
differentiation; they continually replenish the
body’s entire supply of both RBCs and WBCs.
• Some stem cells, described as totipotent
cells, have tremendous capacity to self-renew
and differentiate.
• Embryonic stem cells, described as
pluripotent, give rise to numerous cell types
that are able to form tissues.
Assessment of the Immune System
• nutritional status;
• infections and immunizations;
• allergies;
• disorders and disease states
(autoimmune disorders, cancer,
and chronic illnesses)
• surgeries;
• medications;
• and blood transfusions.
 Gender
Many autoimmune diseases have a
higher incidence in females than in
males, a phenomenon believed to be
correlated with sex hormones.
 Nutrition
Vit D deficiency - increased risk of
common cancers, autoimmune
diseases, and infectious diseases

Micronutrients such as zinc, copper,

manganese, and selenium may have
widespread negative effects on the
immune response, which can be
reversed by supplementation
Depletion of protein - atrophy of
lymphoid tissues, depression of
antibody response, reduction in the
number of circulating T cells, and
impaired phagocytic function.
Tests to Evaluate Immune Function
• WBC count and differential
• Bone marrow biopsy
• Humoral and cellular immunity tests
• Phagocytic cell function test
• Complement component tests
• Hypersensitivty tests
• Specific antigen–antibody tests
• HIV infection tests