+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and
Computer Evolution
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
•Attributes of a system •Instruction set, number of
visible to the bits used to represent
programmer various data types, I/O
•Have a direct impact on mechanisms, techniques
the logical execution of a for addressing memory
program

Architectural
Computer
attributes
Architecture
include:

Organizational
Computer
attributes
Organization
include:

•Hardware details •The operational units and

transparent to the their interconnections
programmer, control that realize the
signals, interfaces architectural
between the computer specifications
and peripherals, memory
technology used

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Structure and Function

◼ Hierarchical system
◼ Structure
◼ Set of interrelated
◼ The way in which
subsystems
components relate to each
◼ Hierarchical nature of complex other
systems is essential to both
◼ Function
their design and their
description ◼ The operation of individual
components as part of the
◼ Designer need only deal with structure
a particular level of the system
at a time
◼ Concerned with structure
and function at each level

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Function
◼ There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
◼ Data processing
◼ Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of
processing requirements is broad
◼ Data storage
◼ Short-term
◼ Long-term
◼ Data movement
◼ Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to
a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer
◼ Data communications – when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
◼ Control
◼ A control unit manages the computer’s resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response
to instructions
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 COMPUTER

I/O Main
memory

System
Bus

CPU

CPU

Registers ALU

Structure Internal
Bus

Control
Unit

CONTROL
UNIT
Sequencing
Logic

Control Unit
Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory

Figure 1.1 A Top-Down View of a Computer

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
 CPU – controls the operation of
the computer and performs its
There are four data processing functions
main structural
components  Main Memory – stores data
of the computer:  I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external
environment

 System Interconnection –
some mechanism that provides
for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+ ◼ Control Unit
CPU
◼ Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
Major structural
◼ Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:
◼ Performs the computer’s data
processing function

◼ Registers
◼ Provide storage internal to the CPU

◼ CPU Interconnection
◼ Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control
unit, ALU, and registers

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Multicore Computer Structure

◼ Central processing unit (CPU)

◼ Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions
◼ Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers
◼ Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit

◼ Core
◼ An individual processing unit on a processor chip
◼ May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system
◼ Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

◼ Processor
◼ A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
◼ Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions
◼ Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Cache Memory

◼ Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main

memory

◼ Is smaller and faster than main memory

◼ Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache

data from main memory that is likely to be used in the near
future

◼ A greater performance improvement may be obtained by

using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the
core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther
from the core

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 MOTHERBOARD
Main memory chips

Processor
I/O chips chip

PROCESSOR CHIP

Core Core Core Core

L3 cache L3 cache

Core Core Core Core

CORE
Arithmetic
Instruction and logic Load/
logic unit (ALU) store logic

L1 I-cache L1 data cache

L2 instruction L2 data
cache cache

Figure 1.2 Simplified View of Major Elements of a Multicore Computer

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 +

Figure 1.3
Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

◼ Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic

elements and memory
◼ IAS computer
◼ Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept
◼ Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann
◼ First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC
◼ Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
◼ Completed in 1952
◼ Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Central processing unit (CPU)

Arithmetic-logic unit (CA)

AC MQ

Input-
Arithmetic-logic output
circuits
equipment
(I, O)

MBR

Instructions
and data

Instructions
and data
M(0)
M(1)
M(2)
M(3) PC IBR
M(4) AC: Accumulator register
MQ: multiply-quotient register
MBR: memory buffer register
IBR: instruction buffer register
MAR IR PC: program counter
MAR: memory address register
Main
IR: insruction register
memory
(M)
Control
Control
circuits
signals
M(4092)
M(4093)
M(4095)
Program control unit (CC)

Addresses

Figure 1.6 IAS Structure

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 0 1 39

sign bit (a) Number word

left instruction (20 bits) right instruction (20 bits)

0 8 20 28 39

opcode (8 bits) address (12 bits) opcode (8 bits) address (12 bits)

(b) Instruction word

Figure 1.7 IAS Memory Formats

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Registers
Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from
register (MAR) or read into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

register (IBR) word in memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

Program counter (PC) from memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
multiplier quotient (MQ) operations

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Start

Yes Is next No
instruction MAR PC
No memory in IBR?
Fetch access
cycle required
MBR M(MAR)

Left
No Yes IBR MBR (20:39)
IR IBR (0:7) IR MBR (20:27) instruction
IR MBR (0:7)
MAR IBR (8:19) MAR MBR (28:39) required?
MAR MBR (8:19)

PC PC + 1

Decode instruction in IR

AC M(X) Go to M(X, 0:19) If AC > 0 then AC AC + M(X)

go to M(X, 0:19)

Execution Yes
Is AC > 0?
cycle

MBR M(MAR) PC MAR No MBR M(MAR)

AC MBR AC AC + MBR

M(X) = contents of memory location whose addr ess is X

(i:j) = bits i through j

Figure 1.8 Partial Flowchart of IAS Operation

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Symbolic
Instruction Type Opcode Representation Description
00001010 LOAD MQ Transfer contents of register MQ to the
accumulator AC
00001001 LOAD MQ,M(X) Transfer contents of memory location X to
MQ
00100001 STOR M(X) Transfer contents of accumulator to memory
Data transfer location X
00000001 LOAD M(X) Transfer M(X) to the accumulator
00000010 LOAD –M(X) Transfer –M(X) to the accumulator
00000011 LOAD |M(X)| Transfer absolute value of M(X) to the
accumulator
00000100 LOAD –|M(X)| Transfer –|M(X)| to the accumulator
Unconditional 00001101 JUMP M(X,0:19) Take next instruction from left half of M(X)

Table 1.1
branch 00001110 JUMP M(X,20:39) Take next instruction from right half of M(X)
00001111 JUMP+ M(X,0:19) If number in the accumulator is nonnegative,
take next instruction from left half of M(X)
0 JU If number in the
0 MP accumulator is nonnegative,
Conditional branch 0 + take next instruction from

The IAS
1 M(X right half of M(X)
0 ,20:
0 39)

Instruction Set
0
0
00000101 ADD M(X) Add M(X) to AC; put the result in AC
00000111 ADD |M(X)| Add |M(X)| to AC; put the result in AC
00000110 SUB M(X) Subtract M(X) from AC; put the result in AC
00001000 SUB |M(X)| Subtract |M(X)| from AC; put the remainder
in AC
00001011 MUL M(X) Multiply M(X) by MQ; put most significant
bits of result in AC, put least significant bits
Arithmetic
in MQ
00001100 DIV M(X) Divide AC by M(X); put the quotient in MQ
and the remainder in AC
00010100 LSH Multiply accumulator by 2; i.e., shift left one
bit position
00010101 RSH Divide accumulator by 2; i.e., shift right one
position
00010010 STOR M(X,8:19) Replace left address field at M(X) by 12
rightmost bits of AC
Address modify
00010011 STOR M(X,28:39) Replace right address field at M(X) by 12
rightmost bits of AC (Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.)

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors
◼ Smaller

◼ Cheaper

◼ Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

◼ Is a solid state device made from silicon

◼ Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

◼ It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations

Approximate Typical Speed

Generation Dates Technology (operations per second)
1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000
2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000
integration
4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000
5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000
6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Second Generation Computers

◼ Introduced:
◼ More complex arithmetic and logic units and
control units
◼ The use of high-level programming languages
◼ Provision of system software which provided the
ability to:
◼ Load programs
◼ Move data to peripherals
◼ Libraries perform common computations

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 IBM 7094 computer Peripheral devices

Mag tape
units
CPU
Card
punch
Data
channel Line
printer

Card
reader

Drum
Multi- Data
plexor channel
Disk

Data
Disk
channel

Hyper-
tapes

Memory Data Teleprocessing

channel equipment

Figure 1.9 An IBM 7094 Configuration

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

◼ 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

◼ Discrete component
◼ Single, self-contained transistor
◼ Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and
soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
◼ Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

◼ The two most important members of the third generation

were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Boolean Binary
Input logic Output Input storage Output
function cell

Read

Activate Write
signal

(a) Gate (b) Memory cell

Figure 1.10 Fundamental Computer Elements

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+ ◼ A computer consists of gates,
Integrated memory cells, and
interconnections among these
Circuits elements

◼ The gates and memory cells

◼ Data storage – provided by are constructed of simple
memory cells digital electronic components
◼ Data processing – provided by
gates ◼ Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can be
◼ Data movement – the paths fabricated from a
among components are used semiconductor such as silicon
to move data from memory to
memory and from memory ◼ Many transistors can be
through gates to memory produced at the same time on a
single wafer of silicon
◼ Control – the paths among
components can carry control ◼ Transistors can be connected
signals with a processor metallization to
form circuits

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could be

put on a single chip was doubling every year

Consequences of Moore’s law:

The pace slowed to a
doubling every 18
months in the 1970’s
but has sustained The cost of The electrical Computer
computer logic path length is becomes smaller Reduction in
that rate ever since Fewer
and memory shortened, and is more power and
interchip
circuitry has increasing convenient to cooling
use in a variety connections
fallen at a operating requirements
dramatic rate speed of environments

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+ Family Characteristics
Similar or
Similar or
identical
identical
operating
instruction set
system

Increasing
Increasing
number of I/O
speed
ports

Increasing
Increasing cost
memory size

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Console Main I/O I/O
CPU
controller memory module module

Omnibus

Figure 1.13 PDP-8 Bus Structure

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 + LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integration

Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Semiconductor Memory
In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory

Chip was about the size Could hold 256 bits of

Non-destructive Much faster than core
of a single core memory

In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit
of core memory
There has been a continuing and rapid decline in Developments in memory and processor
memory cost accompanied by a corresponding technologies changed the nature of computers in
increase in physical memory density less than a decade

Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations

Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied
by declining cost per bit and declining access time

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+
Microprocessors
◼ The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
◼ More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer
and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer
processor

◼ 1971 Intel developed 4004

◼ First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single
chip
◼ Birth of microprocessor

◼ 1972 Intel developed 8008

◼ First 8-bit microprocessor

◼ 1974 Intel developed 8080

◼ First general purpose microprocessor
◼ Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing
capability
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

4004 8008 8080 8086 8088

Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979
5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10
Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz
MHz
Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits
Number of
2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000
transistors
Feature size
10 8 6 3 6
(µm)
Addressable 640 Bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB
memory

(a) 1970s Processors

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX

CPU
Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989
Clock speeds 6 MHz - 12.5 16 MHz - 33 16 MHz - 33 25 MHz - 50
MHz MHz MHz MHz
Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Number of transistors
134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million
Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1
Addressable
16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB
memory
Virtual
1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
memory
Cache — — — 8 kB

(b) 1980s Processors

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II

Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997
Clock speeds 16 MHz - 33 60 MHz - 166 150 MHz - 200 200 MHz - 300
MHz MHz, MHz MHz
Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits
Number of 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million
transistors
Feature size (µm) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35
Addressable
4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
512 kB L1 and 1
Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2
MB L2

(c) 1990s Processors

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Core 2 Duo Core i7 EE
Pentium III Pentium 4
4960X
Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013
Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz
Bus
wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
th
Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion
transistors
Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22
Addressable
64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 1.5 MB L2/15
MB L3
Number of cores 1 1 2 6

(d) Recent Processors

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
The Evolution of the Intel x86
Architecture
◼ Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM
architectures

◼ Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of

design effort on complex instruction set computers (CISCs)

◼ An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced

instruction set computer (RISC)

◼ ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded

systems and is one of the most powerful and best-designed
RISC-based systems on the market

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

 Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more • Extension of the • Intel’s first 32- • Introduced the
general- powerful 16-bit 8086 enabling bit machine use of much
purpose machine addressing a • First Intel more
microprocessor • Has an 16-MB memory processor to sophisticated
• 8-bit machine, instruction instead of just support and powerful
8-bit data path cache, or 1MB multitasking cache
to memory queue, that technology and
• Was used in the prefetches a sophisticated
first personal few instructions instruction
computer before they are pipelining
(Altair) executed • Also offered a
• The first built-in math
appearance of coprocessor
the x86
architecture
• The 8088 was a
variant of this
processor and
used in IBM’s
first personal
computer
(securing the
success of Intel

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel

Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch
prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics
data efficiently

Pentium III
•Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
•Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.

+ Summary
Basic Concepts and
Computer Evolution
Chapter 1
◼ Organization and architecture
◼ Embedded systems
◼ Structure and function
◼ The Internet of things
◼ Brief history of computers ◼ Embedded operating systems
◼ The First Generation: Vacuum ◼ Application processors versus
tubes
dedicated processors
◼ The Second Generation:
Transistors ◼ Microprocessors versus
◼ The Third Generation: Integrated microcontrollers
Circuits ◼ Embedded versus deeply
◼ Later generations embedded systems
◼ The evolution of the Intel x86
architecture ◼ ARM architecture
◼ ARM evolution
◼ Cloud computing ◼ Instruction set architecture
◼ Basic concepts
◼ ARM products
◼ Cloud services

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.