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Educational Research Methodology

Unit 1: Introduction

What is Research?

Research is essentially a systematic enquiry seeking facts through objective verifiable methods in

order to search for answers to questions, or simply understand certain phenomena, discover and

interpret new facts. Research is an imperative area in not just the field of education but in other

fields as well. It purifies the workings and the lives of the individuals. It primarily focuses upon

improving quality and is a search for knowledge. We will look at a few definitions of research

for better understanding of the concept.

Leedy (1997) defines research as the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information

(data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or

interested. According to Leedy (1997), the process of research has the following seven

characteristics:

I. Research originates with an unanswered question or problema `

II. Researchers require a clear articulation of a goal

III. Research requires a specific plan of procedure

IV. Research usually divides the principal problems into more manageable sub-problems

V. Researchers are guided by specific research objectives; questions or hypotheses

VI. Research accepts certain critical assumption

VII. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the

problem that initiated the research

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Leedy (1997) goes on to state what research is not. Research is not mere: information gathering

and is neither transformation of facts from one location to the other nor a catchword to get

information.

According to Kerlinger (1873), research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural

phenomena.

Educational Research

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge by

providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and learning

practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on learner-

motivation, development, and classroom management etc.

Educational research is a more formal, focused and an intensive process of carrying out a

scientific method of analysis. The main purpose of educational research is focused upon

scientific investigation and provide solutions to the problems in the field of education. Research

in education represents an activity, directed towards the development of an organized body of

scientific knowledge about the events with which educators are concerned. Educational research

is the part of behavioural sciences, in which, emphasis has been put upon understanding,

explaining, predicting and to some degree controlling human behaviour. Research in education is

the use of the methods of scientific analysis to produce information, needed to make

improvements in educational planning, decision making, teaching and learning, curriculum

development, understanding of children and youth, use of instructional media, school

organization and education management (Boykin, 1972).

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Research in education has enabled substantial progress to be made in curriculum development

and reform, educating slow learners, understanding the psychological traits of the physically

challenged individuals and in adapting methods of instructions to the needs of individual

learners. Research in education has rendered an imperative contribution in acquiring information

regarding different cultures, norms and values. The individuals have made substantial

contributions through research to their knowledge and generation of awareness, understanding

administrative leadership and behaviour, group procedures, classroom atmosphere, interaction

analysis, self-concept, levels of aspiration, deprivation and racism, educational inequality and the

deprived, marginalized and socio-economically backward sections of the society.

Research Paradigms

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), there are three major questions that help us to define a

research paradigm: the ontological question, the epistemological question and the

methodological question. ‘Ontology’ is the nature of reality; ‘epistemology’ is the philosophy of

how we can know that reality; and ‘methodology’ is the practice of how we come to know that

reality.

Ontology: It is about how the researcher views the world and the assumptions that you make

about the nature of the world – knowledge, reality, truth and facts

Do answers to research questions constitute reality that can be generalized or subjective? Is

reality knowledge that exist independent of a researcher?

These are ontological questions. Ontology has to do with the nature and source of reality

(absolute, objective, timeless or constructed and subjective

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Epistemology: It has to do with the assumptions that you make about the best way of

investigating the world – knowledge, reality, truth and facts. Is there knowledge that can be

described as absolute, objective, timeless? What are the various ways of knowing what we

know?

Methodology and Methods: A research method refers to what a researcher actually does in

order to collect his/her data and carry out investigations. In other words, the various actions

taken, including the research questions, research design, population, sample and sampling

procedure(s), data collection instrument(s), data analysis techniques, in order to carry out a study.

Once a methodology has been selected, methods logically follow. The way that a researcher

groups together his/her research techniques to make a coherent whole or picture. Three dominant

methodologies – quantitative, qualitative and mixed.

The main three major research paradigms associated with our disciplines are positivism, post

positivism and Interpretivism. By using the three basic questions above, we can examine the

beliefs of each of these paradigms and contrast the fundamental differences between them.

Table 1: Characteristics of major research paradigms (adapted from Lincoln and Guba,

1985

Positivism Postpositivism Interpretivism.

Ontological stance Belief in a tangible, Belief in a social Belief in multiple,

social reality. This reality but acceptance constructed realities that

reality exists that knowing this cannot exist outside the

independently of reality will always be social contexts that

those ‘creating’ the inhibited by create them. Realities

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reality. A social imperfections in vary in nature and are

reality can exist just detecting its nature. time and context bound

as a natural reality The imperfections are

exists. the result of human

fallibility.

Epistemological Objectivist/dualist Modified Transactional/subjectivist

stance (dualistic thinking dualist/objectivist The results of the

only two contrasting Acceptance that investigation are a

choices that are independence is not product of interaction

mutually exclusive, possible but between the subject and

Investigator and objectivity is seen as the investigator. What

investigated are the goal and can be known is a result

independent of each demonstrated by of the interaction

other external verification

Methodological Experimental/ Modified Empathetic interaction

stance manipulative experimental/ Investigator interacts

Hypothesis testing, manipulative with the object of the

variables identified Hypothesis testing but investigation. Each

before the more emphasis placed construction of reality is

investigation on context. investigated in its own

Empirical testing is Quantitative and right and is interpreted

conducted in order to qualitative by the investigator

establish the truth of Analysis by variables Qualitative, including

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the proposition hermeneutics and

Predominantly dialectic interchanges

quantitative Analysis by case

Analysis by variables.

The scientific method of inquiry and the educational research process

The scientific method is a process used when conducting experiments and exploring

observations. When following the scientific method, scientists must ask questions, gather and

look at the evidence and determine whether the answers to their questions can be found through

that evidence. Scientists also use the method to determine whether all information presented and

found can combine to create a logical answer. The scientific method provides a way to apply

logical and rational problem-solving methods to scientific questions. The seven steps of the

scientific method

1. Ask a question (problem identification): The first step in the scientific method is asking a

question that you want to answer. This question will include one of the key starters, which are

how, what when, why, where, who or which. The question you ask should also be measurable

and answerable through experimentation. It is often something that can be measured with a

numerical result, although behavioral results are part of the scientific method as well.

2. Do a background research: With your question formulated, conduct preliminary background

research to prepare yourself for the experiment. You can find information through online

searches or in your local library, depending on the question you are asking and the nature of the

background data. You may also find previous studies and experiments that can help with your
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process and conclusions. The background review will help you define your problem in precise

terms

3. Establish your hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess that seeks to answer a question

that can be systematically tested. Your hypothesis should also include your predictions that you

can measure through experimentation and research. The hypothesis serves as a tentative answer

to the problem. It can be from the result of employing logical processes of deduction and

induction to formulate an expectation of the outcome of the study.

4. Test your hypothesis: Next, choose a design and collect data to test your hypothesis.

5. Analyze the data: Data analysis implies extracting the required information which will serve

to answer the research questions or test the hypotheses from the data collected and presented

earlier. The data collected must be reduced, arranged and presented in an organized form for

easy analysis, using suitable statistical techniques. This will enable you to generate some

research findings from which conclusions and generalizations are drawn.

6. Draw necessary inferences or conclusions bases on data: You can now take your findings

and analyze them to determine if they support your hypothesis. Drawing a conclusion means

determining whether what you believed would happen actually happened. If it did not happen,

you can create a new hypothesis and return to step four, and conduct a new experiment to prove

your new theory. If what you hypothesized happened during the experimentation phase, the final

step is putting together your findings and presenting them to others. Although the scientist may

not always follow all the steps strictly as outlined above while carrying out an investigation, the

steps are none the less identifiable in any scientific investigation. The application of this method

to the investigation of a problem distinguishes science from other discipline.

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Characteristics of scientific investigation

For research to be characterized as scientific, it must have the following features

Systematic: Scientific investigations are not carried out in a haphazard manner. There are certain

identifiable steps which ought to be followed in carrying out scientific investigation in order to

arrive at valid and dependable results. This implies that scientific investigations progress in a

logical and sequential order.

Empirical: They should involve the collection of data which will provide the basis for drawing

conclusions. Conclusions are not based on the researcher’s subjective opinions but on concrete

evidence from data collected.

Theoretical: Any scientific research should aim at producing a set of inter-related propositions,

which can explain certain phenomena or patterns of relationships amongst variables. In other

words, the results of such investigations should contribute to the synthesis of relevant

generalizations and theories in the field of study.

Cumulative: Each scientific investigation should add up to the existing facts and theories in that

field. To this effect, it should help in refining and extending the existing principles and theories.

Verifiable: All scientific investigations should lead to verifiable results. This process adopted in

the scientific investigations should open up such that other researchers can replicate them with

approximately the same results.

Educational Research Process

Educational research process is derived from the scientific method of inquiry and thus consists of

the following steps;

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1. Identifying and defining the problem

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Formulating research questions and hypothesis

4. Designing a study to collect the necessary data.

5. Collecting pertinent data for answering the research questions and testing hypothesis.

6. Analyzing the data to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses.

7. Drawing necessary conclusions based on the analysis.

Classification of educational of Research

Educational research can be classified into different types. These classifications may depend on

the purpose, methods of investigation, kind of evidence and analysis used. These classifications

are:

1. Classification according to purpose

(a) Basic Research

This is a type of research, otherwise called fundamental or pure research which is concerned with

obtaining empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. Its main aim is

to extend the frontiers of knowledge with no regards to the practical application. It investigates

relationships between methods, personal characteristics, environmental variables and learning

efficiency in order to develop, illustrate, test and expand theories of learning. It results in the

discovery of useful concepts such as those of motivation, reinforcement etc. It is not concerned

with day to day problems It is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical

problems. The basic research has the following characteristics. It aims at developing educational

theories and principles that will be applicable to a broad population

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(b) Applied Research

This type is called functional research is the application of theories and principles from basic

research to solve educational problems. It is a research performed in relation to actual problems

which occur in the field and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. It is aimed

at solving immediate practical problems. The findings help educators to make rational practical

decisions about specific problems. Applied research can be divided into three sub-categories:

(i) Action Research

It is the process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to

guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions. This is undertaken by educational

practitioners in order to solve their practical local problems. It is aimed at developing new skills,

finding new answers or approaches to solve problems of current concern. It is practical and

directly relevant to an actual life situation. It is empirical and relies on actual observation and

realistic information, or data rather than subjective opinions or past experiences. A useful

definition of 'Action Research' is the research a person conducts in order to enable him to

achieve his purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to improve his own

teaching. A school administrator conducts action research to improve his administrative

behaviour.

(ii) Evaluation Research

This is used to assess educational programmes in order to improve their efficiency by making

necessary revisions or modifications. For instance, a systemic evaluation of the practice of some

programmes in the school system may necessitate modifications in the requirements and policies
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of the education ministry. Again, the change over from one system of education to another may

have been based on systemic evaluation.

On the Basis of Method of Investigation Typology

Classifying educational research based on the methods of investigation used, the following types

of educational research may be distinguished:

(a) Experimental Research

In this type of research, independent variables are manipulated to observe the effects on the

dependent variables. It serves to determine possible outcomes given certain conditions. There are

two groups –experimental or treatment group and the control group. The experimental group

receives the treatment while the control group may not receive any treatment. The difference is

noted. The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a dependent

variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. However, the experimentation in

education is useful to determine and evaluate the adequacy and effectiveness of educational aims

and objectives through the measurement of outcomes. It serves as basis for the formulation,

execution and modification of educational policies and programmes. It is further used to

ascertain the effects of any change in the normal educational programmes and practice. An

experiment calls for the satisfaction of three basic interrelated conditions i.e. Control,

Randomization and Replication. Experimentation in education is not a perfectly precise method.

There are many variables in education which are extremely difficult or even impossible to

control. The basic condition of other things being equal' is difficult for fulfillment in educational

research. All experiments in education are ultimately experiments with children who for ethical
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reasons must not be subjected to conditions that may harm them. There are boundaries of a moral

character for experimentation which must not be infringed.

(b) Ex Post Facto Research

Have you noticed a research study in which the researcher attempts to conduct experimental

study in which he is not able to directly manipulate the independent variables? In fact,

randomisation is not possible. The subjects may be grouped on the basis of some naturally

occurring characteristics. Such variables like sex, race, intelligence, aptitude, creativity,

personality, socio-economic status, etc. cannot be directly manipulated. Sometimes, this type of

research is referred to as causal comparative studies.

(c) Descriptive surveys

This is concerned with either description and interpretation of existing relationships, attitudes,

practices, processes, trends, etc. or the comparison of variables. It does not make attempts to

manipulate variables. It may be divided into many categories. In this type of research, a number

of data-gathering psychometric tools and procedures are used. These include questionnaires,

tests, checklists, rating scales, score cards, inventories, interviews, etc. Most of the times, the

entire population is too large to be handled. In this case, you have to use appropriate sampling

technique to obtain a truly representative sample. Types of surveys include: Cross-Sectional

Surveys: Data are collected at one point in time from a sample selected to represent a larger

population.
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Longitudinal Surveys = Trend, Cohort, and Panel

Trend: researcher examines changes in population each time data are collected,

trends over time by surveys of samples although samples studied may be different

population at different points in time

Panel: Collection of data at various time

Cohort: Study of particular category of points with the same sample of respondents

persons and regularly survey same

(ii) Documentary Analysis

In this type, documents and records are examined for relevant information. Official gazettes,

minutes of meetings, reports of panels and blueprints can be examined. Content analysis of

curriculum materials and classroom lessons can be included as documentary analysis. Document

or Content Analysis Documents are an important source of data in many areas of investigation,

and the methods of analysis are similar to those used by historians. The major difference between

this type of research and historical research is that, while historical research often uses document

analysis, it deals solely with past events. ‘When document analysis is used as descriptive

research, current documents and issues are the foci.

(iii) Case Studies

A comprehensive study of a social unit – a person, a group, a social institution, a community – is

called a case study. It is a study to determine social process; the complexity of factors, their

sequences and interrelationships. It is an exhaustive study of a social unit. In case study

information (commonly known as case data) may be gathered exhaustively of an entire life cycle

of a social unit or a definite section of it. Whether a section or the whole of a life is studied.
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(d) Historical Research

This is a past oriented research; which involves the location, documentation, evaluation and

interpretation of available evidence in order to understand past events. Understanding past events

may lead you to greater understanding of present and future events. It may also prevent future

pitfalls, or even suggest hypotheses which should be used for the solution of existing problems.

Its focus may be on social concerns, educational practices, educational institutions or the

educators themselves. In historical research, evidence from relics, artefacts, documents, records,

oral accounts etc. are usually relied on.

On the Basis of the Kind of Evidence and Analysis used (objective or subjective)

Using this typology, research can be classified as quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods.

(a) Quantitative Research: This type uses information or data expressed in numerical values.

Most experimental studies fall under this type or category. Data collection methods include tests

of various types, experiments, questionnaire, rating scales etc. Quantitative data are analyzed

using either descriptive or inferential statistics.

(b) Qualitative Research: This type uses information which is verbal or non-numerical. It

makes use of qualitative data yielded through interviews, observations, artifacts, and

documentary sources, audio and visual materials among others. Information could be analysed

using transcription, coding, historical and philosophical analysis. This can introduce elements of

subjectivity in explaining, describing, collecting and even analyzing information.

(c) Multiple Perspective Research (mixed methods)

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This type uses both quantitative and qualitative approach otherwise known as eclectic, is usually

more comprehensive, yielding more generalisable and holistic findings which are more rigorous

than any one approach.

Unit 2: Problem identification

This is the first activity in the research process and it is often the most difficult especially for

beginners. The problem must be identified with adequate specificity. It is at this point in many

studies that hypotheses – tentative “guesses” or conjectures about whatever is being studied are

generated. Variables must be identified and defined adequately for their use in the context of the

study so that necessary data can be identified in preparation for data collection.

What is research problem?

A research problem refers to any difficulty which a researcher experiences in either a theoretical

or practical situation and wants to get a solution for the same problem. In other words, a research

problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap knowing that you will aim to address

in your research. Many of the problems confronted in the classroom, the school or the

community lend themselves to investigation. Also, technological changes and curricula

developments are constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research. You

might look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed

at expanding knowledge.

Problem identification

Educational research is concerned with finding solutions to educational problems. Hence the first

step in conducting educational research should be the Identification of the problem that needs a
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solution Many of the problems confronted in the classroom, the school or the community lend

themselves to investigation. Also, technological changes and curricula developments are

constantly bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research. Educational problems

could be from;

1. Unsatisfactory state of affairs: Any unsatisfactory state of affairs in education will

constitute a problem. Such a slate arises when things are not what they are supposed to be. It is

usually a distressing condition which ought to be rectified. If people do not feel satisfied with the

state of affairs in any aspect of education. It is an indication that something is wrong. Whatever

is wrong constitute a problem to be solved. For instance, students may be performing very poor

in a particular subject. Therefore, students’ poor performances which is a case of unsatisfactory

state of affairs constitute a problem. The poor performance could be due to poor qualification of

teachers, or non-proper use of instructional material or better still the language of instruction etc.

resolving such a problem might entail what is the actual cause of students’ poor performance if

those are not already known or and perhaps possible remedies will constitute a problem.

Unanswered question: A problem could also have the manifestation of an unanswered questions

abound. These questions which demand answers are problems. Instances of unanswered

questions could be: why do boys perform better in some subjects like physics more than girls.

What qualities of a teacher facilitate students’ learning etc. these questions are problem which

can only be resolved once satisfactory answers to them have been found.

3. A missing link or gap: A problem may also take the form of a missing link or a gap either in

educational though, process or practice. For instance, evaluation of curriculum constitutes an

important step in the curriculum development and adoption process. However, curricular are
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often introduced without some provision for such evaluation. Thus, therefore, is a missing link or

a gap in curriculum development and implementation practice.

4. A need: Educational problems could also as well take the form of a need. If there is a need

which is yet to be satisfied, such a need becomes a problem demanding a solution. For instance,

because there is paucity of standard science teaching resources in the country. The need to

improvise alternative resources arise. The lockdown due to Corona Virus created a need for the

development of other platform of teaching/learning. If one can establish that a particular need

exists, then one has identified a problem.

Imbalance: Imbalances in the educational system create problems. If there is an imbalance, then

the system will not function effectively unless such an imbalance is corrected. There may be an

imbalance in the development and provision of facilities across different levels of the education

system.

Sources of educational problems: Problems in education can be located from the following

sources:

a) Literature: this is a very useful source for identifying problems in education. Books,

reviews, encyclopedia, journals/periodicals, e-books etc in the area of interest of the researcher

would provide him with sufficient insight into the areas of problems in such a field

b) Theory: A theory is set of propositions that can account for or explain certain phenomena

or events. Theories provide explanations to phenomena such as learning theories, counseling

theories, developmental theories etc. The theories can provide basis for identification of

problems worthy of investigation. Theories give rise to deductions which constitute good

problems which need to be tested.

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c) Personal experience; most teachers/students usually encounter problems that require

investigation in the course of teaching or professional training. Such personal experience could

come from field experience, seminars or teaching practice.

d) Reports of previous projects; Although this is part of literature review, reports of previous

studies serve as a source of problem identification in two different ways; first such reports

contain a section for suggestion for further research which are a list of studies that can be carried

out based on findings of the study being reported. Secondly, replication of a previous study is

another way through which an identified problem can be researched. A researcher may decide to

replicate a study which he considers significant. However this should be accepted if it is going

to make some further useful contributions, as much as the previous study is not replicated in

exactly the same way else that will be duplication. There must be good reasons for replication

such as; Controversial findings, Methodological imperfection or the need or need to use a

different methods, Change in time and location

Setting a research problem. These are aspects that help in shaping and refining the problem and

provide a focus and manageable scope for it. They include;

Delimitation: These are the boundaries of the study and conclusions should not be extended

beyound these boundaries. These boundaries can be geographical, conceptual or methodological.

Assumptions: Assumptions are statements of what the researcher believes to be facts but cannot

verify. A basic assumption in studies that involve the completion of questionnaires is that the

respondents will complete the questionnaires providing to the best of their abilities, honest and

reliable information without any biases. If the assumptions of a researcher are known, that makes

it easier to evaluate the conclusions of that result from such assumptions.

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Significance: Part of setting the problem is for the researcher to state clearly the reasons for

undertaking the study. To address this aspect of the study, you must ask yourself such questions

as, to whom will this study be useful to and how?

Operational definition of Terms: You should know that without knowing explicitly what a

term means, you cannot evaluate the research or determine whether the researcher has carried out

properly. The definitions must interpret the term as it is employed in relation to the study,

Unit three: Literature Review

One of the early activities in the research process is the review of the research literature – the

body of research. Information will be needed about the problem; so, it can be put in the proper

context and the research can proceed effectively. A literature review is a search and evaluation of

the available literature in your chosen area of research. The review of related literature is an

exercise in which the researcher tries to identify, locate, read and evaluate previous observations,

opinions, theories, studies related to his/her intended research topic. The process centres on three

questions: 1.Where is the information found? 2. Which information is actually needed? 3.

What should be done with information after it has been found?

Importance of literature review

It is important in that when you know what others have done, you will be in a position to

investigate your chosen problem with deeper insight and complete knowledge. Other benefits of

literature review are;

 Informing the researcher of what has  More specifically, limiting and

already been done in the area. identifying the research problem and
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possible hypotheses  Providing suggestions for possible

 Providing possible research design modifications in the research to

and methodological procedures that avoid unanticipated difficulties.

may be used in the research study.  Identifying possible gaps in the

research. Providing a backdrop for

interpreting the results of the

research study

Sources of literature review

Primary Sources of Literature: The term primary source is used broadly to embody all

sources that are original. Primary sources provide first-hand information that is closest to

the object of study. Primary sources vary by discipline. In the natural and social sciences,

original reports of research found in academic journals detailing the methodology used in

the research, in-depth descriptions, and discussions of the findings are considered primary

sources of information. Other common examples of primary sources include speeches,

letters, diaries, autobiographies, interviews, official reports, court records, artifacts,

photographs, and drawings.

Secondary sources: A secondary source is a source that provides non-original or

secondhand data or information. Secondary sources are written about primary sources.

Research summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers are considered

secondary sources. They typically provide global descriptions of results with few details on

the methodology. Other examples of secondary sources include biographies and critical
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studies of an author's work. In scholarship, a secondary source is a document or recording

that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere.

Books: Textbooks remain as the most important source to find models and theories related

to the research area. So it is important to search the most respected authorities in your

selected research area and find the latest editions of books authored by them.

Magazines/ journals. Industry-specific magazines are usually rich in scholarly articles and

they can be effective sources to learn about the latest trends and developments in the

research area. Reading industry magazines can be the most enjoyable part of the literature

review, assuming that your selected research area represents an area of your personal and

professional interests, which should be the case anyways.

Newspapers can be referred to as the main source of up-to-date news about the latest events

related to the research area. However, the proportion of the use of newspapers in literature

review is recommended to be less compared to alternative sources of secondary data such as

books and magazines due to the fact that newspaper articles mainly lack depth of analyses

and discussions.

Online sources. You can find online versions of all of the above sources. However, note

that the levels of reliability of online articles can be highly compromised depending on the

source due to the high levels of ease with which articles can be published online. Opinions

offered in a wide range of online discussion blogs cannot be usually used in literature

review. Similarly, dissertation assessors are not keen to appreciate references to a wide

range of blogs, unless articles in these blogs are authored by respected authorities in the

research area.
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Organization of literature review

In research literature is organized in three important sections as follows;

The conceptual framework looks at the concepts and ideas that underlie the study problem. It

looks at the researcher ideas and concepts. Conceptual research framework constitutes of a

researcher’s combination of previous researches and associated work and explains the occurring

phenomenon. It systematically explains the actions needed in the course of the research study

based on the knowledge obtained from other ongoing researches and other researchers’ point of

view on the subject matter. Here is a stepwise guide on how to create the conceptual research

framework:

1. Choose the topic for research: Before you start working on collecting any research material,

you should have decided on your topic for research. It is important that the topic is selected

beforehand and should be within your field of specialization.

2. Identify specific variables: Identify the specific variables that are related to the research study

you want to conduct. These variables can give your research a new scope and can also help you

identify how these can be related to your research. The material that you should preferably use is

scientific journals, research papers published by well-known scientist and similar material. There

is a lot of information available on the internet and public libraries as well. All the information

that you find on the internet may not be relevant or true. So before you use the information make

sure you verify it.

3. Collect relevant literature: Once you have narrowed down a topic, it is time to collect relevant

information around it. This is an important step and much of your research is dependant on this

particular step as conceptual research is mostly based on information obtained from previous
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researches. Here collecting relevant literature and information is the key to successfully

completed research.

4. Generate the framework: In this step, you start building the required framework using the mix

of variables from the scientific articles and other relevant materials.

Theoretical Framework

Basically, theory helps provide a framework by serving as the point of departure for the pursuit

of a research problem. Theory identifies the crucial factors. It provides a guide for organising

and connecting the various facets of the research. However, besides providing the systematic

view of the factors under study, the theory may also very well identify gaps, weak points, and

inconsistencies that indicate the need for additional research. Theoretical review cuts across all

the necessary details about the theory (definition, formulators, strength and weakness. It gives

the researcher an opportunity to explain how the research problem will be relevant to the theory

chosen. The theoretical framework helps the researcher to focus on areas that are relevant to the

research. It allows the research to challenge or accept the content of the theory chosen. In

addition, it lays a foundation for the researcher to give new meanings and interpretations to

previous research. Your theoretical framework should provide an explanation for each of the

theories you utilize and show how they relate to your research. And should connect concepts,

terms and theories logically so they're easy to read and understand.

The empirical review: It involves looking at what other researchers have done in relation to

your study in terms of location, objectives, sample, methods, findings and recommendations. The

best way to do an empirical review is to do it following your research objectives. It is important

to know what others have done and identify gaps.

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Tips on how to do a good literature review

 Get the proper  Be systematic and  Review the

orientation thorough (avoid literature, do not

 Computerise as half notes) reproduce it:

much as possible.

UNIT 4: STATISTICS

Variables in research

Within the context of a research investigation, concepts are generally referred to as variables. A

variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. Age, sex, qualification, performance,

income and expenses, family size, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades, blood

pressure readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye color, and vehicle type are all examples of

variables because each of these properties varies or differs from one individual to another.

Independent and Dependent Variables: Variables can be categorized as independent and

dependent variables. This categorization is very important in research. An independent variable

is the presumed cause of the dependent variable i.e. the presumed effect. In other words, the

independent variable is explanatory and the dependent is the effect. According to Kerlinger

(1977), the independent variable is the antecedent and the dependent is the consequent. The

independent variable is the variable manipulated by the research. If a researcher decides to study

the effects of teacher quality on students’ performance in mathematics, then he/she will

manipulate teacher quality, the independent variable, by using different teachers with varying

qualification.
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The dependent variable is the presumed effect which varies with changes or variations in the

independent variable. It is the variable that is not manipulated. Rather, it is observed for variation

as a presumed result of variation in the independent variable.

Extraneous Variable: Most studies concern the identification of a single independent variable

and the measurement of its effect on the dependent variable. But still, several variables might

conceivably affect our hypothesized independent-dependent variable relationship, thereby

distorting the study. These variables are referred to as extraneous variables.

Intervening Variable: Often an apparent relationship between two variables is caused by a third

variable. For example, variables X and Y may be highly correlated, but only because X causes

the third variable, Z, which in turn causes Y. In this case, Z is the intervening variable. For

example poverty and shorter lifespan may be related not because poverty causes shorter lifespan,

but because it contribute to lack of access to health care which leads to a shorter lifespan.

An intervening variable theoretically affects the observed phenomena but cannot be seen,

measured, or manipulated directly; its effects can only be inferred from the effects of the

independent and moderating variables on the observed phenomena.

In the work-status and breastfeeding relationship, we might view motivation or counseling as the

intervening variable. Thus, motive, job satisfaction, responsibility, behavior, justice are some of

the examples of intervening variables.

Discrete and Continuous Variables

Quantitative variables are of two types: discrete and continuous. Discrete variables are variables

with a finite number of distinct and separate values e.g. sex, race, family size, number of days
 26

present.

Continuous Variable

A continuous variable is one that may take on an infinite number of intermediate values along a

specified interval. Continuous variables are those that at least theoretically can take an infinite

array of values. Age is normally measured in years, but it can also be measured in months, days,

hours, minutes and seconds

Research objectives/questions and hypotheses

Research objectives describe concisely what the research is trying to achieve. They summarize

the accomplishments a researcher wishes to achieve through the project and provides direction to

the study. A research objective must be achievable, i.e., it must be framed keeping in mind the

available time, infrastructure required for research, and other resources. Before forming a

research objective, you should read about all the developments in your area of research and find

gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed. This will help you come up with suitable objectives

for your research project. The main purpose of research objectives is to tell viewers what the

researcher wishes to achieve through the study. The research objective is a statement that defines

the purpose of the study along with its variables. A research objective describes, in a few words,

the result of the research project after its implementation. It answers the question, “What does

the researcher want or hope to achieve at the end of the research project?

Functions of the research objectives

The uses of the research objective are enumerated below:

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• serves as the researcher’s guide in identifying the appropriate research design,

• identifies the variables of the study

• It is a pointer to the data collection procedure and the corresponding analysis for the data

generated.

How to state research objectives

General objective: Also known as secondary objectives, general objectives provide a detailed

view of the aim of a study. In other words, you get a general overview of what you want to

achieve by the end of your study. For example, if you want to study how socioeconomic status

parents influence students’ academic performance, your general objective will be;

To examine the influence of the parents’ socioeconomic status on students ‘academic

performance

Specific objectives

Specific objectives define the primary aim of the study. Typically, general objectives provide the

foundation for identifying specific objectives. In other words, when general objectives are

broken down into smaller and logically connected objectives, they’re known as specific

objectives. The specific objectives are formulated based on the indicators of your dependent

variable

Examples of research objectives derived from the aforementioned general objective;

• To verify the relationship between parents’ level of income and students’ academic

performance
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• To examine the relationship between parents’ level of education and students’ academic

performance

Research questions

Research questions are derived from research objectives. These are questions posed by the

research, derived from the objectives; answers to research question would lead to the solutions of

the research problem .Consider the topic above: The impact of the socioeconomic status of

parents on students’ academic performance

The following research questions could be formulated.

General research question: What is the relationship between parents’ socioeconomic status and

students’ academic performance?

Or; To what extent does the parents’ socioeconomic status influence students’ academic

performance?

Specific Research Questions

• What is the relationship between parents’ level of income and students’ academic

performance?

• To what extend does the parents’ level of education influence students’ academic

performance?

Characteristics of a good research question

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Although there is no precise rule on the number of research questions to be formulated. The

number should be neither too small as to exclude very important aspects of the problem nor too

large as to result in an unmanageable list of research questions. 3. The language of a research

question be clear and ambiguous. Research questions should be formulated in such a way that

they could be answered. As much as possible, research questions should not be formulated in

such a way as to lead themselves to only “yes” or “no” type of answers.

Research hypotheses

A hypothesis is a conjectural proposition, an informed or intelligent guess, about the solution to a

problem. It is an assumption or proposition whose veracity and validity or yet to be established.

Formulation and testing of hypotheses are very essential steps in my scientific research. A

hypothesis provides the researcher with the necessary guide or direction in searching for the

solution to the problem under investigation. This ensures that the researcher does not waste or

dissipate all his energy in searching for solution anywhere and anyhow.

The formulation and use of appropriate hypotheses is very crucial and fundamental to the success

of any research undertaking. This is particularly so in studies seeking to establish cause and

effect relationships. However, there are few situations which may not require formulating

hypotheses. These situations include preliminary or exploratory investigations aimed at gaining

more information about something or where the research has no knowledge about possible

solutions to the problem.

Types of hypotheses
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Hypotheses can be classified in several ways. One of such classification will yield two types of

hypotheses namely;

1. Null hypothesis (Ho): A null hypothesis which states that no difference, no effect or no

relationship exist between two or variables. It is the null hypothesis that is tested in research.

Example. Ho1: There is no significant relationship between parents’ level of income and

students’ academic performance.

2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): An alternative hypothesis denoted by Ha is a hypothesis which

specifies any of the possible conditions not anticipated in the null hypothesis. It specifies the

conditions which will hold if the null hypothesis does not hold. Below is an example;

Ha1: There is a significant relationship between parents’ level of income and students’ academic

performance.

When the null hypothesis is rejected or not confirmed then the alternative is uphold.

Alternative hypotheses are of two kinds- Non directional (two tailed) and directional (one tailed);

a non- directional alternative hypothesis does not specify any direction in the hypothesized

difference or relationship. Examples

Non directional hypothesis: Gender significantly affects performance in mathematics.

Directional hypothesis specifies the direction of the hypothesized difference or relationship. A

directional hypothesis states which way you think the results are going to go e.g. Boys will

perform significantly better in mathematics than girls.

Errors in hypotheses testing

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Type I error: involves cases where a null hypothesis is true, but it is rejected. This mean

concluding that the independent variable had an effect which is not true. This might be

considered a "false negative" result.

Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is false, but the data does not indicate that it should

be rejected. This situation could be considered a "false positive" result.

Population and Sample

Population: A research population is a large collection of individuals or objects to which the

researcher wants the results of the study to apply. Population is the main focus of a research

question. A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of individuals or

objects known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or objects within a certain

population usually have a common, binding characteristic or trait. Population can also be defined

as all individual that meet a set of specification or a specific criteria. All researches are done for

the benefit of population.

Types of Population

i) The Target Population is also known as the theoretical population and refers to the entire

group of individuals or objects to which a researcher is interested to generalize the conclusions.

This type of population usually has varying degree of characteristics.

ii) The Accessible Population is also known as the study population. It is the population to

which a researcher can apply the conclusions of the study. This population is a subset of the

target population.
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Sample: A sample is simply a subset or subgroup of population (Frey, Carl, & Gary, 2000).The

concept of sample arises from the inability of the researchers to test all the individuals in a given

population. Sampling is the process of selecting some individuals from the accessible population,

in a way that these individuals represent whole accessible population. The sample should be

representative in a sense that each individual should represent the characteristics of the whole

population (Lohr, 1999). The main function of the sample is to allow the researchers to conduct

the study to individuals from the population so that the results of their study can be used to

derive conclusions that will apply to the entire population.

Points to consider when selected a sample

 Sample size  Sample  Accessibility

representativeness

Sampling Techniques

Generally researchers use two major sampling techniques: probability sampling and non-

probability sampling.

Probability sampling

It is a process that utilizes some form of random selection. In probability sampling, each

individual in chosen with a known probability. This type of sampling is also known as random

sampling or representative sampling; and depends on objective judgment. Various types of

probability are as under:

Simple Random sampling: In random sampling each member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected as subject. Each member is selected independently of the other member
 33

of population. Many methods are used to proceed with random sampling. In a commonly used

method each member of the population is assigned a unique number. All assigned numbers are

placed in bowl and mixed thoroughly. The researcher, then blind-folds and picks numbered tags

from the bowl. All the numbers picked are the subjects of the study. Another method is to use

computer for random selection from the population. For smaller population first method is useful

and for larger population computer-aided method is preferred.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

It is an easy way of selecting a sample from a given population. This method is free from

personal bias. As each member of the population is given equal opportunities of being selected

so it a fair way and one can get representative sample.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the most obvious limitations of random sampling method is its nee of a complete list of

all members of the population. For larger population, usually this list is not available. In such

case, it is better to use other sampling techniques.

Systematic Random Sampling

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or the subject

from the population. Then he selects each nth subject from the list. The procedure involved in

this sampling is easy and can be done manually. The sample drawn using this procedure is

representative unless certain characteristics of the population are repeated for every nth member,

which is highly risky.

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Suppose a researcher has a population of 100 individuals and he needs 12 subjects. He first picks

his starting number 7. He then picks his interval 8. The members of his sample will be individual

7, 15, 23, 31, 39, 47, 55, 63, 71, 79, 87, and 95

Stratified Random Sampling

In this type of sampling, the whole population is divided into disjoint subgroups. These

subgroups are called stratum. From each stratum a sample of pre-specified size is drawn

independently in different strata, using simple random sampling. The collection of these samples

constitutes a stratified sample.

Advantages: This type of sampling is appropriate when the population has diversified social or

ethnic subgroups.

Cluster Sampling

It is a simple random sample in which each sampling unit is a collection or cluster, or elements.

For example, a researcher who wants to study students may first sample groups or cluster of

students such as classes, and then, select the sample of students from among the clusters.

Non-Probability Sampling techniques

This technique depends on subjective judgment. It is a process where probabilities cannot be

assigned to the individuals objectively. It means that in this technique samples are gathered in a

way does not give all individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. Choose these
 35

methods could result in biased data or a limited ability to make general inferences based on the

findings. But there are also many situations in which choosing this kind of sampling techniques

is the best choice for a particular research question or the stage of research. There are four kinds

of non-probability sampling techniques are;

Convenience Sampling: In this technique a researcher relies on available subjects, such as

stopping peoples in the markets or on street corners as they pass by. This method is extremely

risky and does not allow the researcher to have any control over the representativeness of the

sample. It is useful when the researcher wants to know the opinion of the masses on a current

issue; or the characteristics of people passing by on streets at a certain point of time; or if time

and resources are limited in such a way that the research would not be possible otherwise. What

may be the reason for selecting convenience samples, it is not possible to use the results from a

convenience sampling to generalize to a wider population.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: In this technique a sample is selected on the bases of the

knowledge of population and the purpose of the study. For example, when an educational

psychologist wants to study the emotional and psychological effects of corporal punishment, he

will create a sample that will include only those students who ever had received corporal

punishment. In this case, the researcher used purposive sample because those being selected fit a

specific purpose or description that was necessary to conduct the research.

Snowball Sample: This type of sampling is appropriate when the members of the population

are difficult to locate, such as homeless industry workers, undocumented immigrants etc. a

snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on a few members of the target

population he or she can locate, then asks to locate those individuals to provide information
 36

needed to locate other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a researcher

wants to interview undocumented immigrants from Afghanistan, he might interview a few

undocumented individuals he knows or can locate, and would then rely on those subjects to help

locate more undocumented individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the

interviews he needed, until all contacts have been exhausted. This technique is useful when

studying a sensitive topic that people might not openly talk about, or if talking about the issue

under investigation could jeopardize their safety.

Quota Sample: A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of

pre-specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics

assumed to exist in the population. For example, if a researcher wants a national quota sample,

he might need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is the

female, as well as what proportion of each gender fall into different age category and educational

category. The researcher would then collect a sample with the same proportion as the national

population.

Tools (instruments) of Data Collection

After the finalization of the sample, the researcher has to work out his/her strategies for data

collection. There are various methods and tools of data collection. We use these methods as well

as tools both in theoretical study and empirical study. It is important to note that the methods and

tools will vary depending upon the nature of study. In some studies, we may have to use more

them one method or tool for data collection.

Questionnaires: Questionnaire is any written document that provide respondents with a

sequence of questions or statement in which they are to respond either by writing out their
 37

answers or choosing from an already existing or given answers. The questionnaire is the main

instrument for collecting data in survey research. Basically, it is a set of standardized questions,

often called items, which follow a fixed scheme in order to collect individual data about one or

more specific topics. A questionnaire can be structured or semi structured

INTERVIEWS

The interview is a verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondents. This method

has been a widely used method of data collection. This method involves presentation of verbal

questions orally and collecting oral verbal responses. Many feel that the best way to find out why

people behave as they do is to question them about their behaviour directly by interviewing

them. In this method, the interviewer asks questions in a face-to-face contact (generally) to the

interviewee, the person who is being interviewed who gives answers (mostly) to these questions.

Interview has been a widely used method of data collection so far as, information about the

social background, opinion, attitudes, and changes in relations are concerned.

Focus Group discussion

Focus group discussion are interviews you conduct with a group of participants to collect a

variety of information. These interviews can be as small as four participants and sometimes as

large as ten, but I would recommend keeping a focus group discussion between four and eight

participants.

Just like with any other type of interview, focus group interviews utilize an interview protocol.

The difference for the focus group discussion protocol is that, while qualitative researchers will

often create a list of questions and continue moving down the line, focus group interviews utilize

what are known as prompts. A prompt can be a statement or question that you throw out to your
 38

focus group participants, and then just take a step back. Instead of asking a whole bunch of

questions, you let natural conversations emerge based on the prompt and only redirect the

conversation back to the topic at hand.

Observation

Observation is the basic method of obtaining information about social phenomena under

investigation. All of us are constantly engaged in observation. However, all such observations

are not scientific observations. Observations become a method of data collection when it is

planned in accordance with the purpose of research and recorded systematically keeping in mind

the validity and reliability of observed data. There are numerous situations where this method of

observation is considered as most appropriate. Say for example, a researcher who is interested in

understanding the behaviour of children who cannot speak, necessarily, has to depend on this

method of observation. Many aspects of our behaviour are so much a part of life that it becomes

difficult to translate it into words. Many a time, a researcher faces resistance from respondents

being studied. Sometimes, people do not cooperate with the researcher and show their

unwillingness to respond to the questions of the researcher. Although observations cannot always

overcome such resistance, it is relatively the most appropriate method of data collection in such

situations. It may also be used to collect supplementary information that would help interpret

findings obtained by other methods. Observation procedures may be classified as (1) participant

observation and (2) non-participant observation.

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UNIT 5: RESEARCH DESIGNS

A research design according to (McCombes, 2019), is a framework that includes the methods

and procedures to collect, analyze, and interpret data. In other words, the research design

describes how the researcher will investigate the central problem of the research. The design of

research influences the type of data to be gathered and, consequently, its results. Depending on

the type, research design also defines all other constituent parts of a study, such as variables,

hypotheses, experiments, methodology, and statistical analysis (Creswell et al., 2018).The way

an engineer or architect frames a design for a structure, likewise the researcher picks the design

from various approaches in order to check which type of research to be carried out. There are

broadly two types of research design, quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative research methods

The quantitative research methods attach more importance to the use of numeric values when

collecting, measuring, analyzing, and interpreting data. Researching with quantitative methods can

help find patterns and averages, test causal relationships, forecast future patterns/trends, and

generalize sample results to larger populations. It relies heavily on the use of statistical methods and

principles. Objectivity is highly prized in a quantitative approach to research.

Examples of quantitative research designs

Descriptive survey Research Design: In Descriptive Research Design, the scholar

explains/describes the situation or case in depth in their research materials. This type of research

design is purely on a theoretical basis where the individual collects data, analyses, prepares and
 40

then presents it in an understandable manner. It is the most generalized form of research

design. To explore one or more variables, a descriptive design might employ a wide range of

research approaches. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or change

any of the variables in a descriptive research design; instead, he or she just observes and

measures them.

Survey Research Design Types by Grouping

Descriptive surveys are classified based on how participants are categorized. In most situations,

grouping is determined by the research premise and the method used to sample individuals. We

can differentiate four types of study designs based on participant grouping:

Longitudinal study: A longitudinal study is a type of study in which the same variables are

observed repeatedly over a short or long period of time. It’s usually observational research,

although it can also take the form of a long-term randomized experiment.

Cohort study: A cohort study is a sort of longitudinal research that takes a cross-section of a

cohort (a group of people who have a common trait) at predetermined time intervals. It’s a form

of panel research in which all of the people in the group have something in common.

Cross-sectional study: In social science, medical research, and biology, a cross-sectional study

is prevalent. This study approach examines data from a population or a representative sample of

the population at a specific point in time.

 41

Causal-comparative/quasi-experimental

This research attempts to establish cause effect relationships among the variables. These types of

design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences. An independent

variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of the independent

variable on the dependent variable are measured. The researcher does not randomly assign

groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control

groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to groups who are not. When

analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other

variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome.

Experimental Research Design: Experimental research is a type of research design in which

the study is carried out utilizing a scientific approach and two sets of variables. The first set

serves as a constant against which the variations in the second set are measured. Experimentation

is used in quantitative research methodologies, for example. If you lack sufficient evidence to

back your conclusions, you must first establish the facts. Experimental research collects data to

assist you in making better judgments. Experimentation is used in any research undertaken under

scientifically appropriate settings. The effectiveness of experimental investigations is dependent

on researchers verifying that a variable change is due only to modification of the constant

variable. There are two types of experimental designs: True experimental research design and

quasi experimental design

True experimental design

 Used to test causal relationships

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 Involves manipulating an  Subjects are randomly assigned to

independent variable and measuring groups

its effect on a dependent variable

 Usually conducted in a controlled

environment (e.g. a lab

Quasi-experimental research design

 Used to test causal relationships  Often involves comparing the

outcomes of pre-existing groups

 Similar to experimental design, but

without random assignment  Often conducted in a natural

environment

Correlational Research Design: A correlational research design looks into correlations between

variables without allowing the researcher to control or manipulate any of them. Correlational

studies reveal the magnitude and/or direction of a link between two (or more) variables.

Correlational research design is great for swiftly collecting data from natural settings. This

allows you to apply your results to real-world circumstances in an externally legitimate manner.

Qualitative research designs: In qualitative methods, data is not collected and processed

numerically but mostly in words or literature. Qualitative research tries to investigate people’s

comprehension of their social reality. It is inspired by many philosophical tenets and seeks to

inquire about the diverse facets of human life, for example, culture, beliefs, morality, etc. It is
 43

part of the curriculum in several disciplines such as the arts, psychology, anthropology, and

others. Some ways of collecting qualitative data include observation (including participant

observation), interviews, questionnaires, documentary sources focus groups, artifacts, audio and

visual materials, among others. Qualitative researchers follow a more constructivist worldview

and are predominantly interested in collecting and analyzing narrative data using open-ended

(holistic) procedures.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed

understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and

flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar

approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Type of design Purpose and characteristics

Case study  Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g. a place, event, organization, etc).

 Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.

 Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.

Ethnography  Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.

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Type of design Purpose and characteristics

 Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.

 Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social dynamics, etc.

Grounded theory  Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative data.

Phenomenology  Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants’ lived experiences.

The Mixed method approach

Mixed methods systematically integrate quantitative and qualitative approaches to research in

order to answer research questions. Mixed-methods researchers are pragmatic, collect both

narrative and numerical data, employ both structured and emergent designs, analyze their data

both via statistical and content analysis, and make meta-inferences as answers to their research

questions by integrating the inferences gleaned from their qualitative and quantitative findings.

Mixed method designs

Sequential explanatory

This design consists of two distinct phases: quantitative followed by qualitative (Creswell et al.

2003). The qualitative (text) data are collected and analyzed second in the sequence and help

explain, or elaborate on, the quantitative results obtained in the first phase
 45

Sequential exploratory design

Exploratory sequential mixed methods design is characterized by an initial qualitative phase of

data collection and analysis, followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis,

with a final phase of integration or linking of data from the two separate strands of data.

Convergent parallel design

This is a one phase project in which quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the same

time and analyzed separately. After both analyses are complete, compare your results to draw

overall conclusions.

Triangulation in Research

In the social sciences, triangulation refers to the application and combination of several research

methods in the study of the same phenomenon. By combining multiple observers, theories,

methods, and empirical materials, researchers hope to overcome the weakness or

intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single method, single-observer, and single-

theory studies. Triangulation is also an effort to help explore and explain complex human

behaviour using a variety of methods to offer a more balanced explanation to readers. It is a

procedure that enables validation of data and can be used in both quantitative and qualitative
 46

studies. Triangulation can enrich research as it offers a variety of datasets to explain differing

aspects of a phenomenon of interest. It also helps refute where one dataset invalidates a

supposition generated by another. It can assist the confirming of a hypothesis where one set of

findings confirms another set. Finally, triangulation can help explain the results of a study.

Central to triangulation is the notion that methods leading to the same results give more

confidence in the research findings. Triangulation can be used in

both quantitative and qualitative studies as an alternative to traditional criteria like reliability and

validity.

Types of triangulation

Data triangulation, which includes matters such as periods of time, space and people; in data

triangulation, you use multiple data sources to answer your research question. You can vary

your data collection across time, space, or different people.

Investigator triangulation, which includes the use of several researchers in a study;

Theory triangulation, which encourages several theoretical schemes to enable interpretation of

a phenomenon. Triangulating theory means applying several different theoretical frameworks in

your research instead of approaching a research question from just one theoretical perspective.

Methodological triangulation, which promotes the use of several data collection methods such

as interviews and observations. When you use methodological triangulation, you use different

methods to approach the same research question. This is the most common type of triangulation,

and researchers often combine qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study.
 47

Examples of triangulation in different types of research

 Qualitative research: You conduct in-depth interviews with different groups of

stakeholders, such as parents, teachers, and children.

 Quantitative research: You run an experiment and involve three researchers in analyzing

the data.

 Mixed methods research: You conduct a quantitative survey, followed by a few

(qualitative) structured interviews or vice versa

The purpose of triangulation

Researchers use triangulation for a more holistic perspective on a specific research question.

Triangulation is also helpful for enhancing credibility and validity.

To cross-check evidence: It’s important to gather high-quality data for rigorous research. When

you have data from only one source or investigator, it may be difficult to say whether the data

are trustworthy. But if data from multiple sources or investigators line up, you can be more

certain of their credibility. Credibility is about how confident you can be that your findings

reflect reality. The more your data converge, or agree with each other, the more credible your

results will be.

For a complete picture: Triangulation helps you get a more complete understanding of your

research problem. When you rely on only one data source, methodology, or investigator, you

may risk bias in your research. Observer bias may occur when there’s only one researcher

collecting data. Similarly, using just one methodology means you may be disadvantaged by the

inherent flaws and limitations of that method. It’s helpful to use triangulation when you want to
 48

capture the complexity of real-world phenomena. By varying your data sources, theories, and

methodologies, you gain insights into the research problem from multiple perspectives and

levels.

To enhance validity: Validity is about how accurately a method measures what it’s supposed to

measure. You can increase the validity of your research through triangulation. Since each

method has its own strengths and weaknesses, you can combine complementary methods that

account for each other’s limitations.

Validation of research instruments

How to establish the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research

Questionnaire is one of the most widely used tools to collect data in especially social science

research. The main objective of questionnaire in research is to obtain relevant information in

most reliable and valid manner. Thus the accuracy and consistency of survey/questionnaire

forms a significant aspect of research methodology which are known as validity and reliability

Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to

measure. It is the appropriateness of the instrument in measuring what it intends to measure.

Validity refers to the accuracy of the measurement. Validity explains how well the collected data

covers the actual area of investigation (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Validity basically means

“measure what is intended to be measured” (Field, 2005). Validity shows how a specific

instrument or test is suitable for a particular situation. If the results are accurate according to the

researcher’s situation, explanation, and prediction, then the research is valid. If the method of
 49

measuring is accurate, then it’ll produce accurate results. If a method is reliable, then it’s valid.

In contrast, if a method is not reliable, it’s not valid. Most of the time, validity is difficult to

measure even though the process of measurement is reliable. It isn’t easy to interpret the real

situation. The following are ways of establishing validity

Face validity: Face Validity to the extent the instrument appears to measure what is to be

measured. Face validity refers to whether a test appears to be valid or not i.e., from external

appearance whether the items appear to measure the required aspect or Face validity is a

subjective judgment on the operationalization of a construct. Face validity is the degree to which

a measure appears to be related to a specific construct, in the judgment of nonexperts such as test

takers and representatives of the legal system. That is, a test has face validity if its content simply

looks relevant to the person taking the test. It evaluates the appearance of the questionnaire in

terms of feasibility, readability, consistency of style and formatting, and the clarity of the

language used.

Content validity: Content validity is defined as “the degree to which items in an instrument

reflect the content universe to which the instrument will be generalized” (Straub, Boudreau et al.

2004). In the field of IS, it is highly recommended to apply content validity while the new

instrument is developed. In general, content validity involves evaluation of the instrument in

order to ensure that it includes all the items that are essential and eliminates undesirable items to

a particular construct domain (Lewis et al., 1995, Boudreau et al., 2001). The judgemental

approach to establish content validity involves literature reviews and then follow-ups with the

evaluation by expert judges or panels.

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Construct validity: A construct refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly

observed, but can be measured by observing other indicators that are associated with it.

Constructs can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job satisfaction, or

depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to organizations or social groups, such as

gender equality, corporate social responsibility, or freedom of speech. Construct validity refers to

how well you translated or transformed a concept, idea, or behaviour that is a construct into a

functioning and operating reality, the operationalization

Criterion validity: Criterion or concrete validity is the extent to which a measure is related to

an outcome. It measures how well one measure predicts an outcome for another measure. There

are two types of criterion validity namely; concurrent validity, predictive and postdictive

validity.

Predictive Validity. The survey is predictively valid if the test accurately predicts what it is

supposed to predict. It can also refer to when scores from the predictor measure are taken first

and then the criterion data is collected later.in other words, the ability of one assessment tool to

predict future performance either in some activity or on another assessment of the same

construct. The best way to directly establish predictive validity is to perform a long-term validity

study. For example, by administering employment tests to job applicants and then seeing if those

test scores are correlated with the future job performance of the hired employees. Predictive

validity studies take a long time to complete and require fairly large sample sizes in order to

acquire meaningful aggregate data.

B. Concurrent Validity. Concurrent validity is a type of evidence that can be gathered to

defend the use of a test for predicting other outcomes. It refers to the extent to which the results
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of a particular test, or measurement, correspond to those of a previously established

measurement for the same construct.

Reliability

Reliability concerns the extent to which a measurement of a phenomenon provides stable and

consistent results (Carmines and Zeller, 1979). Reliability is also concerned with repeatability.

For example, a scale or test is said to be reliable if repeat measurement made by it under constant

conditions will give the same result (Moser and Kalton, 1989). Testing for reliability is important

as it refers to the consistency across the parts of a measuring instrument (Huck, 2007). The

reliability of test refers to the degree of consistency with which a test measures what it intends to

measure. It is the extent to which test scores are consistent across different occasions of testing,

different editions of the test, or different raters scoring the test taker’s responses.Ways of

establishing reliability include;

Test-retest reliability

Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of results when you repeat the same test on the

same sample at a different point in time. You use it when you are measuring something that you

expect to stay constant in your sample.Why it’s important; Many factors can influence your

results at different points in time: for example, respondents might experience different moods, or

external conditions might affect their ability to respond accurately. How to measure it; to

measure test-retest reliability, you conduct the same test on the same group of people at two

different points in time. Then you calculate the correlation between the two sets of results.

Split-Half Reliability: In split-half reliability, a test for a single knowledge area is split into two

parts and then both parts given to one group of students at the same time. The scores from both
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parts of the test are correlated. A reliable test will have high correlation, indicating that a student

would perform equally well (or as poorly) on both halves of the test. Split-half testing is a

measure of internal consistency — how well the test components contribute to the construct

that’s being measured. It is most commonly used for multiple choice tests you can theoretically

use it for any type of test

Inter-rater reliability; Inter-rater reliability (also called inter observer reliability) measures the

degree of agreement between different people observing or assessing the same thing. You use it

when data is collected by researchers assigning ratings, scores or categories to one or

more variables. In an observational study where a team of researchers collect data on classroom

behavior, interrater reliability is important: all the researchers should agree on how to categorize

or rate different types of behavior.

Parallel forms reliability: Parallel forms reliability measures the correlation between two

equivalent versions of a test. You use it when you have two different assessment tools or sets of

questions designed to measure the same thing. In educational assessment, it is often necessary to

create different versions of tests to ensure that students don’t have access to the questions in

advance. Parallel forms reliability means that, if the same students take two different versions of

a reading comprehension test, they should get similar results in both tests.

Internal consistency: Internal consistency assesses the correlation between multiple items in a

test that are intended to measure the same construct. You can calculate internal consistency

without repeating the test or involving other researchers, so it’s a good way of assessing

reliability when you only have one data set. The most common measure of internal consistency is
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called the Cronbach’s alpha. Equally Kuder-Richardson formula 20 is used for calculating the

internal consistency.

Ethical Considerations in Educational Research

Ethical consideration can be specified as one of the most important parts of the research. Note

that dissertations may even be doomed to failure if this part is missing.

According to Bryman and Bell (2007, the following ten points represent the most important

principles related to ethical considerations in dissertations:

1. Research participants should not be subjected to harm in any ways whatsoever

(Beneficence orNon-maleficence).

2. Voluntary participation of respondents in the research is important. Moreover,

participants have rights to withdraw from the study at any stage if they wish to do so.

3. Full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the study (Informed

consent) .

4. The protection of the privacy of research participants has to be ensured.

5. Adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.

6. Anonymity of individuals and organisations participating in the research has to be

ensured.

7. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be

avoided.

8. Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests

have to be declared.
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9. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and

transparency.

10. Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in

a biased way must be avoided.

UNIT 6: WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL/ REPORT (see notes on research

seminar)

Citation formats and referencing styles (Guide)

In-Text Citations

• At minimum, APA 7th edition format requires that you include the author's last name and the

year of publication for any source that you reference in-text.

• If your paper is referring to a work as a whole or an idea from a work without directly quoting

that work, only the author’s last name and year of publication are required in the in-text

reference. E.g (Clark, 2016) • If you are directly quoting material from a source, the in-text

reference should include a page number, if available, in addition to the author’s last name and

publication year. E.g (Clark, 2016, p. 124)

• Anything you reference within your paper must also be included in the reference list at the end

of your paper.

In-Text Citations for Summary or Paraphrase

• When you paraphrase an idea from another work or summarize the general argument of an

entire work, refer to the author and year of publication in your in-text citation. E.g Nsamenang
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(1992) argues that the determinants of human development, health, and relationships are

anchored in both interactive contextualism and biology.

In-Text Citations for Sources with a Single Author: You may choose to introduce a quotation

with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in

parentheses. Include the page number, if available, inside parentheses following the quotation.

According to Janifer (2011), "APA style has an internal logic that is often difficult for first-time

users to recognize" (p. 303). Janifer (2011) claims that "APA style has an internal logic" (p.

303), but how difficult is the style for students to understand and use effectively? • You may also

choose to leave the author’s last name out of the signal phrase. In that case, place the author's last

name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. Prominent

researchers in the field have argued that "APA style has an internal logic that is often difficult for

first-time users to recognize" (Janifer, 2011, p. 303).

Course books

Ngworgu, B. G (2015). Educational Research. Basic Issues & Methodology

Nsamenang, A. B., & Tchombé, T. M. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of African educational theories

and practices: A generative teacher education curriculum. Hdrc.

Cohen, L and Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. 7.

Creswell, J.W. (2002) Educational Research. New Jersey: Upper Saddle Rive