Introduction to Abstract Algebra (II)

Dr. Abdullah Al-Azemi

Mathematics Department
Kuwait University

September 4, 2018
Contents

0 Review 1

0.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Ring Theory 5

1.1 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.3 Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.4 Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.5 Isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.6 The Field of Quotients of Integral Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.7 Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2 Ring of Polynomials 39

2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2.2 The Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.3 Factorization of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3 Quotient Rings 57

3.1 Homomorphism of Rings and Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

3.2 More on Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.3 Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.4 Quotient Rings of F[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

4 Field Extension 79

i
ii CONTENTS

4.1 Adjoining Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.2 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.3 Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

 Chapter

0 Review

Section 0.1: Groups

Definition 0.1.1

A (binary) operation ∗ on a set S is a mapping from S × S to S so that for all a, b ∈ S,

(a, b) 7→ a ∗ b. In that case, we say that S is closed under ∗. Moreover,

• ∗ is associative if (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c), for all a, b, c ∈ S.

• ∗ is commutative if a ∗ b = b ∗ a, for all a, b ∈ S.

• An element e ∈ S is called the identity of S with respect to ∗ if a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a, for

all a ∈ S.

• If a and b are two elements in S such that b ∗ a = e = a ∗ b, then we say that b is the
inverse of a in S with respect to ∗.

Remark 0.1.1

In a set S with some operation ∗, we write a−1 for the multiplicative inverse so that aa−1 =
e = a−1 a. While, we write −a for the additive inverse with a + (−a) = O = (−a) + a.

Definition 0.1.2

A group (G, ∗) is a set G closed under the operation ∗ satisfying the following conditions:

G1 : ∗ is associative.

G2 : there is an identity e ∈ G such that a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a for all a ∈ G.

G3 : for each a ∈ G, there is a−1 ∈ G such that aa−1 = e = a−1 a.

Moreover, G is said to be abelian group if ∗ is a commutative operation.

1
2 Chapter 0. Review

Definition 0.1.3

A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if H itself is a group with respect to the

operation on G. In that case, we write H ≤ G.

Theorem 0.1.1

If G is a group and H is a nonempty subset of G, i.e. φ 6= H ⊆ G, then H is a subgroup of

G iff if a, b ∈ H, then a ∗ b−1 ∈ H.

The Division Algorithm in Z

If a, b ∈ Z with b > 0, then there exist unique integers (quotient) q and (remainder) r such
that
a = b · q + r; 0 ≤ r < b.

That is, a ≡ r (mod b).

For example, 25 ≡ 1 (mod 3) since 25 = 3 · 8 + 1.

Notation:

For any integers m and n, we write (m, n) and [m, n] to denote their greatest common
divisor and least common multiple, respectively.

Two integers m and n are said to be relatively prime (or coprime) if (m, n) = 1. For instance,
4 and 9 are coprime but 4 and 8 are not.

Definition 0.1.4

A group G is called cyclic if there is a ∈ G with G = h a i = {an : n ∈ Z}.

Theorem 0.1.2

• A group G of order p (p is prime) is isomorphic to Zp . That is, G ≈ Zp .

• A group G is cyclic group of order m is isomorphic to Zm . That is, G ≈ Zm .

• A group G is cyclic of infinite order is isomorphic to Z. That is, G ≈ Z.

0.1. Groups 3

The group Zm × Zn ≈ Zmn iff (m, n) = 1. Moreover, for any n ∈ Z+ , there is a cyclic group
of order n and each cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to (Zn , +).

Note that Z2 × Z4 is not cyclic and it is not isomorphic to Z8 since (2, 4) = 2 6= 1. While Z2 × Z3
is a cyclic group isomorphic to Z6 .

Remark 0.1.2

• If a ∈ Zn = {0, 1, · · · , n − 1} with (a, n) = 1, then Zn = h a i = h −a i.

• Moreover, if G is a cyclic with G = h a i for some a ∈ G, then G = h a−1 i. In that case,

we say that a is a generator for G.

• A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

• If G is a cyclic group, then G is an abelian group. The converse is not true in general,
for instace Z2 × Z2 (The Klein 4-group) is abelian group which is not cyclic.

• The subgroup of Z under addition are precisely nZ = {0, ±n, ±2n, · · ·} = h n i = h −n i

for any n ∈ Z.
4 Chapter 0. Review
 Chapter

1 Ring Theory

Section 1.1: Rings

Definition 1.1.1

A ring (R, +, ·) is a set R together with two (binary) operations + and ·, which are called
addition and multiplication, defined on R such that:

R1 : (R, +) is an abelian group.

R2 : Multiplication is associative: (a · b) · c = a · (b · c), for all a, b, c ∈ R.

R3 : For all a, b, c ∈ R, the following (distribution laws) hold:

– Left distribution law: a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c), and

– right distribution law: (a + b) · c = (a · c) + (b + c).

A commutative ring is a ring with a commutative multiplication operation.

Remark 1.1.1

We note that the group formed by R with addition, namely (R, +), is referred to as the
additive group of R. Its identity 0 is the zero of R, and the additive inverse for each a ∈ R,
is denoted by (−a).

Definition 1.1.2

An element e (or written as 1) in a ring R is called unity (or identity) for R if ea = a = ae

for each a ∈ R. It is simply the multiplicative identity in R. Note that, 1 is the unity of Z,
while 2Z has no unity.

5
6 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Theorem 1.1.1

Let R be a ring and a, b, c ∈ R. Then:

1. The zero element of R is unique.

2. Each element of R has a unique negative.

3. The left cancellation laws: If a + b = a + c then b = c.

4. The right cancellation laws: If a + c = b + c then a = b.

5. Each of the equations a + x = b and x + a = b has a unique solution.

6. −(−a) = a and −(a + b) = (−a) + (−b).

7. If m, n ∈ Z, then (m + n)a = ma + na, m(a + b) = ma + mb, and m(na) = (mn)b.

Theorem 1.1.2

Let R be a ring, 0 the zero of R, and a, b, c ∈ R. Then:

1. 0a = a0 = 0. 3. (−a)(−b) = ab.

2. a(−b) = (−a)b = −(ab). 4. a(b − c) = ab − ac and (a − b)c = ac − bc.

Proof:

1. Clearly, 0a + 0a = (0 + 0)a = 0a = 0a + 0 and by the left cancellation law, we get

0a = 0. The proof of a0 = 0 is similar.

2. The equation x + ab = 0 has a unique solution x = −(ab). but a(−b) + ab = a(−b +

b) = a0 = 0 implies that x = a(−b) is another solution. By uniqueness of x, we get
−(ab) = a(−b). The proof of −(ab) = (−a)b is similar.

3. Each element in R has a unique negative. By Part(2), (−a)(−b) = (−(−a))(b) = ab.

4. By Part(2), a(b − c) = a(b + (−c)) = ab + a(−c) = ab + (−(ac)) = ab − ac. The proof

of (a − b)c = ac − bc is similar.
1.1. Rings 7

Example 1.1.1

Each of the set (Z, +, ·), (2Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·), and (C, +, ·) are commutative rings.

Solution:

We only show that Z is a commutative ring. Note that (Z, +) is an abelian group. Also,
(a b) c = a (b c) for all a, b, c ∈ Z. That is · is associative on Z. Finally, for each a, b, c ∈ Z,
we have
a (b + c) = ab + ac & (a + b) c = ac + bc.

Moreover, ab = ba for any a, b ∈ Z. Therefore, (Z, +, ·) is a commutative ring.

Example 1.1.2

Show that (Zn , ⊕, ) is a commutative ring.

Solution:

We first show that (Zn , ⊕) is an abelian group. This part is an exercise for YOU.
Note that for any [a], [b], [c] ∈ Zn , we have:

([a] [b]) [c] = [ab] [c] = [(ab)c] = [a(bc)] = [a] [bc] = [a] ([b] [c]),

where (ab)c = a(bc) in Z. Hence is associative on Zn .

We now prove the left distribution laws: Let [a], [b], [c] ∈ Zn , then

[a] ([b] ⊕ [c]) = [a] ([b + c]) = [a(b + c)] = [ab + ac]

= [ab] ⊕ [ac] = [a] [b] ⊕ [a] [c],

where the distribution laws are hold in Z. The proof of right distribution law is similar.
Moreover, [a] [b] = [ab] = [ba] = [b] [a] since ab = ba in Z. Therefore, is commutative
in Zn , and hence (Zn , ⊕, ) is a commutative ring.

Example 1.1.3

Let F deonte all the functions on R. Define

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

8 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

for f, g ∈ F and for any x ∈ R. Show that F is a commutative ring with respect to these
addition and multiplication operations.

Solution:

Let f, g, h ∈ F. Then • We first show that (F, +) is an abelian group.

G1 : + is associative on F:

[(f + g) + h](x) = [f + g](x) + h(x) = [f (x) + g(x)] + h(x) = f (x) + [g(x) + h(x)]

= f (x) + [g + h](x) = [f + (g + h)](x).

G2 : The zero element in F defined by O(x) = 0 for each x ∈ F, since

(f + O)(x) = f (x) + O(x) = f (x) + 0 = f (x) = 0 + f (x) = O(x) + f (x) = (O + f )(x).

G3 : Additive inverse: If f ∈ F, then the negative (additive inverse) of f is −f defined by

(−f )(x) = −f (x) as

(f + (−f ))(x) = f (x) + (−f )(x) = f (x) + (−(f (x))) = 0 = O(x).

Therefore, (F, +) is a group. For any f, g ∈ F, we have

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = (g + f )(x).

Thus, (F, +) is an abelian group.

• We now show that · is associative on R.

[(f g)h](x) = [(f g)(x)]h(x) = [f (x)g(x)]h(x) = f (x)[g(x)h(x)]

= f (x)[(gh)(x)] = [f (gh)](x).

Moreover, (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) = g(x)f (x) = (gf )(x). Therefore, · is associative and commu-
tative on F.
• We now prove the left distribution law:

[f (g + h)](x) = f (x)[(g + h)(x)] = f (x)[g(x) + h(x)]

= f (x)(g) + f (x)h(x) = [f g](x) + [f h](x) = [f g + f h](x).

The proof of right distribution law is similar. Therefore, F is a commutative ring.

1.1. Rings 9

Definition 1.1.3

If R and S are two rings, then the Cartesian product R × S = {(r, s) : r ∈ R and s ∈ S},
where for any (r1 , s1 ), (r2 , s2 ) ∈ R × S, we have

(r1 , s1 ) + (r2 , s2 ) = (r1 + r2 , s1 + s2 ), and (r1 , s1 )(r2 , s2 ) = (r1 r2 , s1 s2 ),

for any r1 , r2 ∈ R and any s1 , s2 ∈ S.

Example 1.1.4

Let R and S be two rings. Show that R × S is a ring.

Solution:

Let r1 , r2 , r3 ∈ R and s1 , s2 , s3 ∈ S and hence (r1 , s1 ), (r2 , s2 ), (r3 , s3 ) ∈ R × S. Then

• We first show that (R × S, +) is an abelian group.

G1 : + is associative on R × S: Note that + is associative on R and S.

[(r1 , s1 ) + (r2 , s2 )] + (r3 , s3 ) = (r1 + r2 , s1 + s2 ) + (r3 , s3 )

= ((r1 + r2 ) + r3 , (s1 + s2 ) + s3 ) = (r1 + (r2 + r3 ), s1 + (s2 + s3 ))

= (r1 , s1 ) + [(r2 + r3 , s2 + s3 )] = (r1 , s1 ) + [(r2 , s2 ) + (r3 , s3 )].

G2 : The zero element in R × S is (0R , 0S ), since for any (r, s) ∈ R × S, we have

(r, s) + (0R , 0S ) = (r + 0R , s + 0S ) = (r, s) = (0R + r, 0S + s) = (0R , 0S ) + (r, s).

G3 : Additive inverse: If (r, s) ∈ R × S, then the negative (additive inverse) of (r, s) is

(−r, −s) as (r, s) + (−r, −s) = (r − r, s − s) = (0R , 0S ).

Therefore, (R × S, +) is a group.
• We now show that · is associative on R × S. Note that · is associative on R and S.

[(r1 , s1 )(r2 , s2 )](r3 , s3 ) = (r1 r2 , s1 s2 )(r3 , s3 ) = ((r1 r2 )r3 , (s1 s2 )s3 ) = (r1 (r2 r3 ), s1 (s2 s3 ))

= (r1 , s1 )[(r2 r3 , s2 s3 )] = (r1 , s1 )[(r2 , s2 )(r3 , s3 )].

10 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

• We now prove the left distribution law: Note that left distribution law hold on R and S.

(r1 , s1 )[(r2 , s2 ) + (r3 , s3 )] = (r1 , s1 )[(r2 + r3 , s2 + s3 )] = (r1 (r2 + r3 ), s1 (s2 + s3 ))

= (r1 r2 + r1 r3 , s1 s2 + s1 s3 ) = (r1 r2 , s1 s2 ) + (r1 r3 , s1 s3 )

= (r1 , s1 )(r2 , s2 ) + (r1 , s1 )(r3 , s3 ).

The proof of right distribution law is similar. Therefore, R × S is a commutative ring.

Theorem 1.1.3

If R1 , R2 , · · · , Rn are rings, then the direct product R = R1 × R2 × · · · × Rn is a ring where

R = {(a1 , · · · , an ) : ai ∈ Ri for i = 1, 2, · · · , n}. Moreover,

• 0R = (0R1 , 0R2 , · · · , 0Rn ) and −(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) = (−a1 , −a2 , · · · , −an ).

• R is commutative iff Ri is commutative for all i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
• eR = (eR1 , eR2 , · · · , eRn ) is a unity for R iff eRi is a unity for Ri for all i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
• Ri ≈ {0R1 } × {0R2 } × · · · × Ri × · · · × {0Rn } ≤ R for each i = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Example 1.1.5: #24.16 @page : 125

Show that a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) for all a and b in a ring R iff R is commutative.

Solution:

Let a, b ∈ R (a ring). Then,

(a + b)(a − b) = a(a + (−b)) + b(a + (−b)) = a2 + a(−b) + ba + b(−b)

= a2 − ab + ba − b2 .

Note that a2 − ab + ba − b2 = a2 − b2 iff ab = ba, that is R is commutative.

1.1. Rings 11

Exercise 1.1.1

Show that (Mn (R), +, ·) is a ring, where Mn (R) is the set of all n × n matrices with real
entries. The same result can be proved for Mn (Z) and Mn (Q).

Exercise 1.1.2
√ n √ o
Let R = Z[ 2] = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z . Then show that:

1. R is closed under the addition.

2. R is closed under the multiplication.

3. (R, +, ·) is a commutative ring.

Exercise 1.1.3: #24.10 @page : 124

Let F deonte all the functions on R. Define (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), and (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
for f, g ∈ F and for any x ∈ R. Show that (F, +, ◦) is not a ring.

Exercise 1.1.4: #24.14 @page : 125

Show that a ring has at most one unity.

Exercise 1.1.5: #24.15 @page : 125

Let E denote the set of even integers. Show that with the usual addition and with multipli-
cation defined by m ∗ n = 12 mn, E is a commutative ring. Is there a unity.

Exercise 1.1.6: #24.17 @page : 125

Show that (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 for all a and b in a ring R iff R is commutative.

Exercise 1.1.7: #24.18 @page : 125

Show that if A is an abelian group with addition as the operation, and an operation ∗ is
defined on A by a ∗ b = 0 for all a, b ∈ A, then (A, +, ∗) is a commutative ring.
 12 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Section 1.2: Subrings

Definition 1.2.1

A subset S of a ring R is called a subring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to the

operations of R.

For example, nZ is a subring of Z, even integer is a subring of Z. But the odd integer is not a
subring of Z. Moreover, the set {0, 2, 4} and {0, 3} are two subrings of Z6 .

In general, if R is a ring, then {0} and R are two subrings of R.

Theorem 1.2.1

A subset S of a ring (R, +, ·) is a subring of R iff S satisfies the following conditions:

S1 : S is not empty. S1 : S is not empty.
S2 : if a, b ∈ S, then a − b ∈ S. or S2 : if a, b ∈ S, then a + b, ab ∈ S.
S3 : if a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S. S3 : if a ∈ S, then −a ∈ S.

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Clearly if S is a subring of R, then the Conditions S1 , S2 , and S3 are satisfied.

” ⇐ ”: Assume that the Conditions S1 , S2 , and S3 are satisfied. Then + is associative and
commutative on S ⊆ R. Also · is associative on S ⊆ R. If a ∈ S (S 6= φ), then S2 implies
that a − a = 0 ∈ S. Then 0, a ∈ S implies that 0 − a = (−a) ∈ S by S2 . Therefore, S is an
abelian group under the addition and the multiplication is associative on S. We need further
to prove the distribution laws: But since the distribution laws hold in R, they hold in S as
well since S ⊆ R. Therefore, (S, +, ·) is a ring contained in R and hence it is a subring of R.

Example 1.2.1

Let F denote the ring of all functions f : R → R, where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for all f, g ∈ F for each x ∈ R. Show that S = {f ∈ F : f (1) = 0} is a
subring of F.

Solution:

Clearly,
1.2. Subrings 13

1. The zero mapping OF (1) = 0 and hence OF ∈ S is not empty.

2. Let f, g ∈ S. Then f (1) = 0 = g(1) and hence (f − g)(1) = f (1) − g(1) = 0 − 0 = 0.
Thus, f − g ∈ S.
3. Let f, g ∈ S. Then f (1) = 0 = g(1) and hence (f g)(1) = f (1)g(1) = 0 · 0 = 0. Thus,
f g ∈ S.

Therefore, S is a subring of F.

Example 1.2.2

The center of a ring R is defined to be Z(R) = {x ∈ R : ax = xa for all a ∈ R}. Show that
Z(R) is a subring of R.

Solution:

1. 0R ∈ Z(R) since 0a = a0 = 0 for all a ∈ R. Thus Z(R) 6= φ.

2. Let x, y ∈ Z(R), then we have xa = ax and ya = ay for all a ∈ R. Hence (x − y)a =
xa − ya = ax − ay = a(x − y). That is, x − y ∈ Z(R).
3. Let x, y ∈ Z(R), then we have xa = ax and ya = ay for all a ∈ R. Hence (xy)a =
x(ya) = x(ay) = (xa)y = (ax)y = a(xy). That is, xy ∈ Z(R).

Therefore, Z(R) is a subring of R.

14 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Exercise 1.2.1
  
a b
 
Decide whether S = : a, b, c ∈ Z is a subring of M2 (Z). How about T =
 0 c 
  
a b
 
: a, b, c ∈ Z?
 c 0

Exercise 1.2.2
  

 a a + 2b 
Decide whether S = : a, b ∈ Z is a subring of M2 (Z).
 a + 2b b 

Exercise 1.2.3
  
 a b
 
Show that S = : a, b ∈ R is a subring of M2 (R). Try to get back to this problem
 −b a 
(after the isomorphism section) to show that S ≈ C.

Exercise 1.2.4

Prove that if C denotes any collection of subrings of a ring R, then the intersection of all of
the rings in C is also a subring of R. What about the union of subrings of R?
 1.3. Integral Domains 15

Section 1.3: Integral Domains

Note that, in the usual system of numbers, if ab = 0, then we conclude that either a = 0 or b = 0.
This is not the case, in general, in rings.

Definition 1.3.1

Let R be a ring, and let a ∈ R. Then

• If a 6= 0, then a is called a zero divisor (or divisor of zero), if there exists 0 6= b ∈ R

such that ab = 0.

• If R has a unity, then a is called a unit if it has a multiplicative inverse in R.

For example, Z has no zero divisors, while [2] and [3] are two zero divisors in Z6 .

Theorem 1.3.1

In the ring Zn , the zero divisors are precisely those elements that are not coprime to n.

Proof:
     
n m m
Let 0 6= m ∈ Zn , and let (m, n) = d 6= 1. Then m d
= d
n = 0 as d
n is a multiple of
 
n
n. Thus, m d
= 0 in Zn , while m, nd 6= 0. Thus, m is a zero divisor in Zn .
On the other hand, let m ∈ Zn with (m, n) = 1. If for s ∈ Zn , ms = 0, then n | ms. But
since (m, n) = 1, we have n | s and hence s = 0 in Zn .

Corollary 1.3.1

If p is a prime, then Zp has no zero divisors.

As an example, the zero divisors in Z12 are S = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10} since (12, i) 6= 1 for any i ∈ S.
Furthermore, 1, 5, 7, and 11 are units in Z12 .

Definition 1.3.2

A commutative ring D with unity e 6= 0 and no zero divisors is called an integral domain.
Consequently, the set of nonzero elements in D is closed under multiplication.
16 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Example 1.3.1

• Z, Q, R, and C are integral domains.

• 2Z has no unity and hence it is not an integral domain.
• Z6 has [2] and [3] as zero divisors and hence Z6 is not an integral domain.
• M2 (R) is not anintegral
 domain
 asit is notcommutative.
  Moreover,
  M2 (R) has zero

divisors such as 0 0 and 0 0, since 0 0 0 0 = 0 0.

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

Theorem 1.3.2

Let D be a commutative ring with unity e 6= 0, and let a, b, c ∈ D. Then D is an integral

domain iff a 6= 0, and ab = ac implies b = c. That is, D is an integral domain iff the
cancellation laws hold.

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that D is an integral domain. Then D has no zero divisors and hence for
a 6= 0, ab = ac implies ab − ac = a(b − c) = 0 which impies that b − c = 0. That is b = c.
Thus the left cancellation law holds (similarly, we can use right cancellation law).
” ⇐ ”: Assume that the left cancellation law holds in D. Then we only need to show that
D has no zero divisors. Assume that a 6= 0 and ab = 0. Then ab = 0 = a0. By the left
cancellation law, b = 0. Thus D has no zero diviros and hence it is an integral domain.

Remark 1.3.1

An integral domain is a commutative ring with unity e 6= 0 satisfying the cancellation laws.

Theorem 1.3.3

Zp is an integral domain iff p is prime.

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: By contrapositive, assume that p is not a prime. Then there are a, b ∈ Zp so that

ab = p where 1 ≤ a, b < p. That is [a][b] = [ab] = [p] = [0]. Thus [a] and [b] are zero divisors
in Zp and hence Zp is not an integral domain. Which is not the case.
” ⇐ ”: Assume that p is a prime. Then we can simply use Corollary 1.3.1 to prove the
1.3. Integral Domains 17

statement. Or: If [a][b] = [ab] = [0] in Zp , then p | ab. As p is prime, we have p | a or p | b

(or both). Thus, either [a]p = [0]p or [b]p = [0]p (or both). Therefore, Zp has no zero divisors
and thus it is an integral domain.

Theorem 1.3.4

Let S be a subring of a ring R. Then if R is an integral domain, then so is S.

Proof:

Since S is contained in R, if S has zero divisors, then so is R. Contradiction.

Example 1.3.2
√  n √ o
Show that Z 2 = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z is an integral domain.

Solution:
√ 
Z 2 is an integral domain since it is a subring of R which is an integral domain.

Example 1.3.3

Let F denote the ring of all functions f : R → R, where (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) for all f, g ∈ F for each x ∈ R. Show that F is not an integral domain.

Solution:

Let f, g ∈ F defined by
 
1, if x = 0 1, for x = 1

 

f (x) = , and g(x) =
 
0,

otherwise 0,

otherwise

Then, f (x)g(x) = 0 for all x, yet f (x) 6= O(x) 6= g(x). Thus F is not an integral domain.

Example 1.3.4

Describe the units in Z, Z × Z, Q, and in Z4 and Z5 .

18 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Example 1.3.5

Show that a zero divisor a in a commutative ring R with unity can have no multiplicative
inverse.

Solution:

Let a ∈ R be a zero divisor. Then there is b ∈ R such that b 6= 0 and ab = 0. Assume that
a−1 exists in R, then a−1 ab = a−1 0 = 0, and hence b = 0 which is not the case. Thus a−1
does not exist.

Example 1.3.6
 
1 2
Show that D =  is a zero divisor in M2 (Z).
2 4

Solution:
   
a b 2 0
Simply find a matrix A =  such that AD = 0 or DA = 0. Thus, if A =  , we
c d −1 0
have DA = 0.

Example 1.3.7

Solve the equation x2 + x = 0 in Z5 .

Solution:

Clearly, x2 + x = x(x + 1) = 0. So trying all elements in Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3 = −2, 4 = −1}, we

get x2 + x = 0 only for x = 0 and x = 4.

Example 1.3.8

Solve the equation x2 − 3 = 0 in Z5 .

Solution:

Simply trying all possibility of x : 0, 1, 2, −1, −2 we get no solution.

1.3. Integral Domains 19

Example 1.3.9

Solve the equation x2 + 3x + 3 = 0 in Z7 .

Solution:

Note that x2 + 3x + 3 = x2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 1)(x − 3) = 0. Then trying all possibilities of

x : 0, 1, 2, 3, −3, −2, −1, we only get x = 1 and x = 3 as the solutions.
20 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Exercise 1.3.1

Solve the equation x2 − 4 = 0 in Z5 .

Exercise 1.3.2

Solve the equation x2 + 2x + 4 = 0 in Z6 .

Exercise 1.3.3

Let p be a prime. Show that in the ring Zp , we have (a + b)p = ap + bp for all a, b ∈ Zp .
 1.4. Fields 21

Section 1.4: Fields

Definition 1.4.1

Let R be a ring with unity e 6= 0.

• An element a ∈ R with the property a2 = a is called an idempotent.

• If an = 0, for some n ∈ Z+ , then a is called a nilpotent .
• If every nonzero elements of R is a unit, then R is called a division ring.
• A commutative division ring is called a field.
• A noncommutative division ring is called a skew field.

Remark 1.4.1

(F, +, ·) is a field if: (F, +) is an abelian group with identity 0, (F ∗ , ·) is an abelian group
with identity e and the distribution law a(b + c) = ab + ac holds for all a, b, c ∈ F .

Example 1.4.1

Show that a division ring contains exactly two idempotent elements.

Solution:

Since R is a division ring, e ∈ R. Then a2 = a implies that a2 − a = a(a − e) = 0. Thus a = 0

(and hence a2 = 0) or a = e (and hence a2 = e).

Example 1.4.2

Let R be a commutative ring. Show that if a and b are nilpotent elements in R, then so is
a + b.

Solution:

We have an = 0 and bm = 0 for some n, m ∈ Z+ . Hence, using the binomial expansion (valid
in commutative rings), we have
m+n
!
m+n
X m + n i m+n−i
(a + b) = a b .
i=0 i

Thus, if i ≥ n, we get ai = 0. Otherwise, if i < n, then m + n − i > m and hence bm+n−i = 0.

22 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Therefore, the terms of the sum are all zero.

Example 1.4.3

Let R be a commutative ring. Show that the set of all idempotent elements in R is closed
under multiplication.

Solution:

Let a, b ∈ R be two idempotents. Then a2 = a and b2 = b. Hence

(ab)2 = abab = aabb = a2 b2 = ab.

Example 1.4.4

(Z, +, ·) is not a field since for instance 2 has no multiplicative inverse in Z. However, Q, R,
and C are fields since each nonzero element a has its multiplicative inverse a1 .

Note that an integral domain (R, +, ·) has no zero divisors and hence its set of nonzero elements,
say S, is closed under multiplication. Also, multiplication is associative on S since S ⊆ R. R has its
unity e 6= 0 and hence e ∈ S. Therefore, (S, ·) is a group unless there is a ∈ S which is not a unit.

Fields ⊂ integral domains ⊂ commutative rings ⊂ rings.

Theorem 1.4.1

Every field F is an integral domain.

Proof:

Let a, b ∈ F and suppose that a 6= 0. Then if ab = 0, we have a−1 (ab) = a−1 0 = 0 which
implies that b = 0. Thus, there is no zero divisors in F and hence it is an integral domain.

Theorem 1.4.2

Every finite integral domain D is a field.

Proof:
1.4. Fields 23

We show that every nonzero element in D is a unit. Let 0 6= a ∈ D, define a mapping

f : D → D by f (x) = ax. We now show that f is onto which implies that for e ∈ D, there
is b ∈ D such that f (b) = ab = e. But since D is finite, f is onto iff f is one-to-one. For any
x, y ∈ D, f (x) = f (y) implies ax = ay which implies that x = y (by left cancellation law).
Thus, f is onto and there is b ∈ D such that ab = e. Therefore, each nonzero element in D
is a unit and hence D is a field.

Theorem 1.4.3

Zp is a field iff p is a prime.

Proof:

If Zp is a field, then it is an integral domain (by Theorem 1.4.1) and hence p is prime by
Theorem 1.3.3. On the other hand, if p is a prime, then Zp is an integral domain by Theorem
1.3.3. Since Zp is finite, Theorem 1.4.2 implies that Zp is a field.

Definition 1.4.2

A subset S of a field F is a subfield of F if S itself is a field with respect to the operations

on F .

Theorem 1.4.4

A subset K of a field F is a subfield of F iff the following conditions hold:

1. K contains the zero and unity of F ,

2. if a, b ∈ K, then ab, a − b ∈ K, and
3. if 0 6= a ∈ K, then a−1 ∈ K.

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: If K is a field, then clearly the conditions are satisfied.

” ⇐ ”: Assume that K is a subset of F satisfying the three conditions. Then, K is clearly
closed under addition and multiplication. Moreover, + is associative and commutative on F
and hence on K. If a ∈ K, then 0 − a = −a ∈ K and hence (K, +) is an abelian group. Also
· is associative and commutative on F and hence on K. Further the distribution laws hold
for F and hence for K. Thus, (K, +, ·) is a commutative ring. By definition, F has no zero
24 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

divisors and hence K has none as well. The last condition implies that each nonzero element
of K has an inverse. Therefore, K is a field.

Example 1.4.5
√  n √ o
Consider the integral domain Z 2 = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z .
√ −1 √ 
1. Compute (−2 + 2) in Z 2 .
√ 
2. Is Z 2 a field? Explain.
√  n √ o
3. Is Q 2 = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q a field? Explain.

Solution:
 √  √  √ √ 
1. Consider −2 + 2 a + b 2 = 1 + 0 2 (the unity of Z 2 ). Thus, −2a + 2b = 1
and a − 2b = 0 which implies that a = −1 and b = − 21 . Therefore,
√ −1

1√
 √ 
(−2 + 2) = −1 − 2 ∈6 Z 2 .
2
√   √  √ 
2. Clearly Z 2 is not a field as −2 + 2 has no inverse in Z 2 .
√
3. Yes. The unity is 1 and the inverse of a nonzero element a + b 2 is computed as
√
 √ −1 1 1 a−b 2 a −b √
a+b 2 = √ = √ = √ = 2 + 2,
a+b 2 a+b 2 a−b 2 a − 2b2 a2 − 2b2
√ 
which is indeed in Q 2 .
 1.5. Isomorphism 25

Section 1.5: Isomorphism

Definition 1.5.1

Let R and S be two rings. A mapping θ : R → S is a ring homomorphism if for all

a, b ∈ R, we have:

1. θ(a + b) = θ(a) + θ(b), and

2. θ(ab) = θ(a)θ(b).

Note that the operation a + b and ab are both in R while θ(a) + θ(b) and θ(a)θ(b) are in S.

Remark 1.5.1

The trivial homomorphism is φ0 : R → S defined by φ0 (r) = 0S for all r ∈ R.

Definition 1.5.2

An isomorphism of a ring R onto a ring S is a mapping θ : R → S that is a bijection (one-

to-one and onto) and a homomorphism. In that case, we say that R and S are isomorphic
rings denoted R ≈ S.

Example 1.5.1

Show that if R and S are two rings, θ : R → S is an isomorphism, and e is the unity of R,
then θ(e) is the unity of S.

Solution:

Let b ∈ S. Then there is a ∈ R with θ(a) = b. Then, b = θ(a) = θ(ae) = θ(a)θ(e) = bθ(e). In
a similar way, we can prove that b = θ(e)b. Therefore, θ(e) is the unity of S.

Example 1.5.2

Show that Z 6≈ 2Z.

Solution:

Clearly, 1 is the unity in Z while 2Z has no unity.

26 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Remark 1.5.2

In order to show that two rings are isomorphic, we find an isomorphism mapping from one
to the other.
On the other hand, to show that two rings are not isomorphic, it is enough to find a property
that is preserved by isomorphism and in the same time the two rings do not share it. Examples
for such properties are commutativity, existance of unity, and some other properties we will
introduce later.

Example 1.5.3

Let θ : Z → 2Z be defined by θ(a) = 2a. Show that θ is not a ring homomorphism.

Solution:

Note that for a, b ∈ Z, we have θ(a + b) = 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b = θ(a) + θ(b). However,

θ(ab) = 2(ab) = 2ab 6= θ(a)θ(b) = 2a 2b = 4ab.

Thus, θ is not homomorphism.

Definition 1.5.3

Let R be a ring. If there is a positive integer n such that na = 0 for each a ∈ R, then the least
such integer is called the characteristic of R. Otherwise, R is said to have characteristic 0.

Theorem 1.5.1

Isomorphism relation on the calss of all rings is an equivalence relation.

Remark 1.5.3

Rings (unity e): Z, Q, R, C (e = 1), Zn (e = [1]), Z × Zn (e = (1, [1])), M2 (R) (e = I2 ). While

the rings: 2Z, 3Z, 2Z × Q are examples of rings with no unity.

Theorem 1.5.2

Show that Zmn ≈ Zm × Zn iff (m, n) = 1.

1.5. Isomorphism 27

Example 1.5.4: #27.3 @page : 134

Prove that if R and S are isomorphic rings and R is an integral domain, then S is an integral
domain as well.

Solution:

Let θ : R → S be an isomorphism and R be an integral domain. Then R has no zero divisors

and θ(0R ) = 0S since θ is a homomorphism. Let x, y ∈ S with x 6= 0 and xy = 0. Then there
are a, b ∈ R such that θ(a) = x and θ(b) = y (θ is onto). Thus,

xy = θ(a)θ(b) = θ(ab) = 0S .

Thus, ab = 0R . Since R has no zero divisors, a = 0 or b = 0. but a 6= 0R since θ(a) = x 6= 0.

Thus, b = 0R and hence θ(b) = θ(0R ) = 0S = y. Thus S has no zero divisors. Moreover S is
commutative ring with unity θ(eR ). Therefore, S is an integral domain.

Example 1.5.5: #27.15 @page : 135

Prove that if R and S are isomorphic rings, then their characteristic are equal.

Solution:

Let θ : R → S be an isomorphism and assume that char(R) = m. Then for any r ∈ R,

mr = 0R . For x ∈ S, there is a ∈ R such that θ(a) = x (θ is onto). Thus,

mx = mθ(a) = θ(ma) = θ(0R ) = 0S .

Hence mx = 0S and thus char(S) = m.

28 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Exercise 1.5.1: #27.2 @page : 134

Prove that if R and S are isomorphic rings and R is commutative, then S is commutative as
well.

Exercise 1.5.2: #27.4 @page : 134

Prove that if R and S are isomorphic rings and R is a field, then S is a field as well.

Exercise 1.5.3: #27.9 @page : 135

Prove that if R and S are fields, θ : R → S is an isomorphism, and a ∈ R, a 6= 0, then

θ(a−1 ) = θ(a)−1 .

Exercise 1.5.4: #27.23 @page : 135

n √ o n √ o
Let R = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Q and S = a + b 3 : a, b ∈ Q be two subfields of R. Verify
 √  √
that θ : R → S defined by θ a + b 2 = a + b 3 is not a ring isomorphism (homomorphism).
 1.6. The Field of Quotients of Integral Domain 29

Section 1.6: The Field of Quotients of Integral Domain

Recall that an integral domain (e.g. Z) is not a field (e.g. Q) if it has an element with no multiplicative
inverse (e.g. 2 in Z).

In this section, we construct (show how) that every integral domain can be regarded as being
contained in a certain (minimal) field, a field of quotients of the integral domain.

The construction procedure of a field of quotient of an integral domain is exactly the same as the
construction of the rational numbers (field) from the integer numbers (integral domain).

? The Construction

Let D be an integral domain that we desire to enlarge to a field of quotient F .

• Step #1: Elements of F :

Let D be a given integral domain and consider D × D = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ D}. Here (a, b) is representing
a/b. That is if D = Z, (2, 3) represents 23 . Let S ⊆ D × D∗ given by S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ D, b 6= 0}.
This is to ensure that elements like (2, 0) is not in F . But then (2, 3) and (4, 6) are representing the
same element in S.
Definition 1.6.1

Two elements (a, b) and (c, d) in S = {(x, y) ∈ D × D∗ } are said to be equivalent, denoted
(a, b) ∼ (c, d), iff ad = bc.

Lemma 1.6.1

The relation ∼ on S ⊆ D × D∗ is an equivalence relation.

Proof:

• reflexive: Clearly (a, b) ∼ (a, b) since ab = ba as D is a commutative ring.

• symmetric: Let (a, b) ∼ (c, d) in S. Then ad = bc and hence cb = da which implies
(c, d) ∼ (a, b). Thus (c, d) ∼ (a, b).
30 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

• transitive: Let (a, b) ∼ (c, d) and (c, d) ∼ (m, n) in S. Then ad = bc and cn = dm.
Thus
(an)d = (ad)n = (bc)n = b(cn) = b(dm) = (bm)d.

Since d ∈ D∗ , we conclude that an = bm and hence (a, b) ∼ (m, n).

Therefore, ∼ is an equivalence relation on S.

We remark that [(a, b)] denotes the equivalence class of (a, b) in S. Then, F = {[(a, b)] : (a, b) ∈ S}.
 
a
That is if D = Z, then [(a, b)] is viewed as b
∈ Q.

• Step #2: Binary operations + and · on F :

Lemma 1.6.2

Let [(a, b)] and [(c, d)] be any two elements in F , then the equations

[(a, b)] + [(c, d)] = [(ad + bc, bd)] and [(a, b)][(c, d)] = [(ac, bd)],

are well defined operations of addition and multiplication on F .

• Step #3: F is a field:

1. Additive in F is commutative: Clearly

[(a, b)] + [(c, d)] = [(ad + bc, bd)] = [(cb + da, db)] = [(c, d)] + [(a, b)]

2. Additive in F is associative: Clearly

([(a, b)] + [(c, d)]) + [(m, n)] = [(ad + bc, bd)] + [(m, n)] = [((ad + bc)n + (bd)m, (bd)n)]

= [(a(dn) + b(cn + dm), b(dn))] = [(a, b)][(cn + dm, dn)]

= [(a, b)] + ([(c, d)] + [(m, n)]).

3. 0 = [(0, 1)] is the additive zero in F : Clearly [(a, b)] + [(0, 1)] = [(a, b)] = [(0, 1)] + [(a, b)].
4. [(a, b)]−1 = [(−a, b)] in F : Clearly [(a, b)]+[(−a, b)] = [(ab − ab, b2 )] = [(0, b2 )], where [(0, b2 )] =
[(0, 1)] as equivalence classes.
1.6. The Field of Quotients of Integral Domain 31

Therefore, (F, +) is an abelian group.

Example 1.6.1

Show that in F , we have [(a, −b)] = [(−a, b)].

Solution:

We simply show that (a, −b) ∼ (−a, b). But this is true since ab = (−a)(−b).

5. Multiplication is associative on F : Clearly

([(a, b)][(c, d)])[(m, n)] = [(ac, bd)][(m, n)] = [((ac)m, (bd)n)]

= [(a(cm), b(dn))] = [(a, b)][(cm, dn)] = [(a, b)]([(c, d)][(m, n)]).

6. Distribution laws are hold in F : Clearly (FOR YOU)

[(a, b)]([(c, d)] + [(m, n)]) = [(a, b)][(c, d)] + [(a, b)][(m, n)].

By commutativity, the right distribution law holds as well.

7. Multiplication in F is commutative: Clearly

[(a, b)][(c, d)] = [(ac, bd)] = [(ca, db)] = [(c, d)][(a, b)].

Therefore, (F, +, ·) is a commutative ring.

8. e = [(1, 1)] is the unity in F : Clearly

[(a, b)][(1, 1)] = [(a, b)] = [(1, 1)][(a, b)].

9. For each 0 6= [(a, b)] ∈ F , we have [(a, b)]−1 = [(b, a)]: If 0 6= [(a, b)] ∈ F , then [(a, b)] 6=
[(0, 1)]. That is a, b 6= 0. Then

[(a, b)][(b, a)] = [(ab, ab)] = [(1, 1)].

Therefore, F is a field.

• Step #4: F contains a subdomain isomorphic to (integral domain) D:

32 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Theorem 1.6.1

The map θ : D → F given by θ(a) = [(a, 1)] is an isomorphism of D onto a subdomain of F ,

namely θ(D).

Proof:

Clearly, θ(a + b) = [(a + b, 1)] = [(a · 1 + 1 · b, 1)] = [(a, 1)] + [(b, 1)] = θ(a) + θ(b) and
θ(ab) = [(ab, 1)] = [(a, 1)][(b, 1)] = θ(a)θ(b). Thus θ is a homomorphism onto θ(D) (the onto
part is clear by the definition of θ(D)).
To show that θ is 1-1, we assume that θ(a) = θ(b) which implies that [(a, 1)] = [(b, 1)]. That
is (a, 1) ∼ (b, 1) which implies that a · 1 = b · 1. Thus a = b and hence θ is 1-1 and therefore
it is an isomorphism.

Theorem 1.6.2: Uniqueness

If D is an integral domain, then there exists a field F , the field of qoutients of D, such that:

1. F contains an integral domain isomorphic to D.

2. If K is any field containing an integral domain isomorphic to D, then K contains a field
isomorphic to F .

Note that we say that an integral domain D can be embedded (or enlarged) to a field F . This
field is the field of quotients of D.

Example 1.6.2

Describe the field of quotients F of the integral domain D = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z} of C. ”De-

scribe” here means give the elements of C that make up the field F .

Solution:

The field of quotients of D (elements of F is then (a + bi, c + di) ∈ D × D∗ ) will be of the

a + bi
field containing all complex number of the form for a, b, c, d ∈ Z. Thus,
c + di
a + bi c − di (a + bi)(c − di)
· = .
c + di c − di c2 + d 2

Since c2 + d2 ∈ Z, then the complex number reduces to one of the form x + yi where x, y ∈ Q.
Thus F = {x + yi : x, y ∈ Q}.
1.6. The Field of Quotients of Integral Domain 33

Example 1.6.3
n √ o
Describe the field of quotients F of the integral domain D = a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z of R.
”Describe” here means give the elements of R that make up the field F .

Solution:
√
a+b 2
Looking for elements of the form √ where a, b, c, d ∈ Z. Thus
c+d 2
√ √  √  √ 
a+b 2 c−d 2 a + b 2 c − d 2
√ · √ = .
c+d 2 c−d 2 c2 − 2d2
n √ o
Since c2 − 2d2 ∈ Z, we get F = x + y 2 : x, y ∈ Q .
 34 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Section 1.7: Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorem

Math-261

Recall: (Z∗p , ) is a group off p is a prime. Note that Z∗p = {1, 2, · · · , p − 1} with Z∗p = p − 1.
Moreover, the order of element a in a group G is the smallest positive integer n such that
an = e (if such n exists).

Theorem 1.7.1: Fermat’s Little Theorem

Assume that p is a prime. If p - a, then ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p).

Corollary 1.7.1

Assume that p is a prime. For all a ∈ Z, ap ≡ a (mod p).

Example 1.7.1

Find x if 214 ≡ x (mod 7).

Solution:

By Fermat’s Little Theorem, 26 ≡ 1 (mod 7). Thus 214 = ((26 )2 )22 ≡ 12 · 4 ≡ 4 (mod 7).

Example 1.7.2

Find x if 8103 ≡ x (mod 13).

Solution:

Note that 8103 = (23 )103 = 2309 , and 309 = 12 · 25 + 9. Thus,

8103 = 2309 = (212 )25 · 29 ≡ 125 · (24 )2 · 2 ≡ 32 · 2 ≡ 18 ≡ 5 (mod 13).

Example 1.7.3

Show that 211,213 − 1 is not divisible by 11.

Solution:
1.7. Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorem 35

We simply show that 211,213 − 1 6≡ 0 (mod 11), or that 211,213 6≡ 1 (mod 11). Note that
11, 213 = 10 · 1, 121 + 3. Thus

211,213 − 1 = (210 )1,121 · 23 − 1 ≡ 11,121 · 8 − 1 ≡ 7 (mod 11) 6≡ 0 (mod 11).

Definition 1.7.1

Let n be a positive integer. Let φ(n) be defined as the number of positive integers less than
or equal to n and relatively prime to n.

Remark 1.7.1

By Theorem 1.3.1, φ(n) is the number of elements in Zn that are not zero divisors. It is called
the ”Euler phi-function”.

Definition 1.7.2

Let Gn denote the set of nonzero elements of Zn that are not zero divisors. That is Gn =
{k : 1 ≤ k ≤ n and (k, n) = 1}.

Theorem 1.7.2

For n > 1, (Gn , ·) is a group and | Gn | = φ(n).

Math-261

Recall: φ(p) = p−1 for any prime number p. For any positive integer n, with n = pe11 pe22 · · · pekk
where pe11 < pe22 < · · · < pekk are primes and e1 , e2 , · · · , ek are positive integer, we have
! ! !
1 1 1
φ(n) = n 1 − 1− ··· 1 − .
p1 p2 pk

Example 1.7.4

Compute φ(10) and φ(40).

Solution:
36 Chapter 1. Ring Theory

Note that 10 = (2)(5) and 40 = (23 )(5). Thus

1 1 1 4
     
φ(10) = 10 1 − 1− = 10 = 4 , and
2  5 2 5
1 1 1 4
   
φ(40) = 40 1 − 1− = 40 = 16 , and
2 5 2 5

Theorem 1.7.3

If a ∈ Gn , then aφ(n) − 1 is divisible by n. That is if (a, n) = 1 and 1 ≤ a < n, then

aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n).

Example 1.7.5

Find x for 74 ≡ x (mod 12).

Solution:

Note that 12 is not a prime, but (7, 12) = 1. Hence 7φ(12) ≡ 1 (mod 12). But, φ(12) =
  
1 1
12 1 − 2
1− 3
= 4. Therefore, 7φ(12) ≡ 1 (mod 12) and hence x = 1.

Example 1.7.6

Solve the equation: 1723 ≡ x (mod 12).

Solution:

Clearly 17 ≡ 5 (mod 12). Thus, we consider 523 ≡ x (mod 12). Note that 12 is not a prime,
but (5, 12) = 1 and by Euler’s Theorem, 5φ(12) ≡ 54 ≡ 1 (mod 12). Thus,
    5  
523 ≡ 520 53 ≡ 54 53 ≡ 1 · 25 · 51 ≡ 1 · 5 ≡ 5 (mod 12).

Thus, x = 5.

Example 1.7.7

Use Fermat’s Little Theorem to find the remainder of 347 when it is divisible by 23.

Solution:
1.7. Fermat’s and Euler’s Theorem 37

 2
347 ≡ 322 · 33 12 · 27 ≡ 4 (mod 23).
38 Chapter 1. Ring Theory
 Chapter

2 Ring of Polynomials

Section 2.1: Polynomials

Definition 2.1.1

Let R be a ring. A polynomial, f (x), in indeterminate x over R is an expression

∞
ai xi = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn + · · · ,
X
(2.1.1)
i=0

where ai ∈ R and ai = 0 for all but a finite number of values of i. The set of all polynomials
in x over R will be denoted by R[x].
The ai are the coefficients of f (x). The degree of f (x) is the largest value of i for which
ai 6= 0. If all ai = 0, then the degree of f (x) is undefined, and f (x) is the zero element of R.
An element of R of degree 0 is a constant polynomial, f (x) = a ∈ R.

Remark 2.1.1

For simplicity, if ai = 0 for all i > n, then we write

f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn , (2.1.2)

and omit all terms 0xk for any k > n. In that case, we say that an is the leading coefficient
of f (x). If furthermore an = 1, we say that f (x) is a monic polynomial. For instance,
x3 − x + 1, 1 + 4x2 , 5, 2 + x are all examples of polynomials.

Definition 2.1.1: Operation for R[x]

For m, n ≥ 0, let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm be two elements

in R[x] for some ring R. Then for addition, we have:

f (x) + g(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + ck xk ,

where k = maximum(n, m), and ci = ai + bi . For multiplication, we have:

f (x)g(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + ck xk ,

39
40 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

i
X
where k = n + m and di = a0 bk + a1 bk−1 + a2 bk−2 + · · · + ak b0 = aj bi−j . Note that if R is
j=0
i
X i
X
not commutative, we get aj bi−j 6= bj ai−j .
j=0 j=0

Example 2.1.1

Compute f (x) + g(x) and f (x)g(x) in what follows:

1. f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = x + 3 in R[x].

2. f (x) = 2 + 2x and g(x) = 2 + 3x − x2 in Z4 [x].

Solution:

1. • f (x) + g(x) = (1 + 3) + (0 + 1)x + (1 + 0)x2 = 4 + x + x2 .

•

f (x)g(x) = (1 + 0 · x + 1 · x2 )(3 + 1 · x)

= (1)(3) + [(1)(1) + (0)(3)]x + [(1)(0) + (0)(1) + (1)(3)]x2

+ [(1)(0) + (0)(0) + (1)(1) + (0)(3)]x3

= 3 + x + 3x2 + x3 .

2. • f (x) + g(x) = 4 + 5x − x2 = 0 + x + 3x2 = x + 3x2 .

• f (x)g(x) = 4 + (6 + 4)x + (−2 + 6)x2 + (−2)x3 = 2x + 2x3 .

Theorem 2.1.1

The set R[x], polynomial rings, is a ring with respect to addition and multiplication defined
above.

Example 2.1.2

Let f (x) = x + 1. Find (f (x))2 and 2f (x) = f (x) + f (x) in Z2 [x].

Solution:

• (f (x))2 = (1 + x)(1 + x) = 1 + 2x + x2 = 1 + x2 .
• 2f (x) = f (x) + f (x) = (1 + x) + (1 + x) = 2 + 2x = 0.
2.1. Polynomials 41

Remark 2.1.2

Note that R[x], Q[x], Z[x], Z3 [x] are all examples of polynomial rings. Moreover,

• If R is a commutative ring, then R[x] is commutative.

• If R has a unity e, then e is also a unity for R[x].
• If D is an integral domain, then D[x] is also an integral domain.
• The units of D[x] are precisely the units of D. This is because any polynomial in D[x]
of degree at least 1 multiplied by any other nonzero element in D[x] must be of degree
at least 1 which is not the unity e (whose degree is 0).
• If F is a field, F [x] is an integral domain (not a field). Note that 1 ∈ R (field), then
1 · x = x ∈ R[x], but x−1 = 1
x
6∈ R[x] since it is not a polynomial.

Example 2.1.3

Prove that if p is a zero divisor for every element of R, then it is a zero divisor for every
element of R[x].

Solution:

Let p be a zero divisor for every element of R. Then for any r ∈ R, we have pr = 0. Thus,
for any f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x] of degree n, we have

p · f (x) = pa0 + pa1 x + · · · + pan xn = 0 + 0 + · · · + 0 = 0.

That is pf (x) = 0, and hence p is a zero divisor of R[x].

Example 2.1.4

Prove that if R is a commutaive ring with unity e. Then, R is an integral domain iff R[x] is
an integral domain.

Solution:

Note that if R is a commutative ring with unity e, then R[x] is also a commutative ring with
unity e.
” ⇒ ”: Assume that R is an integral domain. Let f (x) = a0 +· · ·+an xn , g(x) = b0 +· · ·+bm xm
be any two nonzero elements in R[x] so that an , bm 6= 0. Then the leading coefficient of
42 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

f (x)g(x) is an bm 6= 0 since an , bm ∈ R and R is an integral domain. Thus, f (x)g(x) 6= 0 in

R[x]. Therefore, R[x] is an integral domain.
” ⇐ ”: Assume that R[x] is an integral domain. Let a and b be any two nonzero elements
in R. Clearly, a, b ∈ R[x] (constant polynomials) and hence ab 6= 0 since R[x] is an integral
domain. Therefore, R is an integral domain.
2.1. Polynomials 43

Exercise 2.1.1

Find the sum and the product of the following polynomials in the given polynomial ring:

1. f (x) = 4x − 5, g(x) = 2x2 − 4x + 2 in Z8 [x].

2. f (x) = x + 1, g(x) = x + 1 in Z2 [x].
3. f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 4, g(x) = 3x2 + 2x + 3 in Z6 [x].

Exercise 2.1.2

There are four different polynomials of degree 2 in Z2 [x]. List them all.
 44 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Section 2.2: The Division Algorithm

The Division Algorithm

If f (x) and g(x) are polynomials over a field F , with g(x) 6= 0, then there exist unique
polynomials q(x) and r(x) over F such that

f (x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x), with r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg (g(x)). (2.2.1)

The polynomials q(x) and r(x) are called the quotient and remainder, respectively, in the
division of f (x) by g(x).

Example 2.2.1

Let f (x) = 2x4 + x2 − x + 1 and g(x) = 2x − 1 be two polynomials over R. Find q(x) and
r(x) using the Division Algorithm.

Solution:

We simply apply the long division to get q(x) = x3 + 12 x2 + 34 x − 1

8
and r(x) = 78 .

x3 + 12 x2 + 3
4
x − 1
8

2x − 1 2x4 + x2 − x + 1
2x4 − x3
x3 + x2 − x + 1
x3 − 12 x2
3 2
2
x − x + 1
3 2
2
x − 34 x
− 41 x + 1
− 14 x + 1
8
7
8

Remark 2.2.1

Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ F [x]. For c ∈ F , we say that f (c) is the substitution of

c for x in f (x). That is, f (c) = a0 + a1 c + · · · + an cn ∈ F . Moreover, if f (x) = g(x) in F [x],
2.2. The Division Algorithm 45

then f (c) = g(c) in F .

Example 2.2.2

Determine q(x) and r(x) when applying the Division Algorithm for: f (x) = 3 + x − 3x4 and
g(x) = x − 2 in Z5 [x]. Find f (2).

Solution:

We have q(x) = 2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 2, r(x) = 2, and f (2) = 3 + 2 − 3(24 ) = −3 = 2.

2x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 2
x − 2 −3x4 + x + 3
2x4 − 4x3
4x3 + x + 3
4x3 − 3x2
3x2 + x + 3
3x2 − x
2x + 3
2x − 4
2

Theorem 2.2.1: The Remainder Theorem

If f (x) ∈ F [x] and c ∈ F , then the remainder in the division of f (x) by x − c is f (c).

Proof:

Note that deg(x − c) = 1. By the Division Algorithm, the remainder in the division of f (x)
by (x − c) must be either 0 or of degree 0. Thus, for some q(x) ∈ F [x],

f (x) = (x − c)q(x) + r, with r ∈ F.

Thus, f (c) = (c − c)q(c) + r = r.

46 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Definition 2.2.1

If f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x], with g(x) 6= 0, then f (x) is divisible by g(x) over F if f (x) = g(x)q(x)
for some q(x) ∈ F [x]. That is, the remainder in the Division Algorithm is zero. Furthermore,
we say that g(x) is a factor of f (x) over F .

Theorem 2.2.2: The Factor Theorem

If f (x) ∈ F [x] and c ∈ F , then x − c is a factor of f (x) iff f (c) = 0.

Definition 2.2.2

An element c ∈ F is called a root (or a zero) of a polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] if f (c) = 0.

Consequently, c is a root of f (x) iff x − c is a factor of f (x).

Example 2.2.3

Use the Remainder Theorem to determine the remainder when f (x) = 2x5 − 3x3 + 2x + 1 is
divided by x − 2 in Z7 [x].

Solution:

By the Remainder Theorem, we simply compute f (2). Thus,

f (2) = 26 − 3(8) + 4 + 1 = 1 + 4(1) + 4 + 1 = 3.

Example 2.2.4

Is x − 3 a factor of f (x) = 3x3 − 9x2 − 7x + 21 in Q[x]? Explain your answer.

Solution:

By the Factor Theorem, Theorem 2.2.2, we can simply compute f (3):

f (3) = 3(33 ) − 9(32 ) − 7(3) + 21 = 34 − 34 − 21 + 21 = 0.

Therefore, x − 3 is a factor of f (x).

2.2. The Division Algorithm 47

Example 2.2.5

Use the Factor Theorem to construct a polynomial f (x) ∈ Z5 [x] such that every element of
Z5 is a root for f (x).

Solution:

Note that Z5 is a cyclic group of order 5. Thus, [a]6 = [a] for any [a] ∈ Z5 . That is
f (a) = a5 − a = 0 for any a. Therefore, every a ∈ Z5 is a root for f (x) = x5 − x.

Theorem 2.2.3

A nonzero polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] of degree n can have at most n roots in a field F .

Proof:

By the Factor Theorem, if a1 ∈ F is a root of f (x), then f (x) = (x − a1 )q1 (x), where q1 (x)
is of degree n − 1. A root a2 ∈ F of q1 (x) implies that f (x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2 )q2 (x), where
q2 (x) is of degree n − 2. Continuing in this way, we get

f (x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2 ) · · · (x − ar )qr (x),

where qr (x) has no further roots in F . Since deg(f ) = n, at most n factors x − ai can appear.
So r ≤ n. Also, if b 6= ai for i = 1, 2, · · · , r and b ∈ F , then

f (b) = (b − a1 )(b − a2 ) · · · (b − ar )qr (b) 6= 0

since F has no zero divisors and none of b − ai or qr (b) are zero by construction. Hence the
ai for i = 1, 2, · · · , r ≤ n are all zeros in F of f (x).
48 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Exercise 2.2.1

Find q(x) and r(x) when dividing f (x) = x4 + x2 + 3x + 1 by g(x) = x2 + 2x + 3 in Z5 [x].

Exercise 2.2.2

Divide f (x) = 2x4 + x2 − x + 1 by g(x) = 2x − 1 in Z5 [x].

Exercise 2.2.3

Determine q(x) and r(x) when applying the Division Algorithm for f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 2 and
g(x) = x − 3 in R[x]. Find f (3).

Exercise 2.2.4

Find q(x) and r(x) when dividing f (x) = x4 − 1 by g(x) = −x2 + 2 in Q[x].

Exercise 2.2.5

Find q(x) and r(x) when dividing f (x) = 3x4 + 2x2 − 1 by g(x) = 2x2 + 4x in Z5 [x].

Exercise 2.2.6

Use the Remainder Theorem to determine the remainder when f (x) = 2x5 − 3x3 + 2x + 1 is
divided by x − 2 in R[x].

Exercise 2.2.7

Is x + i a factor of f (x) = ix9 + 3x7 + x6 − 2ix + 1 in C[x]? Explain your answer.

Exercise 2.2.8

Divide f (x) = x4 + 5x3 − 3x2 by g(x) = 5x2 − x + 2 in Z11 [x].

Exercise 2.2.9

Is f (x) = x3 + 2x + 3 an irreducible polynomial of Z5 [x]? If not, then express it as a product

of irreducible polynomials of Z5 [x].
 2.3. Factorization of Polynomials 49

Section 2.3: Factorization of Polynomials

Theorem 2.3.1: Greatest Common Divisors of Two Polynomials

If a(x) and b(x) are two polynomials over a field F , not both the zero polynomial, then there
is a unique polynomial d(x) over F such that

1. d(x) | a(x) and d(x) | b(x), and

2. if c(x) is a polynomial such that c(x) | a(x) and c(x) | b(x), then c(x) | d(x).

The polynomial d(x) is called the greatest common divisors of a(x) and b(x). Such a
polynomial can be computed by the Euclidean Algorithm for polynomials.

Theorem 2.3.2

If a(x) and b(x) are polynomials over a field F , not both the zero polynomial, and
(a(x), b(x)) = d(x), then there exist polynomials u(x) and v(x) over F such that d(x) =
a(x)u(x) + b(x)v(x).

Example 2.3.1

Use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute (a(x), b(x)), where a(x) = x4 − x3 − x2 + 1, and
b(x) = x3 − 1 in Q[x].

Solution:

We simply apply the Division Algorithm to compute (a(x), b(x)) by dividing a(x) by b(x):

x − 1
x4 − x3 − x2 + 1 = (x3 − 1)(x − 1) + (−x2 + x)
x3 − 1 x4 − x3 − x2 +1
3 2
x − 1 = (−x + x)(−x − 1) + (x − 1) x4 −x
−x2 + x = (x − 1)(−x). −x3 − x2 + x + 1
−x3 +1
Thus, (a(x), b(x)) = x−1. Note that x3 −1 diveded
2
−x2 + x
by −x +x results in −x−1 with a remainder x−1.
50 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Definition 2.3.1

• Two polynomial are said to be associates if f (x) = cg(x) for some nonzero elements
c ∈ F . For instance, f (x) = 6x − 4 and g(x) = 3x − 2 are associates since f (x) = 2g(x)
• A nonconstant polynomial (of degree ≥ 1) f (x) ∈ F [x] is called irreducible (or prime)
over F if f (x) cannot be expressed as a product g(x)h(x) of two polynomials in F [x] with
0 < deg g(x), deg h(x) < deg f (x). That is, if f (x) = g(x)h(x) and f (x) is irreducible,
then one of g(x) and h(x) is of zero degree and the other is an associate of f (x).
If f (x) is not irreducible, then we say that f (x) is reducible.

For example, x2 + 1 is irreducible in R[x]. It is reducible in C[x] as x2 + 1 = (x − i)(x + i) in C[x].

Theorem 2.3.3

If F is a field, a(x), b(x), p(x) ∈ F [x], p(x) is irreducible, and p(x) | a(x)b(x), then either
p(x) | a(x) or p(x) | b(x).

Proof:

Assume that p(x) - a(x), then (p(x), a(x)) = e (the unity of F ). Then there are polynomials
u(x) and v(x) such that e = p(x)u(x) + a(x)v(x). Multiplying both sides by b(x), we get
b(x) = p(x)u(x)b(x) + a(x)v(x)b(x). Since p(x) | p(x) and p(x) | a(x)b(x), we get

p(x) | [p(x)u(x)b(x) + a(x)v(x)b(x)] = b(x).

Corollary 2.3.1

If p(x), a1 (x), a2 (x), · · · , an (x) are polynomials over F , with p(x) irreducible and p(x) |
a1 (x) · · · an (x), then p(x) | ai (x) for some i, where i = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Theorem 2.3.4: Unique Factorization Theorem

Each polynomial of degree at least one over a field F can be written as an element of F times
a product of irreducible polynomials (each with leading coefficient e) over F , and, except for
the order in which these irreducible polynomials are written, this can be done in only way.
2.3. Factorization of Polynomials 51

Theorem 2.3.5

Suppose that f (x) ∈ F [x] is of degree 2 or 3. Then f (x) is reducible over F iff f (x) has a
root in F .

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that f (x) is reducible. Then f (x) = g(x)h(x), where

0 < deg g(x), deg h(x) < deg f (x) = 2 or 3.

Then, one of g(x) or h(x) is of degree 1 taking the form x − a for some a ∈ F . By the Factor
Theorem, f (a) = 0 and hence f (x) has a root in F .
” ⇐ ”: If a ∈ F is a root of f (x), then by the Factor theorem x − a is a factor of f (x). Then
f (x) is reducible.

Example 2.3.2

Determine whether f (x) = x3 + x + 1 is irreducible over Z5 .

Solution:

Note that f (x) is of degree 3. Thus, it is reducible over Z5 iff f (x) has a root in Z5 . Thus

f (0) = 1 6= 0, f (1) = 3 6= 0, f (2) = 8 + 2 + 1 = 1 6= 0, f (3) = 27 + 3 + 1 = 1 6= 0,

and f (4) = 64 + 4 + 1 = 4 6= 0.

Therefore, f (x) is irreducible over Z5 .

Example 2.3.3

Determine whether f (x) = x4 + x2 + x + 1 is irreducible over Z5 .

Solution:

Note that f (0) = 1, f (1) = 4, f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4, and f (4) = 2. Since none of these is zero,
f (x) has no factor x − a for any a ∈ Z5 . Assume that f (x) = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d) for
some a, b, c, d ∈ Z5 . Thus

f (x) = x4 + x2 + x + 1 = x4 + (a + c)x3 + (ac + b + d)x2 + (ad + bc)x + bd.

52 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Hence, a + c = 0 which implies that a = −c and bd = 1. Thus (b, d) = (1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), or
(4, 4). Also, (ad + bc) = a(d − b) = 1. Therefore, (b, d, a) = (2, 3, 1) or (3, 2, 4). But in both
cases ac + b + d = 4 6= 1. Therefore, f (x) is irreducible over Z5 .

Example 2.3.4

Factor f (x) = x3 + 2x + 2 in Z7 [x].

Solution:

We first try to find a root for f (x) in Z7 . Clearly, f (2) = 14 = 0. Thus, x − 2 is a factor for
f (x). We now use the Division Algorithm to divide f (x) by x − 2:

x2 + 2x + 6

Thus, f (x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 6). Let g(x) = x2 + 2x + 6. x − 2 x3 + 2x + 2

We further look for a root of g(x). Clearly, g(2) = 14 = 0. x3 − 2x2

Thus, 2 is a root of g(x), and hence g(x) = (x − 2)(x + 4). 2x2 + 2x + 2

Therefore, 2x2 − 4x
6x + 2
2 2
f (x) = (x − 2) (x + 4) = (x + 4)(x + 5) . 6x − 12
0

Example 2.3.5

Factor f (x) = x4 + 2 in Z3 [x].

Solution:

Clearly,
f (x) = x4 + 2 = x4 − 1 = (x2 − 1)(x2 + 1) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1).

x2 + 1 is irreducible in Z3 [x] as it has no roots in Z3 . Therefore,

f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1) = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x2 + 1).

2.3. Factorization of Polynomials 53

Theorem 2.3.6: Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion

Assume that p is a prime, f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ Z[x], p | ai for 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, p2 - a0

and p - an . Then f (x) is irreducible over Z.

Example 2.3.6: #36.23 @page : 172

Show that each of the following polynomials is irreducible in Z[x]:

1. f (x) = x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 3, and

2. g(x) = x5 − 5x3 + 15.

Solution:

1. Take p = 3, p | 3, 3, 6 and p2 - 3 and p - 1. Hence f (x) is irreducible over Z.

2. Take p = 5, p | 15, −5 and p2 - 15 and p - 1. Hence g(x) is irreducible over Z.

Theorem 2.3.7

If f (x) ∈ Z[x], then f (x) factors into a product of two polynomials of lower degrees m and n
in Q[x] if and only if it has such a factorization with polynomials of the same degrees m and
n in Z[x].

Corollary 2.3.2

If f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ∈ Z[x] with a0 6= 0, and if f (x) has a zero in Q, then it has a

zero m in Z, and m must divide a0 .

Example 2.3.7

Show that f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 8x + 1 is irreducible over Q.

Solution:

Assume that f (x) has a zero in Q (linear factor), then f (x) has a zero m in Z that divides
+1. Thus, the only two possibilities are ±1. But f (1) = 8 and f (−1) = −8. That is f (x)
has no linear factor in Q[x].
If we assume that f (x) can be factored in two quadratic factors in Q[x], then it has a fac-
54 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

torization Then if f (x) = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d) ∈ Z[x]. Equating the coefficients, we

get
bd = 1, ad + bc = 8, ac + b + d = 2, and a + c = 0,

for integer a, b, c, d ∈ Z. Since bd = 1 then b = d = 1 or b = d = −1 in either cases, we have

b = d. Hence, ad + bc = b(a + c) = 8. But this is impossible since a + c = 8. Therefore, f (x)
can not be factored in two quadratic polynomials.
Therefore, f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
2.3. Factorization of Polynomials 55

Exercise 2.3.1

Use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute (f (x), g(x)), where f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 2, and
g(x) = x2 − 5x + 6 over Q.

Exercise 2.3.2

Use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute (f (x), g(x)), where f (x) = x4 + x3 − 4x2 − 2x + 4,
and g(x) = x2 + x − 1 over Q.

Exercise 2.3.3

Prove or disprove: a polynomial ax + b is irreducible in R[x], where R is a ring.

Exercise 2.3.4

Show that f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3 is irreducible in Z5 [x].

Exercise 2.3.5

Express f (x) = x4 + x as a product of irreducible polynomials in Z5 [x].

Exercise 2.3.6

Use the Euclidean Algorithm to compute (f (x), g(x)), where f (x) = x3 − 2x + 1, and g(x) =
x2 − x − 2 over Z5 .

Exercise 2.3.7

Factor f (x) = x4 + 1 over Z2 .

Exercise 2.3.8

Let F be a field, and f (x) ∈ F [x]. Show that f (x) is irreducible over F iff f (x + c) is
irreducible over F , for any c ∈ F . You may use a contrapositive proof in both directions.
56 Chapter 2. Ring of Polynomials

Exercise 2.3.9: #36.24 @page : 173

Use Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion to show that if p is a prime, then the

xp − 1
f (x) = = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1,
x−1

is irreducible over Z. ”Try to substitute x = y + 1”.

Exercise 2.3.10

Show that f (x) = x2 + 8x − 2 is irreducible over Q.

Exercise 2.3.11

Show that f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 8 is irreducible over Q.

Exercise 2.3.12

Show that f (x) = x4 − 22x2 + 1 is irreducible over Q.

Exercise 2.3.13

Show that for a prime p, f (x) = xp + a ∈ Zp [x] is not irreducible for any a ∈ Zp .
 Chapter

3 Quotient Rings

Section 3.1: Homomorphism of Rings and Ideals

Definition 3.1.1

If R and S are rings, then a mapping θ : R → S is a (ring) homomorphism if for all a, b ∈ R

θ(a + b) = θ(a) + θ(b), and θ(ab) = θ(a)θ(b).

Note that if θ : R → S is a ring homomorphism, then θ is a group homomorphism from the

additive group of R to the additive group of S. That is, θ(0R ) = 0S and θ(−a) = −θ(a) for all a ∈ R.

Example 3.1.1

Show that θ : Z → Zn defined by θ(a) = [a] is a ring homomorphism.

Solution:

Clearly θ is a ring homomorphism since for any a, b ∈ R, we have:

θ(a + b) = [a + b] = [a] + [b] = θ(a) + θ(b), and

θ(ab) = [ab] = [a][b] = θ(a)θ(b).

Example 3.1.2: Projection Homomorphism

Let R and S be two rings. Show that π1 : R × S → R and π2 : R × S → S, defined by

π(r, s) = r and π2 (r, s) = s are ring homomorphism.

Solution:

We show that π1 is a ring homomorphism: Let (r1 , s1 ), (r2 , s2 ) ∈ R × S. Then

π1 ((r1 , s1 ) + (r2 , s2 )) = π1 (r1 + r2 , s1 + s2 ) = r1 + r2 = π1 (r1 , s1 ) + π1 (r2 , s2 ), and

π1 ((r1 , s1 )(r2 , s2 )) = π1 (r1 r2 , s1 s2 ) = r1 r2 = π1 (r1 , s1 )π1 (r2 , s2 ).

Thus, π1 is a ring homomorphism. The proof for π2 is similar.

57
58 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Definition 3.1.2

Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. The kernel of θ, ker θ, is the set of all elements
r ∈ R such that θ(r) = 0S .

Note that the kernel of ring homomorphism θ : R → S is just the kernel of θ as a homomorphism
of the additive group of the rings. Recall that ker θ is a (normal) subgroup of the additive group of
R. In rings, ker θ is forming a subring of R that is called an ideal.

Definition 3.1.3

A subring I of a ring R is called an ideal of R if ar ∈ I and ra ∈ I for all a ∈ I and all

r ∈ R.

We note that if R is a commutative ring, then the conditions ra and ar are equivalent. Moreover,
recall that I is being a subring of R means that I is being closed under multiplication and subtraction.
Thus, we get the following Theorem.

Theorem 3.1.1

A nonempty set I in a ring R is an ideal iff it satisfies:

1. if a, b ∈ I, then a − b ∈ I, and
2. if r ∈ R and a ∈ I, then ar ∈ I and ra ∈ I.

1
Note that Z is a subring of Q, but Z is not an ideal of Q since 1 ∈ Z and 2
∈ Q, but 1 · 12 = 1
2
6∈ Z.

Theorem 3.1.2: Analogue Homomorphism Properties From Math-261

Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then:

1. θ(0R ) = 0S .
2. θ(−a) = −θ(a) for all a ∈ R.
3. If N is a subring of R, then θ(N ) is a subring of S.
4. If M is a subring of S, then θ−1 (M ) is a subring of R.
5. If R has a unity e, then θ(e) is unity of θ(R).
6. ker θ is a subring of R.
7. θ is one-to-one iff ker θ = {0R }.
3.1. Homomorphism of Rings and Ideals 59

Theorem 3.1.3

Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then

1. θ(R) is a subring of S.
2. ker θ is an ideal of R.

Proof:

Clearly, θ(R) is an additive group of S (From Math-261). So θ(R) is not empty, closed under
addition, and contains the negative of each of its elements.

1. We use Theorem 3.1.2 with R itself a subring of R.

2. Note that ker θ is a subring of R by Theorem 3.1.2. So, we only show that ar, ra ∈ ker θ
for all r ∈ R and a ∈ ker θ. If a ∈ ker θ and r ∈ R, then θ(ar) = θ(a)θ(r) = 0 · θ(r) = 0.
Thus, ar ∈ ker θ. Similarly ra ∈ ker θ. Therefore, ker θ is an ideal of R.

Example 3.1.3

If θ : Z → Zn is defined by θ(a) = [a], then ker θ = {kn : k ∈ Z} ≈ nZ is an ideal of Z.

If π1 : R × S → R is defined by π1 (r, s) = r, then ker θ = {(0, s) : s ∈ S} ≈ S. This is the
ideal of R × S.

Example 3.1.4

Show that θ : Z6 → Z3 defined by θ([a]6 ) = [a]3 is a ring homomorphism and find its kernel.
Is the mapping f : Z3 → Z6 defined by f ([a]3 ) = [a]6 well-defined? Explain.

Solution:

Let [a], [b] ∈ Z6 . Then

• θ([a]6 + [b]6 ) = θ([a + b]6 ) = [a + b]3 = [a]3 + [b]3 = θ([a]6 ) + θ([b]6 ).

• θ([a]6 [b]6 ) = θ([ab]6 ) = [ab]3 = [a]3 [b]3 = θ([a]6 )θ([b]6 ).

Therefore, θ is a ring homomorphism. Further, ker θ = {[a]6 ∈ Z6 : θ([a]6 ) = [a]3 = [0]3 }.

Thus, 3 | a and hence a = 3k, k ∈ Z. Thus ker θ = {[0], [3]} ⊆ Z6 .
Note that f is not well-defined since [0]3 = [3]3 , but f ([0]3 ) 6= f ([3]3 ) as [0]6 6= [3]6 .
In general, the mapping f : Zm → Zn defined by θ([a]m ) = [a]n is well-defined whenever
n | m.
60 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.1.5

Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism with θ(R) 6= {0}. Show that if R has a unity e and
S has no zero divisors, then θ(e) is the unity of S.

Solution:

By Theorem 3.1.2, θ(e) is the unity of θ(R) 6= {0}. If θ(e) = 0, then for any r ∈ R we have
θ(r) = θ(re) = θ(r)θ(e) = 0 and hence θ(R) = {0} which is not the case. Then we may
assume that θ(e) 6= 0. Assume that e0 is the unity of S. Then e0 θ(e) = θ(e) = θ(e)θ(e) which
implies that (e0 − θ(e))θ(e) = 0. Since, S has no zero divisors and θ(e) 6= 0, then e0 − θ(e) = 0
and hence e0 = θ(e).
3.1. Homomorphism of Rings and Ideals 61

Exercise 3.1.1

Determine whether θ : Z → Z defined by θ(a) = a2 is a ring homomorphism? If so, find its

kernel.

Exercise 3.1.2
   
a b  a c 
Determine whether θ : M2 (Z) → M2 (Z) defined by θ = is a ring homomor-
c d b d
phism? If so, find its kernel.

Exercise 3.1.3: #38.7 @page : 180

Show that if R and S are rings, and θ : R → S is defined by θ(r) = 0S for each r ∈ R, then θ
is a ring homomorphism.

Exercise 3.1.4: #38.8 @page : 180

Let R and S be two rings.

1. Show that the mapping π1 : R × S → R defined by π1 (r, s) = r is a homomorphism.

2. Show that ker π1 ≈ S.

Exercise 3.1.5: #38.9 @page : 180

Show that if R is a commutative ring and θ : R → S is a ring homomorphism, then θ(R) is

commutative.

Exercise 3.1.6: #38.10 @page : 180

Show that if R is a ring with unity e, then every homomorphic image of R has a unity.

Exercise 3.1.7

Let R be a ring with unity e, and let I be an ideal of R. If I contains a unit u of R, then
I = R.
62 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Exercise 3.1.8

Let θ : R → S be a ring homomorphism and let N be an ideal of R. Show that θ(N ) is an

ideal of θ(R).

Exercise 3.1.9

Let θ be a homomorphism of a ring R with unity e onto a nonzero ring S. Let u be a unit in
R. Show that θ(u) is a unit in S.
 3.2. More on Ideals 63

Section 3.2: More on Ideals

Definition 3.2.1

Let R be a commutative ring with unity e, and let a ∈ R. Then (a) is the set of all multiple
of a by elements of R. That is (a) = {ra : r ∈ R}. A set of the form (a) is an ideal of R and
this ideal is called a principal ideal.

Theorem 3.2.1

Every ideal of Zn is a principal ideal.

Theorem 3.2.2

Let R be a commutative ring with a ∈ R. The set (a) is an ideal of R. It is called the
principal ideal of R generated by a. Moreover, (a) is the smallest ideal of R containing a.

Proof:

We simply prove the conditions of Theorem 3.1.1:

1. Clearly, 0 = 0a ∈ (a) 6= φ.
2. If ra, sa ∈ (a) for some r, s ∈ R, then ra − sa = (r − s)a ∈ (a) as r − s ∈ R.
3. If ra ∈ (a) and s ∈ R, then s(ra) = (sr)a ∈ (a) as sr ∈ R. Therefore, (a) is an ideal of
R. It is clear that if I is an ideal containing a, then I must contains all multiple of a.
That is, (a) ⊆ I.

We note that if R is any ring, then (0) and R are ideals of R.

Example 3.2.1

Show that if F is a field, then F has no ideals other than (0) and F .

Solution:

Assume that I 6= (0) is an ideal of F . We will show that I = F . Let 0 6= a ∈ I. Then a−1 ∈ F
(F is field). If e is the unity of F , then e = a−1 a ∈ I since I is an ideal of F . Thus for any
r ∈ F , r = re ∈ I. Therefore, I = F .
64 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.2.2: #38.15 @page : 181

Show that if R is a commutative ring with unity e, and R has no ideals other than (0) and
R, then R is a field.

Solution:

For each 0 6= a ∈ R, we have a ∈ (a) 6= {0} and hence (a) = R. We show that R is a field
by showing that each nonzero element in (a) = R has a multiplicative inverse. Note that
e ∈ R = (a). Thus, there is r ∈ R with ra = e ∈ (a). Thus, for each nonzero element a, we
have r ∈ R such that ra = e. Thus each nonzero element in R has a multiplicative inverse in
R. We now need to show that R has no zero divisors. Assume that ab = 0 and a 6= 0 for any
a, b ∈ R. Then a−1 ab = a−1 0 = 0. Then b = 0. Therefore, R has no zero divisors and hence
R is a field.

Example 3.2.3: #38.17 @page : 181

Prove that if I is an ideal of Z, then either I = (0) or I = (n), where n is the least positive
integer in I.

Solution:

If I = {0}, then I = (0). Otherwise I 6= (0). Let 0 6= a ∈ I, and hence −a ∈ I as it is ideal.

Clearly, either a or −a is positive in I. That is, I contains a positive integer.
Let n be the least positive integer in I. By addition closure of rings, (n) ⊆ I. So we need
only to show that I ⊆ (n). Let a ∈ I. Then by the division algorithm there are r, s ∈ Z such
that a = rn + s and 0 ≤ s < n. But since n is the least positive element, we have s = 0. That
is a = rn and hence a ∈ (n). Thus I ⊆ (n) and therefore I = (n).

Definition 3.2.2

An ideal P of a commutative ring R is a prime if P 6= R and for all a, b ∈ R, ab ∈ P implies

that a ∈ P or b ∈ P .

Definition 3.2.3

An ideal M of a ring R is a maximal if M 6= R and there is no ideal I of R such that

M $ I $ R.
3.2. More on Ideals 65

Example 3.2.4

Let m and n be nonzero integers. Show that (m) ⊆ (n) iff n | m.

Solution:

” ⇒ ”: Assume that (m) ⊆ (n). Then m ∈ (m) ⊆ (n) and hence m ∈ (n). Thus, m = nk for
some k ∈ Z. Therefore, n | m.
” ⇐ ”: Assume that n | m. Then m = nk for some k ∈ Z. Thus, m ∈ (n) since (m) is the
smallest ideal of Z containing m, we have (m) ⊆ (n).

Example 3.2.5: #39.7 @page : 184

Show that if n is a positive integer, then (n) is a prime ideal of Z iff n is a prime.

Solution:

” ⇒ ”: Suppose that n is not a prime. Then there are a, b ∈ Z such that ab = n where
1 < a, b < n. Clearly, ab ∈ (ab) = (n). Thus, ab | ab, but ab - a and ab - b. Hence (ab) is not
a prime ideal of Z.
” ⇐ ”: Assume that n is a prime. If ab ∈ (n), then n | ab which implies that n | a or n | b.
That is a ∈ (n) or b ∈ (n). Therefore, (n) is a prime ideal of Z.

Theorem 3.2.3

If F is a field, then every ideal of F [x] is principal.

Proof:

Let I be an ideal of F [x]. If I = {0}, then I = (0) and we are done. Otherwise, assume that
I 6= {0}. Let f (x) be a nonzero element of I of minimal degree. If the degree of f (x) is 0
(constant element), then f (x) ∈ F and is a unit (F is a field). Thus I = F = (e). Assume
that the degree of f (x) is at least 1. Let g(x) ∈ I. Then by the Division Algorithm there are
q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] such that g(x) = f (x)q(x)+r(x) with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg f (x). Since
g(x), f (x)q(x) ∈ I, we have r(x) = g(x) − f (x)q(x) ∈ I (ideal properties). But since f (x) is
of minimal degree in I, we get r(x) = 0 and hence g(x) = f (x)q(x). Therefore, I = (f (x)).
66 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.2.6

Determine all of the ideals of Z6 , Z9 , and Z12 .

Solution:

Recall that all ideals of Zn is principal. Thus for Z6 we have

(0) = 6Z6 = {0},

(1) = Z6 = (5), where (5, 6) = 1

(2) = 2Z6 = {0, 2, 4} = (4),

(3) = 3Z6 = {0, 3}.

Note that 1, 2, 3, and 6 are divisors of 6. While the divisors of 9 are 1, 3, and 9 and hence for
Z9 we have

(0) = 9Z9 = {0},

(1) = Z9 = (2) = (4) = (5) = (7) = (8), and

(3) = 3Z9 = {0, 3, 6} = (6).

And the divisors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Thus the ideals of Z12 are:

(0) = 12Z12 = {0},

(1) = Z12 = (5) = (7) = (11),

(2) = 2Z12 = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} = (10),

(3) = 3Z12 = {0, 3, 6, 9} = (9),

(4) = 4Z12 = {0, 4, 8} = (8), and

(6) = 6Z12 = {0, 6}.

3.2. More on Ideals 67

Exercise 3.2.1: #38.12 @page : 180

Show that every subring of Z is an ideal of Z.

Exercise 3.2.2: #38.13 @page : 180

Show that the constant polynomials in Z[x] form a subring that is not an ideal of Z[x].

Exercise 3.2.3: #38.14 @page : 181

Show that if R is a commutative ring with unity e, and a ∈ R, then (a) is the smallest ideal
of R containing a.

Exercise 3.2.4: Non-principal ideal #38.18 @page : 181

Let I denote the set of all polynomials in Z[x] that have an even number as the constant
term.

1. Show that I is an ideal of Z[x].

2. Show that I is not a princial ideal of Z[x].

Exercise 3.2.5

If R is a commutative ring and a ∈ R, show that Ia = {x ∈ R : ax = 0} is an ideal of R.

Exercise 3.2.6
  
x y
 
Given the set S =  0
: x, y, z ∈ Z is a ring with respect to matrix addition and
z
  
a b
 
multiplication. Show that I = : a, b ∈ Z is an ideal of S.
 0 0 

Exercise 3.2.7

Show that the set of all nilpotent elements in a commutative ring R forms an ideal of R.
68 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Exercise 3.2.8

Let R be a commutative ring with unity and that I is an ideal of R. Show that S =
{a ∈ R : an ∈ I, for some n ∈ N} is an ideal of R.

Exercise 3.2.9: #38.20 @page : 181

Prove that if F is a field, R is a ring, and θ : F → R is a ring homomorphism, then either θ

is one-to-one or θ(a) = 0 for all a ∈ F .
 3.3. Quotient Rings 69

Section 3.3: Quotient Rings

Remark 3.3.1

If I is an ideal of a ring R, then I is a normal subgroup of the additive group of R. This is

because the additive group of R is abelian by definition of rings.

Theorem 3.3.1

Let I be an ideal of a ring R, and let R / I denote the set of all left cosets of I considered as
a subgroup of the additive subgroup of R. For a + I, b + I ∈ R / I, for any a, b ∈ R let

(a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I, and (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I.

With these operations, R / I is a ring. This ring is called the quotient ring of R by I.

Proof:

From Math-261, R / I is an abelian (quotient) group. Now let a + I, b + I, c + I ∈ R / I, then

[(a + I)(b + I)](c + I) = (ab + I)(c + I) = (ab)c + I = a(bc) + I

= (a + I) + (bc + I) = (a + I)[(b + I)(c + I)].

Thus, multiplication is associative on R / I. Moreover,

(a + I)[(b + I) + (c + I)] = (a + I)[(b + c) + I] = a(b + c) + I = (ab + ac) + I

= (ab + I) + (ac + I) = (a + I)(b + I) + (a + I)(c + I).

Thus, the left distribution law is satisfied. The proof of right distribution law is similar.
Therefore R / I is ring.

Theorem 3.3.2

Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. Then,

1. If R is commutative, then R / I is commutative.

2. If e is the unity of R, then e + I is the unity of R / I.
70 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.3.1: #39.6 @page : 183

Show that if I is an ideal of a ring R, then R / I is commutative iff ab − ba ∈ I for all a, b ∈ R.

Solution:

Let a, b ∈ R and a + I, b + I ∈ R / I. Then,

(a + I)(b + I) = (b + I)(a + I) iff ab + I = ba + I

iff (ab + I) − (ba + I) = 0 + I

iff (ab − ba) + I = 0 + I = I

iff ab − ba ∈ I.

Theorem 3.3.3

If R is a ring and I is an ideal of R, then the mapping θ : R → R / I defined by θ(a) = a + I,

for each a ∈ R, is a homomorphism of R onto R / I, and ker θ = I.

Proof:

For any a, b ∈ R, we have:

• θ(a + b) = (a + b) + I = (a + I) + (b + I) = θ(a) + θ(b).

• θ(ab) = ab + I = (a + I)(b + I) = θ(a)θ(b).

Therefore, θ is a homomorphism, and for any a + I ∈ R / I, we have a ∈ R with θ(a) = a + I.

Thus θ is a homomorphism onto R / I. To show that ker θ = I, note that

a ∈ ker θ iff θ(a) = 0 + I iff a + I = 0 + I = I iff a ∈ I.

Theorem 3.3.4: The Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem For Rings

Let R and S be rings, and let θ : R → S be a homomorphism from R onto S with ker θ = I.
Then the mapping φ : R / I → S defined by

φ(a + I) = θ(a), for each a + I ∈ R / I

is an isomorphism of R / I onto S. Therefore, R / I ≈ S.

3.3. Quotient Rings 71

Theorem 3.3.5

Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Then:

1. If M 6= R is an ideal of R, then M is maximal iff R / M is a field.

2. If P 6= R is an ideal of R, then P is prime iff R / P is an integral domain.
3. Every maximal ideal of R is a prime ideal of R.

Proof:

1. ” ⇒ ”: Let M be a maximal ideal of R. We show that is a + M ∈ R / M is a nonzero

element, then it has a multiplicative inverse b + M such that (a + M )(b + M ) = e + M .
Note that a + M 6= 0 + M iff a 6∈ M . Let J = {r + ax : r ∈ M and x ∈ R} be an ideal
of R that contains properly M . But since M is maximal, we have J = R and hence
e ∈ J. Therefore, e = r + ab for some r ∈ M and b ∈ R. Thus

(a + M )(b + M ) − (e + M ) = (ab − e) + M = (−r) + M = M = 0 + M.

That is (a + M )(b + M ) = e + M . Therefore, R / M is a field.

” ⇐ ”: Suppose R / M is a field and M $ J for some ideal J. We need to show J = R.
As J 6= M , there is some a ∈ J − M . Then clearly a 6= 0 since 0 ∈ M . As R / M is
a field, there is b ∈ R such that (a + M )(b + M ) = e + M = (b + M )(a + M ). Thus,
ab + M = e + M . That is ab − e ∈ M . But then ab ∈ J and ab − e ∈ M ⊂ J implies
that e = ab − (ab − e) ∈ J. Therefore, J = R which implies that M is maximal.
2. We note that the zero of R / P is 0 + P = P . Then R / P is an integral domain iff
(a + P )(b + P ) = 0 + P implies a + P = P or b + P = P iff ab + P = P implies a + P = P
or b + P = P iff ab ∈ P implies a ∈ P or b ∈ P iff P is a prime ideal of R.
3. Assume that M is a maximal ideal of R. Then R / M is a field and hence it is an integral
domain. Therefore, M is a prime ideal of R.

Example 3.3.2

What are prime and maximal ideals of Z6 and Z12 .

72 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Exercise 3.3.1

Show that if R is a finite commutative ring with unity, then every prime ideal in R is maximal.

Exercise 3.3.2

Consider the ring R = Z[x] and let I = (x) = {xf (x) : f (x) ∈ R} be an ideal of R. Show
that R / I ≈ Z.
Hint: Use the Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem For Rings with θ : R → Z defined by
θ(an xn + · · · + a0 ) = a0 .

Exercise 3.3.3: Part of #39.9 @page : 184

Let I and J be two ideals of a ring R, and define I + J = {a + b : a ∈ I and b ∈ J}. Then

1. Show that I + J is an ideal of R containing each of I and J.

2. Show that I (or equivalently J) is an ideal of I + J.
3. Show that I ∩ J is an ideal of I (or equivalently J).
4. Show that if J ⊆ I, then I / J is an ideal of R / J.
5. The First Isomorphism Theorem For Rings: Show that I / (I ∩ J) ≈ (I + J) / J.
6. The Second Isomorphism Theorem For Rings: Show that if J ⊆ I, then I / J is
an ideal of R / J, and (R / J) / (I / J) ≈ R / I.
 3.4. Quotient Rings of F[x] 73

Section 3.4: Quotient Rings of F[x]

Theorem 3.4.1

For a field F an ideal I = (p(x)) 6= {0} of F [x] is maximal iff p(x) is irreducible in F [x].

Proof:

” ⇒ ”: Since I is a maximal ideal of F [x], it is a prime ideal. If p(x) = f (x)g(x) is a

factorization of p(x) in F [x]. Then either f (x) ∈ I or g(x) ∈ I. Thus either f (x) a multiple
of p(x) or g(x) is a multiple of p(x). But then we cannot have the degrees of both f (x) and
g(x) less than the degree of p(x). Therefore no such factorization exist and hence p(x) is
irreducible in F [x].
” ⇐ ”: Assume that p(x) is irreducible over F . Let N be an ideal so that I ⊆ N ⊆ F [x]. Now
N is a principal ideal of F [x] (Since F is a field). Thus N = (g(x)) for some g(x) ∈ N . Then
p(x) ∈ N implies that p(x) = g(x)q(x) for some q(x) ∈ F [x]. But since p(x) is irreducible,
we must have either g(x) or q(x) is of degree 0. If deg g(x) = 0, then it is a nonzero constant
(unit) in F and hence (g(x)) = N = F [x]. If deg q(x) = 0, then q(x) = c and hence
g(x) = c−1 p(x) ∈ (p(x)). So (p(x)) = N . Therefore, it is not possible to have I ⊆ N ⊆ F [x].
Thus (p(x)) is maximal ideal of F [x].

Theorem 3.4.2

If F is a field and p(x) is a nonzero element in F [x], then F [x] / I is a field iff (p(x)) is maximal
of F [x] iff p(x) is irreducible over F .

Example 3.4.1

Find all c ∈ Z3 such that Z3 [x] / (x2 + c) is a field.

Solution:

Simply Z3 [x] / (x2 + c) is a field iff x2 + c is irreducible over Z3 . Let f (x) = x2 ∈ Z3 [x]. Then
f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, and f (2) = 1. We need to find a value for c ∈ Z3 so that 0 + c and 1 + c
are both nonzero. Therefore c = 1.
74 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.4.2

Find all c ∈ Z3 such that Z3 [x] / (x3 + cx2 + 1) is a field.

Solution:

Simply Z3 [x] / (x3 + cx2 + 1) is a field iff f (x) = x3 + cx2 + 1 is irreducible over Z3 . If c = 0,
then f (2) = 0 and when c = 1, then f (1) = 0. But if c = 2, we get f (x) = x3 + 2x + 1 with
no zeros. Thus c = 2 is the only choice.

Theorem 3.4.3

Assume that F is a field, p(x) is a polynomial of degree n over F , and I = (p(x)) is an ideal
of F [x]. Then each element of F [x] / I can be expressed uniquely in the form

(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn−1 xn−1 ) + I, with b0 , b1 , · · · , bn−1 ∈ F. (3.4.1)

Moreover, {b + I : b ∈ F } is a subfield of F [x] / I isomorphic to F .

Proof:

If f (x) + I ∈ F [x] / I, then by the Division Algorithm, f (x) = p(x)q(x) + r(x) for some
q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg p(x). Thus, f (x) − r(x) = p(x)q(x) ∈ I,
and hence f (x) + I = r(x) + I. Therefore, each element of F [x] / I can be expressed in at
least one way in the form (3.4.1).
On the other hand, if

(b0 + b1 x + · · · bn−1 xn−1 ) + I = (c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn−1 xn−1 ) + I,

then
(b0 − c0 ) + (b1 − c1 )x + · · · + (bn−1 − cn−1 )xn−1 ∈ I,

so that p(x) divides (b0 − c0 ) + · · · + (bn−1 − cn−1 )xn−1 . But since deg p(x) = n > n − 1, we
have (b0 − c0 ) + · · · + (bn−1 − cn−1 )xn−1 = 0. Therefore, b0 = c0 , b1 = c1 , · · · , bn−1 = cn−1 . This
proves uniqueness.
Let θ : F → E, defined by θ(b) = b + I, where E = {b + I : b ∈ F }, where b is a polynomial
of degree at most n − 1. Clearly, θ is onto homomorphism. Also θ is one-to-one as it is proved
above. Therefore, θ is an isomorphism and then E ≈ F .
3.4. Quotient Rings of F[x] 75

Remark 3.4.1

The proof of the previous Theorem shows that if f (x) ∈ F [x], and if f (x) = p(x)q(x) + r(x)
with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg p(x), then f (x) + I = r(x) + I. This allows us to represent
elements of F [x] / (p(x)) by polynomials of degree less than deg p(x).

Example 3.4.3

Construct the field C from the field R. Or: Let I = (1 + x2 ). Show that R[x] / I ≈ C.

Solution:

Let p(x) = 1 + x2 and I = (p(x)). Note that p(x) is irreducible over R and hence R[x] / I is
a field. By Theorem 3.4.3, each element of R[x] / I can be written uniquely as (a + bx) + I
with a, b ∈ R.
Define θ : R[x] / I → C by θ((a + bx) + I) = a + bi. Then we show that θ an isomorphism:

• θ is 1-1: Let θ((a + bx) + I) = θ((c + dx) + I). Then a + bi = c + di which implies that
a = c and b = d. Thus, a + bx = c + dx and hence the result.
• θ is onto: For any a + bi ∈ C, a, b ∈ R with θ((a + bx) + I) = a + bi. Thus, θ is onto.
• θ is homomorphism: Let (a + bx) + I, (c + dx) + I ∈ R[x] / I. Then:

θ((a + bx) + I + (c + dx) + I) = θ(((a + c) + (b + d)x) + I) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

= (a + bi) + (c + di)

= θ((a + bx) + I) + θ((c + dx) + I).

For multiplication, we have:

θ(((a + bx) + I)((c + dx) + I)) = θ((ac + (ad + bc)x + (bd)x2 ) + I).

So, we use Theorem 3.4.3 to represent (ac + (ad + bc)x + (bd)x2 ) + I as (u + vx) + I. We use
long division to get: ac + (ad + bc)x + (bd)x2 = (1 + x2 )bd + (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)x. So that
u + vx = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)x. Thus,

θ(((a + bx) + I)((c + dx) + I)) = θ((ac + (ad + bc)x + (bdx2 ) + I)

= θ(((ac − bd) + (ad + bc)x) + I) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i

= (a + bi)(c + di) = θ((a + bx) + I)θ((c + dx) + I).

Therefore, θ is an isomorphism and hence R[x] / I ≈ C.

76 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings

Example 3.4.4

Show that if F is a field, then every proper nontrivial prime ideal of F [x] is maximal.

Solution:

Recall that every ideal of F [x] is principal. Let (f (x)) 6= {0} be a proper prime ideal of F [x].
Then every polynomial in (f (x)) is of degree greater than or equal to degree of f (x). Thus if
f (x) = g(x)h(x) ∈ F [x] where deg g(x) and deg h(x) are less than deg f (x), then neither g(x)
nor h(x) can be in (f (x)). But this contradict the definition of prime ideals. Therefore, no
factorization of f (x) in F [x] can exist. That is f (x) is irreducible in F [x]. Therefore, (f (x))
is maximal ideal in F [x].
3.4. Quotient Rings of F[x] 77

Exercise 3.4.1: #40.1 @page : 187

Show that if F is a field with unity e, and I is an ideal of F [x], then F [x] / I is commutative
with unity e + I.

Exercise 3.4.2: #40.2 @page : 187

Prove that if F is a field and f (x), p(x) ∈ F [x], with p(x) is irreducible and p(x) - f (x), then
(p(x), f (x)) = e, the unity of F .

Exercise 3.4.3: #40.5 @page : 187

Prove that if F is a subfield of a field E, c ∈ E, then θ : F [x] → E defined by θ(f (x)) = f (c)
is a homomorphism.

Exercise 3.4.4: #40.11 @page : 187

Suppose that F is a field and f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x]. Show that (f (x)) = (g(x)) iff f (x) and g(x)
are associates.

Exercise 3.4.5

Find all c ∈ Z3 such that Z3 [x] / (x3 + x2 + c) is a field.

Exercise 3.4.6

Find all c ∈ Z5 such that Z5 [x] / (x2 + x + c) is a field.

Exercise 3.4.7

Find all c ∈ Z5 such that Z5 [x] / (x2 + cx + 1) is a field.

78 Chapter 3. Quotient Rings
 Chapter

4 Field Extension

Section 4.1: Adjoining Roots

Definition 4.1.1

A field E is called an extension of a field F , if E contains a subfield isomorphic to F . Often,

F is thought of as actually being a subfield of E. Further, Any field is an extension of itself.

For instance, R is an extension of Q, and C is an extension of both R and Q.

Theorem 4.1.1

Let F be a field and let f (x) be a nonconstant polynomial in F [x]. Then there exists an
extension field E of F and an a ∈ E such that f (a) = 0.

Let E be an extension of a field F . Assume that F ⊆ E. Let S be a subset of E. Then there is

at least one subfield of E containing both F and S, namely E. Let F (S) denote the intersection of
all subfields of E containing both F and S. Then F (S) is a subfield of E. Moreover, if S ⊆ F , then
F (S) = F .

If S = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an }, then F (a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) denotes F (S). For example, R(i) = C. In other-

words, F (S) consists of all the element in E that can be obtained from F and S by repeated addition,
multiplication, and taking additive and multiplicative inverses in E. If E = F (a) for some a ∈ E,
then E is said to be a simple extension of F .

Definition 4.1.2

An element a of an extension field E of a field F is algebraic over F if f (a) = 0 for some

nonzero f (x) ∈ F [x]. If a is not algebraic over F , then a is transcendental over F .
The extension field E of F is called a simple extension of F if E = F (a) for some a ∈ E.
If a is algebraic over F , then E is called a simple algebraic extension of F . Further, E is
called an algebraic extension of F if every element in E is algebraic over F .

79
80 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Theorem 4.1.2

If E is an extension field of a field F , with E = F (a) and a algebraic over F , then there is a
unique (up to a constant factor in F ) irreducible nonconstant polynomial of minimal degree
in F [x] having a as a root. That is

E ≈ F [x] / (p(x)),

Moreover, if f (a) = 0 for a nonzero f (x) ∈ F [x], then p(x) divides f (x).

Definition 4.1.3

Let E be an extension field of a field F , and let a ∈ E be algebraic over F . The unique monic
polynomial p(x) having the property described in Theorem 4.1.2 is called the irreducible
polynomial for a over F and will be denoted by irr(a, F ). The degree of irr(a, F ) is the
degree of a over F , denoted by deg(a, F ).

Remark 4.1.1

Theorem 3.4.3 states that if F is a field and p(x) ∈ F [x] is irreducible over F , then each
element of F [x] / (p(x)) can be expressed uniquely in the form

(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn−1 xn−1 ) + I, with b0 , b1 , · · · , bn−1 ∈ F. (4.1.1)

That is as α = x + I, each element in F [x] / (p(x)) can be expressed uniquely as

b0 + b1 α + · · · + bn−1 αn−1 , with b0 , b1 , · · · , bn−1 ∈ F. (4.1.2)

Example 4.1.1

The polynomial p(x) = x2 − 2 is irreducible over Q. Thus, Q[x] / (p(x)) is an extension field
√
of Q, which contains a root α of p(x). Clearly, 2 is a root of p(x) which is algebraic over Q.
√ √
To see that, α = 2 implies that α2 = 2 and hence α2 − 2 = 0. Therefore, α = 2 is a root
for p(x) = x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x].
Thus, each element in Q[x] / (p(x)) can be written uniquely in the form a + bα, where a, b ∈ Q
√ 
and α = x + (x2 − 2). Moreover, irr 2, Q = x2 − 2 with degree 2.
4.1. Adjoining Roots 81

Theorem 4.1.3

Assume that F is a field and p(x) ∈ F [x] is irreducible over F . Then F [x] / (p(x)) is a field
extension of F , and p(x) has a root in F [x] / (p(x)).

Proof:

Let I = (p(x)). Since F is a field and p(x) is irreducible in F [x], then F [x] / I is a field. Note
that {b + I : b ∈ F } is a subfield of F [x] / I that is isomorphic to F . Hence F [x] / I is an
extension of F .
Assume that p(x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , and let α denote the element x + I ∈ F [x] / I.
Then

p(α) = a0 + a1 (x + I) + · · · an (x + I)n

= (a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) + I = p(x) + I = I

But I is the zero element in F [x] / I. Thus α is a root of p(x) in F [x] / I.

Corollary 4.1.1

Assume that F is a field and p(x) ∈ F [x] is irreducible over F . Then F [x] / (p(x)) contains a
root α of p(x), and each element of F [x] / (p(x)) can be expressed uniquely in the form (4.1.2).
Moreover, elements of the form (4.1.2) are added and subtracted using the usual addition and
subtraction of polynomials. To multiply elements f (α) and g(α) of the form (4.1.2), multiply
them as polynomials and divide the result by p(α); the remainder will equal f (α) g(α).

Example 4.1.2
√  √
Show that every element in Q 5 can be written in the form a + b 5 with a, b ∈ Q.

Solution:
√ 
Note that Q[x] / (x2 − 5) ≈ Q 5 and hence every element in Q[x] / (x2 − 5) can be written
as a + bα, where α is a root of x2 − 5 and a, b ∈ Q. Thus, using the isomorphism mapping
√  √
θ : Q[x] / (x2 − 5) → Q 5 defined by θ(a + bα) = a + b 5, we can see that every element
√  √
of Q 5 can be expressed in the form a + b 5 with a, b ∈ Q.
We discuss the same problem in the next example in more details.
82 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Example 4.1.3
√ √
Show that θ : Q[x] / (x2 − 2) → Q( 2) defined by θ(a + bα) = a + b 2, where α is a root of
x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x], is an isomorphism and compute (1 − 2α)(2 + α) in Q[x] / (x2 − 2).

Solution:

We first prove the isomorphism part:

√ √
• θ is 1-1: Let θ(a + bα) = θ(c + dα) and hence a + b 2 = c + d 2. Thus a = c and
b = d. Therefore, a + bα = c + dα and hence θ is 1-1.
√ √
• θ is onto: Clearly, for any a + b 2 ∈ Q( 2), we have a + bα ∈ Q[x] / (x2 − 2) such that
√
θ(a + bα) = a + b 2. Thus θ is onto.
• θ is homomorphism:

√
θ((a + bα) + (c + dα)) = θ((a + c) + (b + d)α) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2
 √   √ 
= a + b 2 + c + d 2 = θ(a + bα) + θ(c + dα).

Further, for a + bα, c + dα ∈ Q[x] / (x2 − 2), we have

(a + bα)(c + dα) = ac + (ad + bc)α + bdα2 = bdα2 − 2bd + 2bd + ac + (ad + bc)α

= bd(α2 − 2) + (ac + 2bd) + (ad + bc)α.

That is (a + bα)(c + dα) = (ac + 2bd) + (ad + bc)α in Q[x] / (x2 − 2). Hence
√
θ((a + bα)(c + dα)) = θ((ac + 2bd) + (ad + bc)α) = (ac + 2bd) + (ad + bc) 2
 √  √ 
= a + b 2 c + d 2 = θ(a + bα)θ(c + dα).
√
Therefore, θ is an isomorphism and hence Q[x] / (x2 − 2) ≈ Q( 2).
To compute (1 − 2α)(2 + α), we compute it first in Q[x] / (x2 − 2) as
h i
(1 − 2α)(2 + α) = 2 − 3α − 2α2 = − 2α2 + 3α − 2 + (4 − 4)
h i
= − 2(α2 − 2) + 3α + 2 = −2(α2 − 2) − 3α − 2 = −3α − 2.
√
Or we compute it in Q( 2) as
 √  √  √ √ √
1 − 2 2 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 − 4 2 − 4 = −3 2 − 2.
√
Here you can see how θ simplified in Q( 2).
4.1. Adjoining Roots 83

√ √
We note that 2, i, and 3 3 are all algebraic over Q as they are zeros of x2 − 2, x2 + 1, and x3 − 3,
respectively.

Example 4.1.4
√ √  √ √  √ √  n √ √ o
Show that Q 2, 3 = Q 2 + 3 , where Q 2, 3 = a + b 2 + c 3 : a, b, c ∈ Q
√ √  n √ √  o
and Q 2 + 3 = a + b 2 + 3 : a, b ∈ Q .

Solution:
√ √ √ √  √ √ √ √ 
Clearly, 2, 3 ∈ Q 2, 3 and hence 2 + 3 ∈ Q 2, 3 which implies that
√ √  √ √ 
Q 2 + 3 ⊆ Q 2, 3 .
√ √
We need now to prove the other direction of the inclusion by showing that both 2 and 3
√ √  √ √ √ √ 
are contained in Q 2 + 3 . Clearly, 2 + 3 ∈ Q 2 + 3 and so is its inverse
√ √ √ √
√ √ −1 1 2− 3 2− 3 √ √ √ √ 
2+ 3 =√ √ √ √ = = 3− 2∈Q 2+ 3 .
2+ 3 2− 3 −1
√ √  √ √  √ √ √  √ √ √ 
Therefore, 2+ 3 + 3 − 2 = 2 3 ∈ Q 2 + 3 , and thus 3 ∈ Q 2 + 3 .
√ √  √ √  √ √ √  √ √ √ 
Similarly 2+ 3 − 3 − 2 = 2 2 ∈ Q 2 + 3 implies 2 ∈ Q 2 + 3 .
√ √ √ √  √ √  √ √ 
So 2, 3 ∈ Q 2 + 3 which implies that Q 2, 3 ⊆ Q 2 + 3 and therefore
√ √  √ √ 
Q 2 + 3 = Q 2, 3 .

Example 4.1.5
√ √
Show that β = 2+ 3 is algebraic over Q. Find deg(β, Q).

Solution:
√ √ √ √
Note that β = 2+ 3 implies that β 2 = 2 + 2 6 + 3. Then β 2 − 5 = 2 6. Squaring both
sides again, we get β 4 − 10β 2 + 25 = 24. That is, β 4 − 10β 2 + 1 = 0.
Therefore, f (x) = x4 − 10x2 + 1 ∈ Q[x] (irreducible over Q, prove it!) with β is a root of
f (x).
Note that irr(β, Q) = f (x) of degree 4. Hence deg(β, Q) = 4. Hence f (x) is a nonzero
polynomial in Q[x] whose root is β and hence β is algebraic.
84 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Exercise 4.1.1

Let α ∈ Q[x] / (x2 − 7) be a root of the irreducible polynomial x2 − 7 ∈ Q[x]. Express each
of the following elements in the form a + bα with a, b ∈ Q.

1. α3 ,
2. (1 − α)(2 + α),
3. (1 + α)2 , and
4. (1 + α)−1 .

Exercise 4.1.2: #42.5 @page : 197

√ √
Prove that Q( 2) 6= Q( 3).

Exercise 4.1.3: #42.6 @page : 197

√ √ √
Show that every element of Q( 3 5) can be written in the form a+b 3 5+c 3 25, with a, b, c ∈ Q.

Exercise 4.1.4
q √
Show that α = 1+ 3 is algebraic over Q and find deg(α, Q).

Exercise 4.1.5
√ √
Let p and q be two distinct primes. Show that α = p + q is algebraic over Q by finding
an appropriate (quartic) polynomial in Q[x] with α as a root.

Exercise 4.1.6
√ √  √ √ 
For any positive integers a and b, show that Q a, b =Q a+ b .

Exercise 4.1.7
√  √ √  √  √ 
Show that Q 2, i = Q 2 + i 2 . Show that Q 2, i = Q 2 + i
 4.2. Splitting Fields 85

Section 4.2: Splitting Fields

Definition 4.2.1

A nonconstant polynomial p(x) over a field F splits over an extension field E of F if p(x)
can be factored into linear factors over E, that is

p(x) = a(x − c1 )(x − c2 ) · · · (x − cn ),

where a ∈ F and c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are the roots of p(x) in E.

Theorem 4.2.1: The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every nonconstant polynomial f (x) ∈ C[x] has a root in C. That is, C is algebraically closed.
In other words, each polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 over C has n roots.

Definition 4.2.2

An extension field E of a field F is called a splitting field for f (x) ∈ F [x] over F if:

1. f (x) factors into linear factors (splits completely) in E[x], and

2. f (x) does not split completely in K[x] for any F $ K $ E.

Theorem 4.2.2

For any field F and f (x) ∈ F [x], there is an extension field E of F which is a splitting field
for f (x) over F .

Theorem 4.2.3

Let E be an extension of a field F and f (x) ∈ F [x]. If E contains roots α1 , · · · , αn of f (x)

and f (x) splits in F (α1 , · · · , αn )[x], then F (α1 , · · · , αn ) is a splitting field for f (x) over F .

Example 4.2.1

Any first degree polynomial over F splits over F , since ax + b with a 6= 0 has the form
ax + b = a(x − α) root α = −a−1 b ∈ F .
86 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Example 4.2.2
√ √
Note that f (x) = x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x] does not splits over Q. Clearly, f (x) = (x − 2)(x + 2)
which splits over the extension field R of Q. But R is not a splitting field for f (x) over Q
√  √ 
since f (x) splits over a smaller extension field Q 2 which is contained in R. Thus Q 2
is a splitting field for f (x) over Q.
Another example is g(x) = x2 + 1 ∈ R[x] which does not split in R[x]. It does split in C[x]
since g(x) = (x − i)(x + i) ∈ C[x]. Here C = R(i) is a splitting field for g(x) over R.

Example 4.2.3

Construct a splitting field for f (x) = x2 − 2 ∈ Q[x].

Solution:

Clearly f (x) is irreducible over Q using for instance Eisenstein criterion for p = 2. Note that
 √  √ 
f (x) = x2 − 2 = x − 2 x+ 2 ,
n√ √ o √
with roots 2, − 2 6∈ Q. But 2 generates all roots of f (x).
√ 
Therefore, Q 2 ≈ Q[x] / (x2 − 2) is a splitting field for f (x) over Q.

Example 4.2.4

Construct a splitting field for f (x) = x4 − 4 ∈ Q[x].

Solution:

Clearly f (x) = x4 − 4 = (x2 − 2)(x2 + 2) where both factors irreducible over Q using for
instance Eisenstein criterion for p = 2 for both factors. Factoring f (x), we get
 √  √  √  √ 
f (x) = (x2 − 2)(x2 + 2) = x − 2 x+ 2 x−i 2 x+i 2 .
n√ √ √ √ o √
So the roots of f (x) are 2, − 2, i 2, −i 2 6∈ Q. Note that 2 and i generate all the
roots of f (x).
√ 
Therefore, Q 2, i ≈ Q[x] / (x4 − 4) is the splitting field for f (x) over Q.
4.2. Splitting Fields 87

Example 4.2.5
q √ 
Find a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] so that F = Q 1 + 5 is the splitting field for f (x) over
Q.

Solution:
√
q
We simply need to find an irreducible polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] which has 1 + 5 as a root.
q √ √ √
Let α = 1 + 5. Then α2 = 1 + 5 and hence α2 − 1 = 5. That is, α4 − 2α2 + 1 = 5 and
thus α4 − 2α2 − 6 = 0. Therefore, if f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 6 ∈ Q[x], then it is irreducible over Q
q √
and it has 1 + 5 among its roots.
Thus, f (x) is a polynomial whose splitting field is F over Q.
88 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Exercise 4.2.1

Construct a splitting field for f (x) = x3 − 2 ∈ Q[x].

Exercise 4.2.2

Construct a splitting field for f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 6 ∈ Q[x].

Exercise 4.2.3

Construct a splitting field for f (x) = x4 + 4 ∈ Q[x].

Exercise 4.2.4
 √ 
Show that f (x) = x4 − 2x2 − 3 splits over Q i, 3 .

Exercise 4.2.5
√ 
Show that Q 7, i is the splitting field for f (x) = x4 − 6x2 − 7 over Q.

Exercise 4.2.6
√ √ 
Find a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] so that F = Q 2, 3 is the splitting field for f (x) over Q.

Exercise 4.2.7
√ √ 
Find a polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] so that F = Q 2 + i 3 is the splitting field for f (x) over
Q.
 4.3. Finite Fields 89

Section 4.3: Finite Fields

Recall that Zp is a (finite) field if and only if p is a prime number. Here we write Fp to denote a field
of size p.

Theorem 4.3.1

There is a finite field of order n iff n is a power of a prime.

Remark 4.3.1

• Every finite field has a prime power order.

• For every prime power, there is a finite field of that order.
• Any two finite fields of the same order are isomorphic.
• The multiplicative group of a finite field is cyclic.

Theorem 4.3.2

For a prime p and a monic irreducible polynomial p(x) ∈ Fp [x] of degree n, the ring
Fp [x] / (p(x)) is a field of order pn .

Example 4.3.1

Consider the ring Z2 [x] / (x2 ). Construct the addition and multiplication Cayley tables for
Z2 [x] / (x2 ). Show that Z2 [x] / (x2 ) is not a field.

Solution:

Note that Z2 [x] / (x2 ) = {0 + (x2 ), 1 + (x2 ), x + (x2 ), 1 + x + (x2 )}. For simplicity, we write
Z2 [x] / (x2 ) = {0, 1, x, 1 + x}. Hence, the addition and multiplication tables are:

+ 0 1 x 1+x · 0 1 x 1+x
0 0 1 x 1+x 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1+x x 1 0 1 x 1+x
x x 1+x 0 1 x 0 x 0 x
1+x 1+x x 1 0 1+x 0 1+x x 1
Clearly, Z2 [x] / (x2 ) is not a field since it has x · x = 0 (in the table). Moreover, x2 is not
irreducible in Z2 [x] as x2 = x · x.
90 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Example 4.3.2

Construct a field of order 4. Find a generator for the multiplicative group of that field.

Solution:

Note that 4 = 22 . Since x2 +x+1 is an irreducible polynomial in Z2 [x] (using Factor Theorem
for instance), We conclude that F = Z2 [x] / (x2 + x + 1) is a field with 22 = 4 elements. The
field F contains a root α of x2 + x + 1. Therefore, any element in Z2 (α) ≈ Z2 [x] / (x2 + x + 1)
can be uniquely expressed as a + bα, where a, b ∈ Z2 . That is Z2 (α) = {0, 1, α, 1 + α}. The
addition and multiplication tables of Z2 (α) are:

+ 0 1 α 1+α · 0 1 α 1+α
0 0 1 α 1+α 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1+α α 1 0 1 α 1+α
α α 1+α 0 1 α 0 α 1+α 1
1+α 1+α α 1 0 1+α 0 1+α 1 α

We note that the addition table is clearly done. In the multiplication table, we consider some
entries as follows:
The entry α · α = α2 = −1 − α since α2 + α + 1 = 0. But then α2 = −1 − α = 1 + α in Z2 .
Moreover, we have (1 + α)(1 + α) = α2 + 2α + 1. Since 2α = 0 in Z2 and α2 = 1 + α as we
have proved, we get (1 + α)(1 + α) = α2 + 2α + 1 = 1 + α + 0 + 1 = 2 + α = α.
To find a generator for the multiplicative group (not including 0) of Z2 (α), we try to find an
element in Z∗2 (α) whose powers generate all elements in the group.
Note that α1 = α, α2 = 1 + α (as we have seen), and α3 = α α2 = α(1 + α) = α + α2 =
1 + 2α = 1. Therefore, Z∗2 (α) = {α, α2 , α3 }, and hence α is a generator for the multiplicative
group of Z2 (α).
It is also true that Z∗2 (α) = {1 + α, (1 + α)2 , (1 + α)3 }. Can you show that?

Example 4.3.3

Construct a field of order 9. Find a generator for the multiplicative group of that field.

Solution:
4.3. Finite Fields 91

Note that x2 + 1 is an irreducible polynomial in Z3 [x]. Thus F = Z3 [x] / (x2 + 1) is a field

with 32 = 9 elements. The field F contains a root α of x2 + 1. Therefore, any element
in Z3 (α) ≈ Z3 [x] / (x2 + 1) can be uniquely expressed as a + bα, where a, b ∈ Z3 . That is
Z3 (α) = {0, 1, 2, α, 2α, 1 + α, 1 + 2α, 2 + α, 2 + 2α}. The tables of Z3 (α) are:

+ 0 1 2 α 2α 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α 2 + 2α
0 0 1 2 α 2α 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α 2 + 2α
1 1 2 0 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α 2 + 2α α 2α
2 2 0 1 2+α 2 + 2α α 2α 1+α 1 + 2α
α α 1+α 2+α 2α 0 1 + 2α 1 2 + 2α 2
2α 2α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 0 α 1 1+α 2 2+α
1+α 1+α 2+α α 1 + 2α 1 2 + 2α 2 2α 0
1 + 2α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 2α 1 1+α 2 2+α 0 α
2+α 2+α α 1+α 2 + 2α 2 2α 0 1 + 2α 1
2 + 2α 2 + 2α 2α 1 + 2α 2 2+α 0 α 1 1+α

· 0 1 2 α 2α 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α 2 + 2α
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 α 2α 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α 2 + 2α
2 0 2 1 2α α 2 + 2α 2+α 1 + 2α 1+α
α 0 α 2α 2 1 2+α 1+α 2 + 2α 1 + 2α
2α 0 2α α 1 2 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 1+α 2+α
1+α 0 1+α 2 + 2α 2+α 1 + 2α 2α 2 1 α
1 + 2α 0 1 + 2α 2+α 1+α 2 + 2α 2 α 2α 1
2+α 0 2+α 1 + 2α 2 + 2α 1+α 1 2α α 2
2 + 2α 0 2 + 2α 1+α 1 + 2α 2+α α 1 2 2α

Here, we note that α2 + 1 = 0 and the coefficients are reduced by the rules in Z3 . Thus, in
the multiplication table, we have α · α = α2 = −1 = 2. Hence

(1 + 2α)(2 + 2α) = 2 + 6α + 4α2 = 2 + α2 = 4 = 1.

Further, (1 + α)(2 + 2α) = 2 + 4α + 2α2 = 2 + α + 4 = 6 + α = α.

Moreover, 1 + α, 1 + 2α, 2 + α, and 2 + 2α are all the generators of (Z∗2 (α), ·).
92 Chapter 4. Field Extension

Exercise 4.3.1

Construct a field of order 8. Find a generator for the multiplicative group of that field.

Exercise 4.3.2

Find an appropriate irreducible polynomial p(x) in Z2 [x] so that Z2 [x] / (p(x)) is a finite filed
of order 16.
 The Index

A E
abelian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Eisenstein criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
additive group of a ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
additive inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
algebraic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Euler phi-function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
algebraic extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 extension
associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 algebraic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
associative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 simple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

B simple algebraic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 extension of field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

C
F
cancellation law
factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Cartesian product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
commutative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
subfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
commutative ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
coprime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G
cyclic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D greatest common divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 greatest common divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
degree of irr(a, F ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
distribution laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 abelian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
division ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 H
divisor of zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 57

93
94 THE INDEX

I Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 greatest common divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
maximal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 irreducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
prime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 monic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
principal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 prime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
idempotent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 reducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1, 5 root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
integral domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 splits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
irreducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 polynomial ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
irr(a, F ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 prime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
isomorphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 prime ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 principal ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

K Q
kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
quotient ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
L
least common multiple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 R
left distribution laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 reducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
relatively prime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
M
remainder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
maximal ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
right distribution laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
monic polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
N Cartesian product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
nilpotent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
commutative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
O
division ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
operation
homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
P isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 subring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
THE INDEX 95

root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 T
transcendental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
S
simple algebraic extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
U
simple extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
skew field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
splits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
splitting field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Z
subfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 zero divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
subring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 zero element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5