Process Control

&
Automation
If you have a smart project, you can say "I'm an engineer“

Lecture 3

Staff boarder
Dr. Mostafa Elsayed Abdelmonem
Process Control & Automation

 Lecture aims:
 Development of a Control System and control strategies
 Development of Dynamic Models
 Understand the Degrees of Freedom Analysis
 Development of Dynamic Models

Illustrative Example: A Blending Process

An unsteady-state mass balance for the blending system:

rate of accumulation   rate of   rate of 

 = −  (2-1)
 of mass in the tank  mass in  mass out 
3
 or d (Vρ )
= w1 + w2 − w (2-2)
dt

where w1, w2, and w are mass flow rates.

 The unsteady-state component balance is:

d (Vρx )
= w1x1 + w2 x2 − wx (2-3)
dt

The corresponding steady-state model was derived in Ch. 1 (cf. Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2).

0 = w1 + w2 − w (2-4)
0 = w1 x1 + w2 x2 − wx (2-5)
4
 Conservation Laws
Theoretical models of chemical processes are based on conservation laws.

Conservation of Mass

 rate of mass  rate of mass  rate of mass 

 = −  (2-6)
accumulation   in   out 

Conservation of Component i
rate of component i  rate of component i 
 = 
 accumulation   in 

rate of component i  rate of component i 

− +  (2-7)
5
 out   produced 
 Conservation of Energy
The general law of energy conservation is also called the First Law of Thermodynamics.
It can be expressed as:
rate of energy  rate of energy in  rate of energy out 
 = − 
 accumulation   by convection   by convection 

net rate of heat addition   net rate of work 

   
+  to the system from  + performed on the system  (2-8)
 the surroundings   by the surroundings 
   

The total energy of a thermodynamic system, Utot, is the sum of its internal energy,
kinetic energy, and potential energy:
U tot = U int + U KE + U PE (2-9)
6
For the processes and examples considered in this book, it is appropriate to make
two assumptions:
1. Changes in potential energy and kinetic energy can be neglected because they are
small in comparison with changes in internal energy.
2. The net rate of work can be neglected because it is small compared to the rates of heat
transfer and convection.
For these reasonable assumptions, the energy balance in Eq. 2-8 can be written as
dU int
dt
= − wH + Q ( ) (2-10)
U int = the internal energy of Δ = denotes the difference between outlet
the system and inlet conditions of the flowing streams;
therefore
H = enthalpy per unit mass
−Δ wHҭ
7 w = mass flow rate = rate of enthalpy of the inlet stream(s) −
Q = rate of heat transfer to the system the enthalpy of the outlet stream(s)
The analogous equation for molar quantities is,

dU int
dt
( )
= − wH + Q (2-11)

where H is the enthalpy per mole and w is the molar flow rate.

In order to derive dynamic models of processes from the general energy

balances in Eqs. 2-10 and 2-11, expressions for Uint and Ĥ or H are
required, which can be derived from thermodynamics.

8
 The Blending Process Revisited
For constant  , Eqs. 2-2 and 2-3 become:
dV
 = w1 + w2 − w (2-12)
dt
 d (Vx )
= w1x1 + w2 x2 − wx (2-13)
dt

Equation 2-13 can be simplified by expanding the accumulation

term using the “chain rule” for differentiation of a product:
d (Vx ) dx dV
 = V + x (2-14)
dt dt dt

9
 Substitution of (2-14) into (2-13) gives:
dx dV
V +  x = w1x1 + w2 x2 − wx (2-15)
dt dt
Substitution of the mass balance in (2-12) for  dV/dt in (2-15) gives:
dx
V + x ( w1 + w2 − w ) = w1x1 + w2 x2 − wx (2-16)
dt
After canceling common terms and rearranging (2-12) and (2-16), a more
convenient model form is obtained:
dV 1
= ( w1 + w2 − w ) (2-17)
dt 
dx w1 w2
= ( x1 − x ) + ( x2 − x ) (2-18)
10 dt V  V
 Stirred-Tank Heating Process

Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.

11
 Stirred-Tank Heating Process (cont’d.)

Assumptions:

1. Perfect mixing; thus, the exit temperature T is also the temperature of the tank
contents.
2. The liquid holdup V is constant because the inlet and outlet flow rates are equal.
3. The density  and heat capacity C of the liquid are assumed to be constant.
Thus, their temperature dependence is neglected.
4. Heat losses are negligible.

12
 Model Development - I
For a pure liquid at low or moderate pressures, the internal energy is
approximately equal to the enthalpy, Uint  H, and H depends only on temperature.
Consequently, in the subsequent development, we assume that Uint = H and Uˆ int = Hˆ
where the caret (^) means per unit mass. As shown in Appendix B, a differential
change in temperature, dT, produces a corresponding change in the internal
energy per unit mass, dUˆ int ,
dUˆ = dHˆ = CdT
int (2-29)
where C is the constant pressure heat capacity (assumed to be constant). The
total internal energy of the liquid in the tank is:

13 U int = VUˆ int (2-30)

 Model Development - II
An expression for the rate of internal energy accumulation can be derived from
Eqs. (2-29) and (2-30): dU int dT
= VC (2-31)
dt dt
Note that this term appears in the general energy balance of Eq. 2-10.

Suppose that the liquid in the tank is at a temperature T and has an enthalpy, Ĥ .
Integrating Eq. 2-29 from a reference temperature Tref to T gives,
Hˆ − Hˆ = C T − T
ref ( ref ) (2-32)
where Hˆ ref is the value of Ĥ at Tref. Without loss of generality, we assume that Hˆ ref = 0
(see Appendix B). Thus, (2-32) can be written as:

( )
14

Hˆ = C T − Tref (2-33)
 Model Development - III
For the inlet stream

(
Hˆ i = C Ti − Tref ) (2-34)

Substituting (2-33) and (2-34) into the convection term of (2-10) gives:

( ) ( ) (
− wHˆ = w C Ti − Tref  − w C T − Tref 
    ) (2-35)

Finally, substitution of (2-31) and (2-35) into (2-10)

dT
V C = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (2-36)
15
dt
Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

Fig. 2.6. Schematic diagram of a CSTR.

16
 Degrees of Freedom Analysis for the Stirred-Tank Model:

3 parameters: V , ,C
4 variables: T , Ti , w, Q
1 equation: Eq. 2-36

Thus the degrees of freedom are NF = 4 – 1 = 3. The process variables are

classified as:
1 output variable: T
3 input variables: Ti, w, Q

For temperature control purposes, it is reasonable to classify the three inputs as:

2 disturbance variables: Ti, w

17
1 manipulated variable: Q
CSTR: Model Development
Assumptions:
1. Single, irreversible reaction, A → B.
2. Perfect mixing.
3. The liquid volume V is kept constant by an overflow line.
4. The mass densities of the feed and product streams are equal and constant. They are
denoted by .
5. Heat losses are negligible.
6. The reaction rate for the disappearance of A, r, is given by,
r = kcA (2−62)
where r = moles of A reacted per unit time, per unit volume, cA is the concentration of
A (moles per unit volume), and k is the rate constant (units of reciprocal time).
7. The rate constant has an Arrhenius temperature dependence:
k = k 0 exp(−E/RT)
where k 0 is the frequency factor, E is the activation energy, and R is the the gas constant.(2−63)
18
 CSTR: Model Development (continued)

• Unsteady-state mass balance

Because  and V are constant, . Thus, the mass balance is not

required.
• Unsteady-state component balance

19
 Assumptions for the Unsteady-state Energy Balance:

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

20
CSTR Model: Some Extensions

• How would the dynamic model change for:

1. Multiple reactions (e.g., A → B → C) ?

2. Different kinetics, e.g., 2nd order reaction?

3. Significant thermal capacity of the coolant liquid?

4. Liquid volume V is not constant (e.g., no overflow line)?

5. Heat losses are not negligible?

6. Perfect mixing cannot be assumed (e.g., for a very viscous liquid)?

21
 Development of Transfer Functions
Example: Stirred Tank Heating System

Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.

22
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid holdup and
flow rates: V C
dT
= wC (Ti − T ) + Q (1)
dt
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:

T ( 0 ) = T , Ti ( 0 ) = Ti , Q ( 0 ) = Q ( 2)

where 𝑇ሜ ≜ steady-state value of T, etc. For steady-state conditions:

0 = wC (Ti − T ) + Q (3)

Subtract (3) from (1):

= wC (Ti − Ti ) − (T − T )  + ( Q − Q )
dT
V C (4)
23
dt
 But,
dT d (T − T )
= because T is a constant (5)
dt dt
Thus we can substitute into (4-2) to get,
dT 
V C = wC (Ti − T  ) + Q (6)
dt
where we have introduced the following “deviation variables”, also
called “perturbation variables”:
ሜ
𝑇 ′ ≜ 𝑇 − 𝑇, 𝑇𝑖′ ≜ 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇ሜ𝑖 , 𝑄′ ≜ 𝑄 − 𝑄ሜ (7)

Take L of (6):

24 V  C  sT  ( s ) − T  ( t = 0 )  = wC Ti( s ) − T  ( s ) − Q ( s ) (8)

 Evaluate T  (t = 0).
By definition, 𝑇 ′ ≜ 𝑇 − 𝑇.
ሜ Thus at time, t = 0,

T (0) = T (0) − T (9)

But since our assumed initial condition was that the process was
initially at steady state, i.e., T  ( 0 ) = 0. it follows from (9) that T ( 0 ) = T

Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that the initial

condition term becomes zero. This simplifies the later analysis.

Rearrange (8) to solve for T  ( s ) :

 K   1 
T ( s ) =   Q ( s ) +   Ti( s ) (10)
  s +1   s +1
25
 where two new symbols are defined:
1 𝑉𝜌
𝐾≜ and 𝜏 ≜ 11
𝑤𝐶 𝑤
Transfer Function Between Q and T 

Suppose Ti is constant at the steady-state value. Then,

Ti ( t ) = Ti  Ti( t ) = 0  Ti( s ) = 0.

Then we can substitute into (10) and rearrange to get the desired TF:

T ( s ) K
= (12)
Q ( s )  s + 1
26
 Transfer Function Between T  and Ti:
Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:

Q ( t ) = Q  Q ( t ) = 0  Q ( s ) = 0

Thus, rearranging

T ( s) 1
= (13)
Ti( s )  s + 1

Comments:

1. The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q and Ti
on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and Ti ?

27
• Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for simultaneous changes.

• Note that (10) shows that the effects of changes in both Q and Ti are additive.
This always occurs for linear, dynamic models (like TFs) because the Principle
of Superposition is valid.

2. The TF model enables us to determine the output response to any

change in an input.
3. Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions for TF models.

28
 Properties of Transfer Function Models

1. Steady-State Gain

The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady-state change in

an output due to a steady-state change in the input. For example, suppose
we know two steady states for an input, u, and an output, y. Then we can
calculate the steady-state gain, K, from:
y2 − y1
K= (4-38)
u2 − u1

For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear system, K

29
will depend on the operating condition (u , y ).
 Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain, then:

K = lim G ( s ) (14)
s →0

• This important result is a consequence of the Final Value Theorem

• Note: Some TF models do not have a steady-state gain (e.g., integrating

process in Ch. 5)

30
 2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:

dny dy n−1 dy d mu
an n
+ an−1 n −1
+ a1 + a0 y = bm m +
dt dt dt dt
d m−1u du
bm−1 m −1
+ + b1 + b0u (4-39)
dt dt

Take L, assuming the initial conditions are all zero. Rearranging

gives the TF:
m

Y (s)
i
b s i

G (s) = = i =0
(4-40)
U (s) n
i
a s i

31
i =0
 Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.

Physical Realizability:

For any physical system, n  m in (4-38). Otherwise, the system response

to a step input will be an impulse. This can’t happen.

Example:
𝑑𝑢
𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑢 and step change in 𝑢 (4−41)
𝑑𝑡
32
3. Additive Property

Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that the transfer
functions are known: Y (s) Y (s)
= G1 ( s ) and = G2 ( s )
U1 ( s ) U2 ( s)

Then the response to changes in both U1 and U 2 can be written as:

Y ( s ) = G1 ( s )U1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )U 2 ( s )

The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:

U1(s) G1(s)
Y(s)

U2(s) G2(s)

33
4. Multiplicative Property
Suppose that,
Y (s) U2 ( s)
= G2 ( s ) and = G3 ( s )
U2 ( s) U3 ( s )
Then,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s )U 2 ( s ) and U 2 ( s ) = G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Substitute,
Y ( s ) = G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )U 3 ( s )
Or,
Y (s)
= G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) U3 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s ) Y (s)
U3 ( s )

34
 Linearization of Nonlinear Models

• So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be transformed into TF models.

• But most physical processes and physical models are nonlinear.

- But over a small range of operating conditions, the behavior may be approximately
linear.

- Conclude: Linear approximations can be useful, especially for purpose of analysis.

• Approximate linear models can be obtained analytically by a method called

“linearization”. It is based on a Taylor Series Expansion of a nonlinear function about a
specified operating point.
35
 Linearization (continued)
• Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process variables, u and y:
dy
= f ( y, u ) (4-60)
dt
Perform a Taylor Series Expansion about u = u and y = y and truncate
after the first order terms,

f f
f ( u, y ) = f ( u , y ) + u + y (4-61)
u s y s

where u = u − u , y = y − y , and subscript s denotes the steady state,( u , y ) .

Note that the partial derivative terms are actually constants because
they have been evaluated at the nominal operating point, s.
36
 Linearization (continued)
Substitute (4-61) into (4-60) gives:
dy f f
= f (u , y ) + u + y (A)
dt u s y s

Because ( u , y ) is a steady state, it follows from (4-60) that

f (u , y ) = 0 (B)
Also, because 𝑦 ′ ≜ 𝑦 − 𝑦,lj it follows that,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 ′
= (C)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substitute (B) and (C) into (A) gives the linearized model:

dy f f
= u + y (4-62)
dt u s y s 37
 Example: Liquid Storage System

Mass balance: A dh = q − q (1)

i
dt
Valve relation: q = Cv h (2)

A = area, Cv = constant

Combine (1) and (2) and rearrange:

𝑑ℎ 1 𝐶𝑣
= 𝑞 − ℎ = 𝑓(ℎ, 𝑞𝑖 ) (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝑖 𝐴
Eq. (3) is in the form of (4−60) with 𝑦 = ℎ and 𝑢 = 𝑞𝑖 . Thus,
we can utilize (4−62) to linearize around ℎ = ℎሜ and 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞lj 𝑖 ,

𝑑ℎ′ 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
= ℎ′ + 𝑞𝑖′ (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕ℎ 𝑠
𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝑠 38
 where:

𝜕𝑓 𝐶𝑣
=− (5)
𝜕ℎ 𝑠 2𝐴 ℎሜ

𝜕𝑓 1
= (6)
𝜕𝑞𝑖 𝑠
𝐴
Substitute into (4) gives the linearized model:

𝑑ℎ′ 1 ′ 𝐶𝑣
= 𝑞𝑖 − ℎ′ (7)
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 2𝐴 ℎሜ
This model can be expressed in terms of a valve resistance, 𝑅

𝑑ℎ′ 1 ′ 1 ′ 2 ℎሜ
= 𝑞𝑖 − ℎ with 𝑅 ≜ (8)
𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝐴𝑅 𝐶𝑣
39
 State-Space Models

• Dynamic models derived from physical principles typically

consist of one or more ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
• In this section, we consider a general class of ODE models referred to as
state-space models.
Consider standard form for a linear state-space model,

x = Ax + Bu + Ed (4-90)

y = Cx (4-91)
40
 where:
x = the state vector
u = the control vector of manipulated variables (also called control variables)
d = the disturbance vector
y = the output vector of measured variables. (We use boldface symbols to
denote vector and matrices, and plain text to represent scalars.)
• The elements of x are referred to as state variables.
• The elements of y are typically a subset of x, namely, the state variables that are
measured. In general, x, u, d, and y are functions of time.
• The time derivative of x is denoted by x ( = dx / dt ) .
41 • Matrices A, B, C, and E are constant matrices.
 Example: CSTR Model
Consider the previous CSTR model. Assume that Tc can vary with time while cAi, Ti , q and
w are constant.
Nonlinear
Model:

Linearized
Model:

where:

42
Example 4.9

Show that the linearized CSTR model of Example 4.8 can be written in the state-space
form of Eqs. 4-90 and 4-91.

Derive state-space models for two cases:

(a) Both cA and T are measured.

(b) Only T is measured.

Solution

The linearized CSTR model in Eqs. 4-84 and 4-85 can be written in
 dcA   a a12  cA   0 
vector-matrix form:  dt   11
=    +  T
       
(4-92)

 dT   a
c
a22   T   b2 
 dt   21
 Let 𝑥1 ≜ 𝑐𝐴′ and 𝑥2 ≜ 𝑇 ′, and denote their time derivatives by x1 and x2 .
Suppose that the coolant temperature Tc can be manipulated. For this
situation, there is a scalar control variable, 𝑢 ≜ 𝑇𝑐′ , and no modeled
disturbance. Substituting these definitions into (4-92) gives,

 x1   a11 a12   x1   0 
 x  = a    +  u (4-93)
 2   21 a22   x2  b2 
A B
which is in the form of Eq. 4-90 with x = col [x1, x2]. (The symbol “col”
denotes a column vector.)
44
 a) If both T and cA are measured, then y = x, and C = I in Eq. 4-91,
where I denotes the 2x2 identity matrix. A and B are defined in (4-93).

b) When only T is measured, output vector y is a scalar, y = T  and C is

a row vector, C = [0,1].
Note that the state-space model for Example 4.9 has d = 0 because
disturbance variables were not included in (4-92). By contrast,
suppose that the feed composition and feed temperature are
considered to be disturbance variables in the original nonlinear CSTR
model in Eqs. 2-60 and 2-64. Then the linearized model would
45
include two additional deviation variables, Ti and cAi.
 Dynamic Behavior

In analyzing process dynamic and process control systems, it is important to

know how the process responds to changes in the process inputs.
Chapter 5

A number of standard types of input changes are widely used for two
reasons:

1. They are representative of the types of changes that occur in plants.

2. They are easy to analyze mathematically.

46
1. Step Input

A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by a step change

of magnitude, M: 0 𝑡<0
𝑈𝑠 ≜ ቊ (5−4)
𝑀 𝑡≥0
Chapter 5

The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0.

• Special Case: If M = 1, we have a “unit step change”. We give it the symbol, S(t).

• Example of a step change: A reactor feedstock is suddenly switched from one

supply to another, causing sudden changes in feed concentration, flow, etc.
47
Example:

The heat input to the stirred-tank heating system in Chapter 2 is suddenly

changed from 8000 to 10,000 kcal/hr by changing the electrical signal to the
heater. Thus,
and 𝑄 𝑡 = 8000 + 2000𝑆 𝑡 , 𝑆 𝑡 ≜ unit step
Chapter 5

𝑄 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑄 − 𝑄ሜ = 2000𝑆 𝑡 , 𝑄ሜ = 8000 kcal/hr

2. Ramp Input

• Industrial processes often experience “drifting disturbances”, that is,

relatively slow changes up or down for some period of time.
• The rate of change is approximately constant.
48
 We can approximate a drifting disturbance by a ramp input:

0𝑡 <0
𝑈𝑅 𝑡 ≜ ቊ (5−7)
at 𝑡 ≥ 0

Examples of ramp changes:

Chapter 5

1. Ramp a setpoint to a new value. (Why not make a step change?)

2. Feed composition, heat exchanger fouling, catalyst activity,
ambient temperature.

3. Rectangular Pulse
It represents a brief, sudden change in a process variable:
49
 0 for 𝑡 < 0
𝑈𝑅𝑃 𝑡 ≜ ቐℎ for 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑡𝑤 (5−9)
0 for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑤

XRP
Chapter 5

0 Tw Time, t

Examples:

1. Reactor feed is shut off for one hour.

2. The fuel gas supply to a furnace is briefly interrupted.
50
 Chapter 5

51
 4. Sinusoidal Input

Processes are also subject to periodic, or cyclic, disturbances.

They can be approximated by a sinusoidal disturbance:
Chapter 5

0 for 𝑡<0
𝑈 𝑡 ቊ 5−14
𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 for 𝑡≥0
where: A = amplitude, w = angular frequency

Examples:
1. 24 hour variations in cooling water temperature.
2. 60-Hz electrical noise (in the USA)
52
 5. Impulse Input

• Here, U I ( t ) =  ( t ) .
• It represents a short, transient disturbance.
Examples:
Chapter 5

1. Electrical noise spike in a thermo-couple reading.

2. Injection of a tracer dye.

• Useful for analysis since the response to an impulse input is the

inverse of the TF. Thus,
u (t ) y (t )
G (s)
Here, U (s) Y (s)

Y ( s ) = G ( s )U ( s ) 53
(1)
The corresponding time domain express is:

y ( t ) =  g ( t − τ ) u ( τ ) dτ
t
(2)
0

where: 𝑔 𝑡 ≜ 𝔏−1 𝐺 𝑠 (3)

Chapter 5

u (t ) =  (t )

Suppose . Then it can be shown that:

y (t ) = g (t ) (4)

Consequently, g(t) is called the “impulse response function”.

54
 First-Order System
The standard form for a first-order TF is:

Y (s) K
= (5-16)
U ( s ) τs + 1
where:
Chapter 5

𝐾 ≜ steady−state gain
τ ≜ time constant
Consider the response of this system to a step of magnitude, M:

M
U ( t ) = M for t  0  U (s) =
s
Substitute into (5-16) and rearrange,

KM
Y (s) = (5-17)
s ( τs + 1) 55
 Take L-1 (cf. Table 3.1),

(
y ( t ) = KM 1 − e −t / τ ) (5-18)

Let 𝑦∞ ≜ steady-state value of y(t). From (5-18), y = KM .

Chapter 5

𝑦
t 𝑦∞
___

y 0 0

y τ 0.632

2τ 0.865
3τ 0.950

t 4τ 0.982

τ 5τ 0.993
56

τ a slow response.
Note: Large means
 Integrating Process
Not all processes have a steady-state gain. For example, an “integrating process”
or “integrator” has the transfer function:

Y (s) K
= ( K = constant )
Chapter 5

U (s) s

Consider a step change of magnitude M. Then U(s) = M/s and,

𝐾𝑀
𝑌 𝑠 = L−1 ⇒ 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑀𝑡
𝑠2

Thus, y(t) is unbounded and a new steady-state value does not exist.

57
 Common Physical Example:
Consider a liquid storage tank with a pump on the exit line:
Chapter 5

- Assume:
1. Constant cross-sectional area, A.
2. q  f (h)
dh
- Mass balance: A dt = qi − q (1)  0 = qi − q (2)
- Eq. (1) – Eq. (2), take L, assume steady state initially,
1
H ( s ) = Qi ( s ) − Q ( s )  H ( s) 1
As =
Qi ( s ) As
58

- For Q ( s ) = 0 (constant q),


Second-Order Systems
• Standard form:
Y (s) K
= (5-40)
Chapter 5 U (s) τ s + 2ζτs + 1
2 2

which has three model parameters:

𝐾 ≜ steady−state gain
τ ≜ "time constant" [=] time
ζ ≜ damping coefficient (dimensionless)

1
• Equivalent form: 𝜔𝑛 ≜ natural frequency =
τ

Y (s) K wn2
=
U (s) s 2 + 2ζwn s + wn2 59
 • The type of behavior that occurs depends on the numerical value of
damping coefficient, ζ :
It is convenient to consider three types of behavior:

Damping Type of Response Roots of Charact.

Coefficient Polynomial
Chapter 5

ζ 1 Overdamped Real and ≠

ζ =1 Critically damped Real and =

0  ζ 1 Underdamped Complex conjugates

• Note: The characteristic polynomial is the denominator of the

transfer function:
τ 2 s 2 + 2ζτs + 1
60

• What about ζ  0? It results in an unstable system

 Chapter 5

61
 Chapter 5

62
 Several general remarks can be made concerning the responses show in
Figs. 5.8 and 5.9:

1. Responses exhibiting oscillation and overshoot (y/KM > 1)

are obtained only for values of ζ less than one.
Chapter 5

2. Large values of ζ yield a sluggish (slow) response.

3. The fastest response without overshoot is obtained for the

critically damped case ( ζ = 1) .

63
 Chapter 5

64
1. Rise Time: tr is the time the process output takes to first reach the new steady-state value.

2. Time to First Peak: t p is the time required for the output to reach its first maximum value.

3. Settling Time: ts is defined as the time required for the process output to reach and remain
inside a band whose width is equal to ±5% of the total change in y. The term 95% response
Chapter 5

time sometimes is used to refer to this case. Also, values of ±1% sometimes are used.

4. Overshoot: OS = a/b (% overshoot is 100a/b).

5. Decay Ratio: DR = c/a (where c is the height of the second peak).

6. Period of Oscillation: P is the time between two successive peaks or two successive
valleys of the response.
65
 Time Delays
Time delays occur due to:

1. Fluid flow in a pipe

2. Transport of solid material (e.g., conveyor belt)
Chapter 6

3. Chemical analysis
- Sampling line delay
- Time required to do the analysis (e.g., on-line gas chromatograph)

Mathematical description:

A time delay, θ , between an input u and an output y results in the following

expression:  0 for t  θ
y (t ) =  (6-27)
u ( t − θ ) for t  θ 66
Time Delays (continued)
Transfer Function Representation:

Y (s)
= e − θs (6-28)
U (s)
Chapter 6

Note that θ has units of time (e.g., minutes, hours)

67
 − θs
Polynomial Approximations to e :

For purposes of analysis using analytical solutions to transfer functions,

polynomial approximations for e−θs are commonly used. Example:
simulation software such as MATLAB and MatrixX.

Two widely used approximations are:

1. Taylor Series Expansion:
− θs θ 2 s 2 θ3 s 3 θ 4 s 4
e = 1 − θs + − + + (6-34)
2! 3! 4!

The approximation is obtained by truncating after only a few terms.

68
 2. Padé Approximations:
Many are available. For example, the 1/1 approximation is,
θ
1− s
e − θs  2 (6-35)
θ
1+ s
Chapter 6

Implications for Control:

Time delays are very bad for control because they involve a
delay of information.

69
 Interacting vs. Noninteracting Systems
• Consider a process with several invariables and several output variables.
The process is said to be interacting if:

o Each input affects more than one output.

Chapter 6

or
o A change in one output affects the other outputs.

Otherwise, the process is called noninteracting.

• As an example, we will consider the two liquid-level storage systems shown

in Figs. 4.3 and 6.13.

• In general, transfer functions for interacting processes are more complicated

70

than those for noninteracting processes.

 Figure 4.3. A noninteracting system:
two surge tanks in series.

Figure 6.13. Two tanks in series whose liquid levels interact.

71
 Figure 4.3. A noninteracting system:
two surge tanks in series.
Chapter 6

dh1
Mass Balance: A1 = qi − q1 (4-48)
dt
1
Valve Relation: q1 = h1 (4-49)
R1

Substituting (4-49) into (4-48) eliminates q1:

dh1 1 72
A1 = qi − h1 (4-50)
dt R1
Putting (4-49) and (4-50) into deviation variable form gives
dh1 1
A1 = qi − h1 (4-51)
dt R1
1
q1 = h1 (4-52)
R1
Chapter 6

The transfer function relating H1 ( s ) to Q1i ( s ) is found by

transforming (4-51) and rearranging to obtain

H1 ( s ) R1 K1
= = (4-53)
Qi ( s ) A1R1s + 1 τ1s + 1

where 𝐾1 ≜ 𝑅1 and τ1 ≜ 𝐴1 𝑅1 . Similarly, the transfer function

relating Q1 ( s ) to H1 ( s ) is obtained by transforming (4-52).
73
 Q1 ( s ) 1 1
= = (4-54)
H1 ( s ) R1 K1

The same procedure leads to the corresponding transfer functions for

Tank 2,
H 2 ( s ) R2 K2
Chapter 6

= = (4-55)
Q2 ( s ) A2 R2 s + 1 τ 2 s + 1

Q2 ( s ) 1 1
= = (4-56)
H 2 ( s ) R2 K 2

where 𝐾2 ≜ 𝑅2 and τ2 ≜ 𝐴2 𝑅2. Note that the desired transfer function relating
the outflow from Tank 2 to the inflow to Tank 1 can be derived by forming
74
the product of (4-53) through (4-56).
 Q2 ( s ) Q2 ( s ) H 2 ( s ) Q1 ( s ) H1 ( s )
= (4-57)
Qi ( s ) H 2 ( s ) Q1 ( s ) H1 ( s ) Qi ( s )

or
Q2 ( s ) 1 K 2 1 K1
=
Chapter 6

(4-58)
Qi ( s ) K 2 τ 2 s + 1 K1 τ1s + 1

which can be simplified to yield

Q2 ( s ) 1
= (4-59)
Qi ( s ) ( τ1s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)

a second-order transfer function (does unity gain make sense on physical grounds?).
Figure 4.4 is a block diagram showing information flow for this system.
75
Block Diagram for Noninteracting Surge
Tank System

Figure 4.4. Input-output model for two liquid surge tanks in series.

76
Dynamic Model of An Interacting Process

Chapter 6

Figure 6.13. Two tanks in series whose liquid levels interact.

1
q1 = ( h1 − h2 ) (6-70)
R1

The transfer functions for the interacting system are:

77
 𝐻2′ 𝑠 𝑅2
′ = 2 2 (6−74)
𝑄𝑖 𝑠 τ 𝑠 + 2ζτ𝑠 + 1

𝑄2′ 𝑠 1
′ = 2 2
𝑄𝑖 𝑠 τ 𝑠 + 2ζτ𝑠 + 1
Chapter 6

𝐻1′ 𝑠 𝐾1′ τ𝑎 𝑠 + 1
′ = 2 2 (6−72)
𝑄𝑖 𝑠 τ 𝑠 + 2ζτ𝑠 + 1
where
τ1 + τ2 + 𝑅2 𝐴1
τ= τ1 τ2 , ζ ≜ , and τ𝑎 ≜ 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐴2 / 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
2 τ1 τ2

In Exercise 6.15, the reader can show that ζ>1 by analyzing the
denominator of (6-71); hence, the transfer function is overdamped,
second order, and has a negative zero. 78
 Model Comparison
 Noninteracting system

𝑄2′ 𝑠 1
′ = (4−59)
𝑄𝑖 𝑠 τ1 𝑠 + 1 τ2 𝑠 + 1

where τ1 ≜ 𝐴1 𝑅1 and τ2 ≜ 𝐴2 𝑅2 .
• Interacting system
𝑄2′ 𝑠 1
′ = 2 2
𝑄𝑖 𝑠 τ 𝑠 + 2ζτ𝑠 + 1

where ζ > 1 and τ ≜ τ1 τ2

• General Conclusions

1. The interacting system has a slower response.

(Example: consider the special case where  = 1= 2.)
79

2. Which two-tank system provides the best damping of inlet flow disturbances?
 Approximation of Higher-Order Transfer
Functions
In this section, we present a general approach for approximating high-
order transfer function models with lower-order models that have
Chapter 6

similar dynamic and steady-state characteristics.

In Eq. 6-4 we showed that the transfer function for a time delay can be
expressed as a Taylor series expansion. For small values of s,

e −θ 0 s  1 − θ 0 s (6-57)
80
 • An alternative first-order approximation consists of the transfer
function,

−θ 0 s 1 1
e =  (6-58)
θ0 s 1 + θ0 s
Chapter 6

where the time constant has a value of θ0 .

• Equations 6-57 and 6-58 were derived to approximate time-delay terms.

• However, these expressions can also be used to approximate the pole or

zero term on the right-hand side of the equation by the time-delay term
on the left side. 81
Skogestad’s “half rule”

• Skogestad (2002) has proposed a related approximation method for

higher-order models that contain multiple time constants.

• He approximates the largest neglected time constant in the following

manner.

• One half of its value is added to the existing time delay (if any) and the
other half is added to the smallest retained time constant.

• Time constants that are smaller than the “largest neglected time constant”
are approximated as time delays using (6-58).
82
 Example 6.4
Consider a transfer function:

K ( −0.1s + 1)
G (s) = (6-59)
( 5s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.5s + 1)
Chapter 6

Derive an approximate first-order-plus-time-delay model,

Ke −θs
G (s) = (6-60)
τs + 1
using two methods:
(a) The Taylor series expansions of Eqs. 6-57 and 6-58.
(b) Skogestad’s half rule

Compare the normalized responses of G(s) and the approximate

83

models for a unit step input.

 Solution

(a) The dominant time constant (5) is retained. Applying

the approximations in (6-57) and (6-58) gives:

−0.1s + 1  e−0.1s (6-61)

Chapter 6

and
1 1
 e−3s  e−0.5 s (6-62)
3s + 1 0.5s + 1

Substitution into (6-59) gives the Taylor series

approximation, GTS ( s ) :

Ke −0.1s e −3s e −0.5 s Ke −3.6 s

GTS ( s ) = = (6-63)
5s + 1 5s + 1
84
(b) To use Skogestad’s method, we note that the largest neglected
time constant in (6-59) has a value of three.

• According to his “half rule”, half of this value is added to the next largest time
constant to generate a new time constant
τ = 5 + 0.5(3) = 6.5.
• The other half provides a new time delay of 0.5(3) = 1.5.
• The approximation of the RHP zero in (6-61) provides an additional time delay of 0.1.
• Approximating the smallest time constant of 0.5 in (6-59) by (6-58) produces an
additional time delay of 0.5.
• Thus the total time delay in (6-60) is,

θ = 1.5 + 0.1 + 0.5 = 2.1

85
 and G(s) can be approximated as:

Ke −2.1s
GSk ( s ) = (6-64)
6.5s + 1

The normalized step responses for G(s) and the two approximate
models are shown in Fig. 6.10. Skogestad’s method provides
Chapter 6

better agreement with the actual response.

Figure 6.10
Comparison of the
actual and
approximate models
for Example 6.4.
 Example 6.5
Consider the following transfer function:
K (1 − s ) e − s
G (s) = (6-65)
(12s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.2s + 1)( 0.05s + 1)
Chapter 6

Use Skogestad’s method to derive two approximate models:

(a) A first-order-plus-time-delay model in the form of (6-60)
(b) A second-order-plus-time-delay model in the form:

Ke−θs
G (s) = (6-66)
( τ1s + 1)( τ2 s + 1)
Compare the normalized output responses for G(s) and the
approximate models to a unit step input. 87
 Solution

(a) For the first-order-plus-time-delay model, the dominant time constant

(12) is retained.
• One-half of the largest neglected time constant (3) is allocated to the retained
Chapter 6

time constant and one-half to the approximate time delay.

• Also, the small time constants (0.2 and 0.05) and the zero (1) are added to the
original time delay.

• Thus the model parameters in (6-60) are:

3.0
θ = 1+ + 0.2 + 0.05 + 1 = 3.75
2
3.0
τ = 12 + = 13.5 88

2
 (b) An analogous derivation for the second-order-plus-time-delay
model gives:

0.2
θ = 1+ + 0.05 + 1 = 2.15
2
τ1 = 12, τ 2 = 3 + 0.1 = 3.1
Chapter 6

In this case, the half rule is applied to the third largest time constant
(0.2). The normalized step responses of the original and approximate
transfer functions are shown in Fig. 6.11.

89