Computer Networks ( Notes by K.

Shridhar)

What is Computer Network :

Several devices connected to each other for reliable communication/transfer of data constitute a
network A network can consist of a computer, a fax machine, a printer, a camera, a cell phone etc.
When two or more computers joined together with the help of communication channel ( wired or
wireless channel) forms a computer network. In other words a collection of interconnected computers
which can share data or devices is called Computer Network. While communicating or transmitting data
over network it follows certain rules, these rules are called protocol. A network is capable of sharing
hardware and software resources.

Advantages of Computer Networks:

A network uses a distributed processing system in which a task is divided among several devices which
are interconnected with each other. Therefore, instead of a single computer being responsible for
completing the entire task, all the interconnected computers are responsible for completing the task
assigned to them. Networks have several advantages these are as follows:

Advantages of Network

Resource sharing :

Main advantage of network is to share hardware and software resources. In a small computer network
generally a printer is shared with all the computers, where any user can use that printer, in the same
way users of network can share their databases, audio and video files. Antivirus software, application
software, scanners etc.

Improved communication:

A computer network enables fast, reliable and secure communication between users. It saves time and
offers easy communication methods. A network allows users to easily update information from
anywhere, updated information reflects very quickly among users.

Reduced communication cost

Using public network we can send a large quantity of data at a low cost. Internet and mobile networks
are playing very important role in sending and receiving text, image, audio and video data at a low cost.

Reliability of Data
Reliability means backing up of data, i.e data can be copied and stored on multiple computers. In a
network system all computers are connected to each other, thus , the information or message which is
shared by each device is stored on their respective workstation (Computer). If due to some data gets
corrupted and thus becomes unavailable on one computer , a copy of the same data can be accessed
from another workstation. For further use.

Central Storage of Data:

Data can be stored on central node( Host/ Server) that can be shared and made available to each and
every user in a organization with centralized processing, data is stored and retrieved from host/server,
thus there is no duplication of data and almost no data redundancy.

Disadvantages of Networks

1. Systems are more sophisticated and complex to run. This can add to costs and we may need
specialist staff to run the network

2. If networks are badly managed, services can become unusable and productivity fails.

3. If software and files are held centrally, it may be impossible to carry out any work if server fails.

4. File security is more important especially if connected to WANs e.g protection from virus.

Components of Computer Network

There are many components that together make a network. Major components of a computer network
are:

▪ Hosts/Nodes

▪ Servers

▪ Client

▪ Network hardware

▪ Communication channel

▪ Software

▪ Network services
 ▪ Network Interface Unit

▪ IP address

▪ Domain name

▪ Host or Nodes

▪ Host or node refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to share
the resources of the network. A computer becomes a workstation of network as soon as it is
attached to network . So our PCs, laptops, smart phones etc, when connected to a network
become hosts.

▪ Server :

▪ A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and hardware resources on the
network . A server is responsible for making the networking tasks happen. It facilitates
networking tasks like sharing of data, resource sharing, communication among hosts etc. On a
small network all the shareable sources is stored on the server. A network can have more than
one server also. Each server has a unique name on the network. On big networks there can be
servers dedicated to specialized tasks like file server, a printer server and so on.

▪ Client :

▪ Client is a computer that requests for some services from a server. In other words a server
computer serves the requests of client computers.

Network Hardware:

To establish computer network apart from the computer systems network requires network hardware
to carry out various roles, such as establishing connections, controlling network traffic etc. There are
many different types of hardware that are required in a network. Some examples of network hardware
are:

a. Network Interface Unit : It is a network card attached to a host so as to establish network

connections. Each NIC card has unique physical address called the MAC address, it is also called
NIU (network interface unit) or TAP(Terminal Access Point)

b. Hub, Switch, Router these are connectivity devices.

Communication Channel :

In computer network host and other client systems are connected to each other with the
communication channels, these channels establish the communication link between network systems.
The communication channels can either be wired or wireless

Wired communication channels : wired communication media or guided media connects the network in
a local area or metropolitan area network. Wired media such as twisted pair cable, coaxial cables, fibre
optic cable. Etc. Wireless media such as Microwaves, radio waves, satellites, infrared waves laser etc.

Software:

Networking software makes network possible. Software comprise of network protocols, network
operating system. Etc. A protocol refers to a pre decided set of rules using which all parties of network
connect and interact with one another. A network operating system is a specialized operating system
that can handle networking tasks.

Network Services :

Theses refer to the applications that provide different functionalities over a network, such as DNS (
Domain Name System), File sharing, VOIP (voice over IP) and many more.

IP Address:

Every machine on a TCP bar IP network has unique identifying number called an IP address.

Domain Name:

It is a way to identify and locate the computers connected to the internet it must be unique.

Types of Networks

Computer network means a group of networked computers which are linked by means of a
communication system it can be wired or wireless. A network can be of few computers or more then
100 computers depends upon number of users, thus networks vary in size complexity and geographical
spread. Based on geographical spread networks can be classified as –

PAN

LAN
MAN

WAN

PAN( personal area network):

A PAN is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters using USB connectivity or wireless systems like Bluetooth or
infrared. PANs are used to connect computers, laptops, mobiles and other IT enabled devices to
transfer files including emails, digital photos, audio and video etc. Mobile to mobile, laptop to laptop, PC
to PC connection can be established in PAN.

LAN ( Local Area Network)

Small computer networks that are confined to a localised area within an office, a building or a factory )
are known as local area networks. The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resources sharing.
The hardware as well as software resources are shared through LANs. For example users can share
data, programs, printers, hard disks, modems etc. Our school computers which are connected together
is example of LAN. Computers connected to the server are called workstations on most LANs cables are
used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

MAN ( Metropolitan Area Network) :

MAN is larger then a LAN and can cover a city and its surrounding areas. group of LANs within city
connected through wired or wireless media comes under MAN. A MAN usually interconnects a number
LANs and individual computers. It also shares computing resources among users. A MAN is typically
owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or a large corporation or business
corporate, a good example of MAN is the interconnected offices of a multinational corporations or cable
television network available in the whole city in Jagdalpur city A Vision Channel ( cable network ) is the
example of MAN.

WAN ( Wide Area Network )

The network spread across countries or on a very big geographical area are known as WAN. A wide area
network is group of computers that are separated by large distances and tied together. WAN can be a
group of LAN, and MAN spread across several locations and connected together through wired or
wireless media. The WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at
lesser costs and higher speeds. Computers connected in WAN generally uses public networks such as the
telephone systems, or leased lines ( fibber optics cable ) or satellites.

File server: A server is a computer that just serves the requests of doing some tasks, made by other
computers in its network. A file server serves the requests related to file sharing, storing etc. A print
server serves the printer related requests, and so on.

NIC (Network inter face card): provides the physical connection between the network and the
computer workstation.

Leased Lines : A leased line is a permanent telephone connection between two points set up by a
government- regulated organization that provides telecommunications services to the public such as
BSNL, Idea, vodaphone, Jio telecom , airtel etc.

Types of Networks by Component Roles

Another parameter based on which we can classify networks is the role played by network computers in
the network operation, on the basis of this there can be two types of computer networks :

1. Peer to Peer networks

2. Client/Server Networks

Peer to Peer Network :

Peer to peer networks are popular as home networks and for use in small companies as they are
inexpensive and easy to install, but they are limited in scope and are difficult to secure. Computers that
serve on a peer to peer computers are often termed as non dedicated servers. In peer to peer network
there is no computer designated as in charge of network operation each computers controls its own
information and plays role of either a client or a server depending upon what is needed at that point of
time. In this network clients are not dependent on a central server.

Client Server Network

In this model the data is stored on powerful computers called servers. These are centrally housed and
maintained by a system administrator. All the client systems are connected to the server and server
serves to the clients systems. Client server network is also called master-slave networks. In this network
server controls security of the network, client systems are dependent on the server. On a network there
may be several servers that allow workstations to share specific resources, there may be server
exclusively for serving files related requests like storing files, this server is know as file server, there may
be printer server and modem server. The key point about a client server model is that the client is
dependent on the server to provide and manage the information. Ex. Websites are stored on web
servers a web browser is the client which makes a request to the server and the server sends the
website to the browser. In client server network all the data backup is taken in the server system.

Client computer : A client computer is computer or other device on the network that requests and
utilizes network resources. A server is a computer on network dedicated to processing client requests.
Switching Techniques

 One major purpose and use of networks is the sharing or transfer of data and information. For
transmitting data over network various switching techniques are used such as

 Circuit switching

 Message switching

 Packet switching

Circuit Switching :

In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two computers is established and
then data are transmitted from the source PC to Destination PC. In this technique computers are
connected through telephone lines(copper path). Data transmitted over telephone lines between to
computers.

Message Switching:

In this technique the source computer sends data or the message to the switching office first which
stores the data in its buffer, and when ever switching office gets free link then sends the data to another
switching office, this process is continued until the data are delivered to the destination computers. This
technique is also know as store and forward technique ( it is just like post office) receives letters (data)
stores it and forward the letter(data) when ever it get link.

Packet Switching

In this technique data gets transmitted in the form of data packets, there is no limit on block size. A fixed
size of data packet which can be transmitted across the network is specified. Basic difference between
message switching and packet switching is in message switching data stored in disk but in packet
switching fixed size of data packets are stored in main memory of the receiver computer, this improves
the performance as the access time( time taken to access a data packet) is reduced.
Data Communication Terminologies

In data communication or data transmission the common terminologies used are as follows :-

1. Data channel : channel is the medium used to carry information or data from one point to
another ( wired channel or wireless channel)

2. Baud/BPS : It is the unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of a

communication channel. bps ( bits per second) it refers to the speed at which data transfer is
measured. It is generally used to measure the speed of information through a high speed phone
lines or modems. Bytes per second is denoted as Bps ( Bytes per second ) notice that Capital B
and small b . The rate of thousand bits per second is know as kbps and a rate of thousand bytes
per second is denoted by Kbps ( Small k and capital K). A rate of million bits per second is
denoted through mbps( mega bits per second ) mega Bytes per second is denoted as Mbps (
small m and capital M)

3. Bandwidth:

4. The bandwidth refers to the width of allocated band of frequencies to a channel. Bandwidth is
directly proportional to the amount of data transmitted or received per unit time. Bandwidth is
proportional to the complexity of the data for a given level of system performance. For example
it takes more bandwidth to download a photograph in one second then it takes to download a
page of text in one second. High bandwidth channels are called broadband channels and low
bandwidth channels are called narrowband channels. 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G are the different
bandwidth (spectrums) techniques which provides low to high data transmission on the
networks. In digital systems, bandwidth is defined in terms of the difference between the
highest frequency signal component and the lowest frequency signal component. Frequency is
measured in cycles per second. i.e. hertz. Generally TV broadcast video signal has a bandwidth
of 6 megahertz ( 6MHz)

5. Data Transfer Rates:

6. The data transfer rate represents the amount of data transferred per second by a
communications channel or a computing or storage device. Tata rate is measured in units of bits
per second (bps) bytes per second (Bps) other data transfer rates are kbps, Kbps,
mbps,Mbps,gbps,Gbps ect. 64 kbps is 64000 bits per second.

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Data Transmission Media

Transmission Media or communication channels means that connecting cables or connecting media.
Communication media through which the network gets connected. There are two types of
communication media, guided media and unguided media. The guided media include cables and
unguided media include waves through air, water or vacuum.

Guided Media :

1. Twisted pair cable : The most common form of wiring in data communication application is the
twisted pair cable. It is the basis for most internal office telephone wiring. It consists of two
identical wires wrapped together in a double helix. Different types and categories of twisted pair
cable exist, but they all have two things in common : (a) the wires come in pair (b) the pairs of
wires are twisted around each other. The twisting of wires reduces crosstalk, the bleeding of a
signal from one wire to another and which can corrupt signal and cause network errors. This
form of signal interference is called crosstalk.

Advantages of twisted pair:

1. it is simple

2. It is easy to install and maintain

3. It is physically flexible.

4. It has a low weight

5. It can be easily connected.

6. It is very inexpensive

Disadvantages of Twisted pair

The major disadvantages are:

1. It is incapable of carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.

2. Its low bandwidth capabilities make it unsuitable for broadband applications.

3. It supports maximum data rates 1 Mbps without conditioning and 10 Mbps with conditioning.

Types of twisted pair cables

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP)

Unshielded twisted pair supports data transmission from 4Mbps to 40 Gbps, different grades of UPT
cable supports 4 Mbps , 10 Mbps, 16 Mbps, 1000 Mbps, 10000 Mbps 10 Gbps and 40 Gbps data
transmission rates.

Shielded twisted pair cable comes with shielding of the individual pairs of wires. The advantage of STP
over UTP is that it offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to shielding, but it is
heavier and costlier than UTP and proper grounding at both ends.

Coaxial Cable

Generally we all have seen this cable attached with our TV set top box. This type of cable consists of a
solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or wire shield, each separated by some kind of plastic
insulator. The inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground. The data transmission
characteristics of coaxial cable are considerably better than those of twisted pair.

Advantages :

1. The data transmission is better then twisted pair cable

2. It can be use for shared cable network.

3. It can be used for broadband transmission

4. Offer higher bandwidths upto 400 MBPS

Disadvantage :

1. Expensive compared to twisted pair cable

2. Heavier than twisted paid

3. The coaxial cable are not compatible with twisted pair cables.

There are two types of coaxial cable thick net and thin net. Using thick net cable nodes of network can
be joined upto 500 meters long and using thin net cable nodes having maximum distance of 185 meters
can be joined

Optical Fibers
Optical fibers consist of thin strands of glass like material which are so constructed that they carry light
from a source at one end of the fiber to a detector at the other end. The light sources used are either
light emitting diodes or laser diodes. The data to be transmitted is modulated onto the light beam using
frequency modulation techniques. The signals can then be picked up at the receiving end and
demodulated. The bandwidth of the medium is potentially very high.

Advantages :

1. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference, means it is free from EMI( Electromagnetic
Interference) since no electrical signals are carried .

2. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.

3. It offers secure and high speed transmission for a very long distance at a stretch.

4. It can be used for broadband transmission where several channel (i.e bands of frequency) are
handled in parallel and where it is also possible to mix data transmission channels .

Disadvantages :

1. Installation problem. Special care to make them sufficiently robust for an office environment.

2. Connecting two fibers together or a light source to a fiver is difficult process.

3. Light can reach the receiver out of phase

4. Connection losses are common problems

5. Fiber optic cables are more difficult to solder.

6. Fiber optic cable are the most expensive of all the cables.

Fibre optic cable can be either single node that supports a segment length of upto 2kms and band width
of upto 100 Mbps or multi node with segment length of 100 kms and bandwidth of 2 Gbps.

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Unguided or Wireless Media

Wireless networks are very popular nowadays as they use electromagnetic waves for communication.
Wireless means no physical connection between devices. This medium uses radio waves, microwaves,
satellite and other short frequency waves like infrared, bluetooth, WiFi etc. Wireless network uses high
frequency radio waves for communication between nodes. Wireless networks allow sharing of devices
without any networking cable.

Radio Waves : Radio communication uses radio frequencies in the range of 3 KHz to 3 GHz, signals are
modulated on high speed radio waves carrier frequency using amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
Modulation (FM) , phase modulation (PM) etc. This media is used for both indoor and out door, AM
,MW, FM radio broadcast within a city.

Advantages :

1. It covers large span of area and offers mobility.

2. It can communicates in all directions.

3. Transmitter and receiver antenna do not need to be physically aligned

4. It is cheaper than laying cables and fibres.

Disadvantages:

1. It expensive and unsecured mode of communication .

2. weather condition can effect communication.

Microwaves :

Microwaves travels in a straight line between two antennas. Antennas must be aligned properly with
each other for better communication like we align our dish TV antennas to receive signals properly.

Advantages:

1. It is a cheap source of communication as it does not use cables and there is no cost of
maintaining repeaters.

2. Microwaves system permit data transmission rates of about 16 giga bits per seconds.

3. The area coverage through the is quite large.

 4. The heavy usage of intercontinental traffic makes the satellite commercial attractive.

Disadvantages:

1. It is unsecured communication.

2. Signals can be split and propagated in different directions in air and are received by the receiver
antenna with a reduced strength.

3. Weather can effect the communication.

4. The cost of installing towers, antennas is relatively high .

Infrared waves :

Infrared wave network allows devices to communicate within a short range of 300 GHz to 400 THz(
approx 5 meters) the infrared transmission is used in modern remote operated electronic products like
TV, cordless phones, toys etc.,

Advantages:

1. It is a line of sight transmission.

2. No government licence is required

3. It does not cross solid objects.

4. It allows short rage of communication.

Disadvantages:

1. At any time only two devices can communicate

2. The waves do not cross any solid object in between

3. Performance drops with longer distances.

Bluetooth : Bluetooth is a wireless technology used for creating personal networks operational within a
range of 10 meters. It is used to establish PAN across handheld devices like a cell phone and Bluetooth
enabled computers.

Characteristics of Bluetooth Transmission:

 1. Line of sight between communicating devices not required

2. Bluetooth can connect up to eight devices simultaneously.

3. Data transfer rate is very slow ( up to 1 Mbps)

Satellite Link

Satellite data transmission uses microwaves (1.5 GHz to 20 GHz) as media. Satellites are used to
establish communication links among various earth based stations having antennas. Services like
DTH(TV),VSAT,GPS satellite phones etc., are offered by satellites. A satellite works like a trans receiver
antenna in space which receives regenerates and redirects signals.

Advantages:

1. It covers a larger geographical area.

2. It offers secure, uninterrupted and high quality transmission.

3. There are no line of sight restrictions such as natural mountains, tall buildings, towers, etc.

4. The position of earth stations which receive signals can be fixed or kept relatively mobile.

Disadvantages :

1. It is very expensive

2. It is slower than microwaves transmission

3. Te requires legal permissions.

4. Installation is extremely complex.

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Network Topologies

The pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is called the topology, in a network different
computers are connected to each other in particular structure that structure is called topology.
Topology is dependent on some important factors, such as :

Cost: A network should be cost effective, network administrator would try to minimize installation cost.
This may be achieved by using well understood media and also to a lesser extent, by minimizing the
distances involved

Flexibility : Network flexibility is depends upon the building or the office where we are installing
network, flexibility is also depends upon the topology where network administrator can move existing
nodes and adding new nodes.

Reliability : In the network if a particular node is fail or the entire network is fail to transmit data over
network, means that network is not reliable. The topology chosen for the network can help by allowing
the location of the fault to be detected and to provide some means of isolating it.

Types of Topology

Different types of topologies are:

Star topology

Bus topology

Ring topology

Tree topology

Mesh topology

Fully connected

Star topology : this topology is just star like structure, it consists of a central node to which all other
nodes are connected by a single path. It is the topology used in most existing information networks
involving data processing or voice communication.
Advantages of star topology :

1. Ease of service : number of connection provides easy access for service or reconfiguration of the
network

2. One device per connection : in this topology failure of a single connection typically involves
disconnecting one node from an otherwise fully function network.

3. Centralized control/problem diagnosis: if any node of the network is fail so problem can be
detected easily and that particular node can be deactivated.

4. Simple access protocol : because all the node are directly connected to central node so it is very
simple access protocol.

Disadvantages of star topology

1. Long cable length : because of each nodes is connected directly to central node so this topology
requires long cable length and quantity.

2. Difficult to expand: the addition of a new node to a star network involves a connection all the
way to the central node.

3. Central node dependency: in the topology if the central node is fail, then the entire network will
be fail, other nodes can’t access the information from the central node.

The Bus or linear topology

Another popular topology is Bus or linear topology, this consists of a single length of the transmission
media normally coaxial cable, onto which the various nodes are attached. The topology is used in
traditional data communication network where the host at one end of the bus communicates with
several terminals attached along its length. The transmission from any station travels the length of the
bus, in both directions, and can be received by all other stations. In this topology data is transmitted in
small blocks known as packets. A node wanting to transmit some data sends it in packets along the bus.
The destination device on identifying the address on the packets, copies the data onto its disk.

Advantages of Bus/linear Topology

1. Short cable length and simple wiring layout: because of common data path connecting all nodes
the bus topology allows a very short cable length to be sued .
 2. Resilient architecture : the bus architecture has an inherent simplicity that makes it very reliable
from a hardware point of view . There is a single cable through which all the data gets
transmitted where all the nodes are connected.

3. easy to extend. Additional nodes can be connected to an existing bus network at any point
along its length.

Disadvantages :

1. Fault diagnosis is difficult. Because control of the network is not centralized in any particular
node so detection of a fault may have to be performed from many points in the network .

2. Fault isolation is difficult: if a node is faulty on the bus, it must be rectified at the point where
the node is connected to the network .

3. Repeater configuration : to extend the network repeaters are used and then reconfiguration of
the network is necessary.

4. Nodes must be intelligent : each node on the network is directly connected to the central bus
this means that some way of deciding who can use the network at any given time must be
performed in each node.

Ring Topology

In this topology node are connected in circular or in the ring structure. In this topology each node is
connected to two and only two neighbouring nodes. Data is accepted from one of the neighbouring
nodes and is transmitted onwards to another , thus data travels in one direction only, from node to
node around the ring. After passing through each node it returns to the sending node, which removes
it.

Advantages of the ring topology:

1. Short cable length: in compare to bus and star topology in this topology length of the cable is
short, which increase network reliability.

2. Suitable for optical fibers: using optical fibers offers the possibility of very high speed
transmission.
Disadvantages :

1. Node failure causes network failure: if any one of the node is fail then entire network fails
because data travels through node to node in ring structure . Data can’t be travel until the
defective node has been removed from the ring.

2. Difficult to diagnose faults: the fact that failure of node node will affect all others has serious
implication for fault diagnosis it may be necessary to examine a series of adjacent nodes to
determine the faulty one.

3. Network reconfiguration is difficult: in this topology shut down a small section of the ring
while keeping the majority of it working normally.

To be continued ……..

Tree topology

Mesh topology

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Tree Topology

A variation of bus topology is the tree topology. The shape of the network is that of an inverted tree
with the central root branching and sub branching to the extremities of the network. Transmission in
this topology takes place in the same way as in the bus topology. In both cases there is no need to
remove packets from the medium because when a signal reaches the end of the medium , it is
absorbed by the terminators. Tree topology is best suited for applications which have hierarchical
flow of data and control.

Advantages of Tree topology

1. It uses point to point wiring for individual segments.

2. It is supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages

1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

3. It is more difficult to configure and wire then other topologies.

Mesh Topology

In this topology each node is connected to more than one node to provide an alternative route in the
case the host is either down or too busy. Mesh topology is good for long distance networking. The
mesh topology is commonly used in large internetworking environments with stars, rings, and buses
attached to each node. This is also ideal for distributed networks.

Advantages of mesh topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust and provides security and privacy

3. In this topology, fault diagnosis is easy.

Disadvantages

1. Its installation and configuration is difficult.

 2. Cabling cost is more for mesh topology

3. Bulk wiring is required for mesh topology.

Fully connected

When in a network each host is connected to other directly i.e there is a direct link between each
host, then the network is said to be fully connected.

How do you select topology for network installation ?

As we know there are different types of topologies present, while installing the network the factors
that we must keep in mind are:

Cruciality of work : network installation is depend upon how important and crucial works to be
performed for example military networks must not fail at any cost thus fully connected topology is a
preferred for Military networks.

Cost : keeping in mind the budget we should decide about a topology. Bus topology network may be
the least expensive way to install a network. Fully connected is the most expensive network.

Length of cable needed. :

sometimes length of cable must be saved on ; the linear bus topology network uses shorter lengths of
cable.

Future growth : if a network has to grow in future then the topology must support expansion with star
topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.

Communication media: sometimes, difficult places like hilly areas do not allow use of regular cables.
For such condition linear bus topology are not possible. The most common cable in schools is
unshielded twisted paid, which is often used with star topologies.

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Network Devices

Modem : Modulator and demodulator is the device which modulates digital data into analog data( a
data which can be carried by telephone lines ) and vice -versa . Its a peripheral that allows you to
connect and communicate with other computers through telephone lines. There are two verities of
modem a. Internal Modem b. External Modem. Internal modems are fixed inside the computer and
external modem kept outside the computer. Sometimes internal modems causes damage the mother
board due to thundershowers.

RJ-45 ( Registered Jack-45) it is an eight wire connector, which commonly used to connect computers
on the local area networks RJ-45 connector looks very much similar to standard telephone connector.

NIC(Network Interface Card): a stand alone computer must have a NIC to become a part of the
network. NIC connects computer together to make a network , and able to share information and
resources. Each NIC that is attached to a workstation has a unique number identifying it, which known
as node address. NIC is also known as Terminal Access Point(TAP) NIC is also called NIU ( Network
Interface Unit). Every NIC has a physical address known as MAC address( Media Access Control
Address) . MAC address is a 6 byte address with each byte separated by a colon a sample MAC address
could be : 10:B5:03:63:2E:FC, this number is assigned by the manufacturers, the first 3 parts of MAC
address is manufacturer ID and rest 3 parts is card number.

Hub :

A Hub is networking device having multiple ports that are used for connecting multiple computers or
segments of a LAN together. A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for
cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals, a hub is a multi-slot concentrators into which a
number of multi-ports cards can be plugged to provide additional access as the network grows in size.
There are two types of hubs, active hubs and passive hubs. Active hubs electrically amplify the signal
as it moves from one connected device to another. Passive hubs allow the signal to pass from one
computer to another without any change.

Switch : switch is another network device which interconnects computers or other devices . It filters
and forwards data packets across a network. It is a multiport device it is just looks like hub. Switch
sends data traffic only to appropriate connections. Switch establishes two lane communication,
facilitating send and receives at the same time. Does not share bandwidth each connection gets full
bandwidth, it is expensive then hub.
Repeater : A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long distance
transmission. A repeater is a device that electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts
it. Repeaters can be installed along the way to ensure that data packets reach their destination.

Bridge :

A bridge is a device that lets you link two networks together. Bridges are smart enough to know which
computers are on which side of the bridge, so they only allow those messages that need to get to the
other side. To cross the bridge. It can be used where two networks follow same protocols.

Router: it is also a device which forwards data from one network to another. A router works like a
bridge but can handle different protocols. If the destination is unknown to a router it sends the traffic
to another router which knows the destination . Data packets travels on network on a road map
called routing table, if a ling between tow routers fails, the sending router can determine an alternate
rout to keep traffic moving.

Gateway : a gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It establishes an

intelligent connection between a local network and external networks with completely different
structures. A gateway is actually a node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network.
A gateway is the computer that routes the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is
serving the web pages. In homes the gateway is the ISP(internet service provider) that connects the
user to the internet. Gateway acts as a proxy server, gateway is equipped with router and switch.

Network devices and Components Checklists

The following checklists provide a general idea of the components for different types of networks.

FOR BUILDING A SMALL LAN

 Clients computers with NICs installed

 Server

 Hub

 Cabling

 Networking operation system software

FOR CONNECTING OFFICES AND DEPARTMENTS

  Clients with NICs installed

 Servers

 Hubs

 Switch

 Cabling

 Network OS software

 Router for shared internet access(optional)

FOR CONNECTING DISPERSED OFFICE SITES

 Clients with NICs installed

 Servers

 Hubs

 Switches

 Routers at each location for WAN connections/shared internet access

 Access server for dialup access for remote users

 Cabling

 WAN services (ISDN/leased line etc. )

 Network OS software

Where to place server in a network ?

Best place to place the server is where the number of computers / workstations are more.

What is 80 / 20 rule ?

in the properly designed small to medium sized network environment, 80% of the traffic on a given
network segment is local and not more than 20% of the network traffic should need to move across a
backbone
Choose Twisted paid when ...

 Low cost – it is cheap

 Easy installation- easy to work with

 No high speed data requirements – it has low data rate (limited data rate (100 MHZ) and
limited bandwidth ( 1 MHZ)

 Transmission over a short range

 If used for analog transmission – amplifiers required every 5 km to 6 km

 If used for digital transmission – repeaters required every 2 km or 3 km

 Susceptible to interference and noise

Choose Coaxial Cable when .....

 Television signal distribution has to take place like tata sky , cable TV

 Long distance telephone transmission has to take place can carry 10000 voices calls
simultaneously

 Short distance computer systems links required

 Local area networks are to formed among some computers

 If used for analog transmission – amplifiers are required every 5 km to 6 km

 If used digital transmission – repeaters are required every 1 km

Choose Fibre Optics when .....

 Greater data capacity required – data rates of hundreds of Gbps

 Lower attenuation is required

 Secure transmission is desired

 Cost does not matter- most expensive of guided media

 Greater repeater spacing- 10 kms at least i.e repeater required every 10 kms
Choose Radio Waves when....

 Long distances are to be covered

 Signals must be able to penetrate walls, buildings

 Transmission must be omnidirectional ( in all directions)

 Health hazards involved

Choose Microwave when...

 Transmission should be in directional, in a specific direction straight line;

 Cheaper than other unguided media

 Can be used for long distance telephone service

 Requires repeaters every 30 miles; because of line of sight transmission, curvature of the
earth requires stations every 30 miles.

Choose Satellite when....

 When the transmission has to take place over a very large area of earth

 Can be used for long distance television distribution and long distance telephone transmission

 Expensive towers and repeaters

 Subject to interference such as passing airplanes and rain.

Choose Infrared when ....

 You want to transmit without any licensing hassles- no license needed

 Cannot penetrate solid walls.

 Within one room, very short distance transmission.

Practical Networking Examples