Chapter Two

Conduction Heat Transfer

Objectives of this Topics
 Develop deeper understanding of Fourier’s law
What are its origins?
What form does it take for different geometries?
 How thermal conductivity depends on physical nature of the
medium?
 Develop general Heat Equation
 What is one-dimensional and steady state conduction?
General Heat Equation
 Consider a homogeneous medium within which there is no
bulk motion.
 The temperature distribution T (x, y, z)
 Take a control volume dx, dy, dz
 Chose to formulate the first law at an instant of time
 Consider the energy process relevant to this control volume
 If there are temperature gradient conduction heat transfer will
occur across each of the control surface.
 The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control
surface at x, y, z coordinates indicates by , ,
 With in the medium there may be also an energy source
term associated with rate of thermal energy generation.
 ̇ is rate at which energy is generated per unit volume
[w/m3].
 There be also changes on the internal thermal energy stored
by the material.
 If the material is not experiencing change in phase, latent
energy is not relevant.
 is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal)
energy of the medium per unit volume.
 The general form of the conservation of energy
This is general form in cartesian coordinate of the heat diffusion equation
or heat equation
 If the thermal conductivity is constant

 At steady state conditions change in storage energy is Zero

 If the heat transfer is one-dimensional and there is no energy

generation
 The main important implication of this result is that under
steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no energy
generation.
The heat flux is constant in the direction of transfer
=0
 Cylindrical Coordinates

1 1
+ + + ̇ =

 Spherical Coordinates

1 1 1 sin
+ + ̇+
sin
Example
The temperature distribution across a wall 1m thick at certain instant
of time is given as T(x) = a + bx + cx2
Where T is oC and x is meter while a = 900oC, b = -300oC/m
and c=-50oc/m2
A uniform heat generation “q =1000w/m3 is present in the wall of
area 10m2 having the properties of density 1600kg/m3, k 40w/m.k and
specific heat capacity 4kJ/kg.k
I. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering wall and leaving the
wall?
II. Determine the rate if change of energy storage in the wall?
III. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x=0, 0.25,and
0.5?
Example 2

At a given instant of time the temp. distribution within an infinite

homogenous body is given by the function
T(z,y,z) =x2 – 2y2+ z2-xy+2yz
Assuming constant properties and no internal heat generation
determine the regions where the temperature changes with time
Boundary and Initial Conditions
 To determine the temperature distribution in a medium its
necessary to solve the appropriate form of heat equation.
 However such a solution depends on the physical conditions
existing at the boundaries of the medium.
 There are three boundary conditions commonly encountered in
heat transfer.
One-dimensional Steady-State Conduction
One-dimensional refers to the that only one coordinate is needed to
describe the spatial variation of the dependent variables.
In one-dimensional system
 Temperature gradients exists along in a single coordinate
direction
 Heat transfer occurs exclusively in that direction
When a system is characterized by a steady-state condition
 Temperature at each point is independent of time
For one-dimensional conduction in a plane wall temperature is
function of x-coordinate only, Heat is transferred exclusively in this
direction
Example
The plane wall separates two fluids of different temperature
Heat transfer occurs in three steps
 By convection from the fluid to the one end of the was Ts
 By conduction through the wall
 By convection from other part of the wall surface to the cold
temperature
Temperature Distribution
 The temperature in the wall can be determine by solving the heat
equation with proper boundary conditions.
 For steady-state conduction with no distributed source or sink
energy with in the wall the heat equation is.

One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall no heat

generation the heat flux is constant
 Thermal conductivity is constant
 Integrate twice the general equation
To obtain the constants of the integration C1 and C2 boundary conditions must be
introduced.
X=0 and x=L
T(0) = Ts1 and T(L) = Ts2
Applying the condition at x=0 the general solution

X=L
Substituting into the general solution the temperature distribution
in then

From the above equation temperature varies linearly with x.

The temperature distribution can help to determine the conduction
heat transfer.

Heat flux is
Thermal Resistance
 Thermal resistance is associated with the conduction of heat
 Defining resistance as rating of driving potential to the
corresponding transfer rate.
 The thermal resistance for conduction in plane is

 The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection
surface conditions
Heat transfer rate determine from separate consideration of each
element
qx is constant

Thermal resistance for radiation

Composite wall
 Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex
system like composite wall.
 It may involve any number of series and parallel thermal
resistance due to layers of different material.
 Consider the series of composite wall
 One-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system
Alternatively the heat transfer rate can be related to the temp.
difference and resistance associated with each element

Overall heat transfer coefficient U

Where ∆ is the overall temperature difference

The overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the total thermal
resistance.
Example
A house has a composite wall of wood, fiberglass insulation and
plaster board in the system. On a cold winter day the convection
heat transfer coefficient are ho = 60w/m2.k and hi =30w/m2. k the
surface area is 350m2.
I. Determine a symbolic expression for the total thermal
resistance of the wall?
II. Determine the total heat loss through the wall?
III. If the wind blowing violently raising to ho to 300w/m2k .
Determine the percentage increase in the heat loss?
IV. What is the controlling resistance that determine the amount
of heat through the wall?
Contact Resistance
 In composite system the temperature drop across the interface
between materials may be substantial.
 This temperature is because of thermal contact resistance (R”tc)
 Surface roughness cause the thermal contact resistance.
 Contact spots are interspersed with gaps that are in most instance
air filled.
 Heat transfer is due to conduction across the actual contact area and
to conduction and /or radiation across the gaps.
 The contact resistance may be viewed as two parallel resistance that
are due to
 Contact spots
 The gaps
 Contact area is typically small and especially for rough surface the
major contribution to the resistance is made by the gaps
 To reduce the thermal resistance there are some methods can
be employed
 By increasing the joint pressure
 By reducing the roughness of the mating surface
 By selecting an interfacial fluid of large thermal conductivity
Variable Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conductivity; a measure of the materials ability to
conduct heat is not always constant
 It can vary with factors
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Composition

This phenomena known as variable thermal conductivity

Significantly impacts the heat transfer processes.
 While there is no single universal equation several methods
can be used to estimate variable thermal conductivity.
 Empirical Correlations; these are based on experimental data
and often involve fitting equations to a measured value.
 Molecular Dynamics simulation; these are computer
simulation
 Theoretical Models; these are based on fundamental principle
of physics and can be used to predict a thermal conductivity
under certain condition
Radial system
 Cylindrical and spherical system often experience
temperature gradients in the radial direction.
 May therefore treated as one-dimensional and steady-state
condition
Cylinder
 Take an example hollow cylinder whose inner and outer
surface are exposed to fluids at different temperature.
 For steady-state condition with no heat generation, the heat
equation is:
 The rate at which energy is conducted across any cylindrical
surface in the solid expressed as.

 Where 2 is the area normal to the direction of heat

transfer

 Assuming k is constant and integrate the above heat

equation
B.C
 Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general
equation

 Heat transfer equation will be

 For Cylindrical wall thermal resistance is

 Consider a composite system
 Neglect interfacial contact resistance
 The heat transfer rate is expressed

 With overall heat transfer coefficient

Example
Steam flowing through a long thin- walled pipe maintains the pipe
wall at a uniform temperature of 500k the pipe is covered with an
insulation blanket comprised of two different materials A and B.
The interface between the two materials may be assumed to have
an infinite contact resistance and the entire outer surface is
exposed to air for which T=300k and h= 25w/m2k.
I. Sketch the thermal circuit of the system?
II. What is the total thermal heat loss from the pipe?
III. What are the outer surface temperature Ts2A, Ts2B?
The sphere
 For steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no heat
generation
=
Fourier’s law
The area is normal to the direction of heat transfer
 is constant independent of r

 Assume k is constant

 Thermal resistance is defined as the temperature difference

divided by the heat transfer rate
Example
A spherical thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid
nitrogen at 77k. The container has a diameter of 0.5m and is covered
with a evacuated reflective insulation composed of silica powder. The
insulation is 25mm thick and it’s outer surface is exposed to ambient
air at 300k. The convection coefficient is known to be 20w/m2k. The
latent heat of vaporization and the density of the liquid nitrogen are
2*105J/kg and 804kg/m3.
I. What is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen?
II. What is the rate of liquid boil-off?
Exercise
The energy transferred from the anterior chamber of the eye
through the cornea varies considerably depending on whether a
contact lens is worn. Treat the eye as a spherical system and
assume the system to be as steady-state.
The convection coefficient ho is unchanged with and without the
contact lens in place. The cornea and lens cover one third of the
spherical surface area.
I. Construct the thermal circuit labeling all potentials and flows
for the system excluding the contact lens and including the
contact lens. Write resistance elements in terms of
appropriate parameter.
II. Determine the heat loss from the anterior chamber with and
with out contact lens?
Critical Radius of Insulation
 Insulation is a material used to reduced heat transfer.
 Commonly applied in pipes
There specific thickness is critical radius of insulation where heat
loss is minimized
Heat Loss with Insulation
 It creates an additional layer with lower thermal conductivity than
the pipe material.
 The insulation also adds an outer surface area which can increase
convective heat loss.
 Critical radius of insulation is the thickness at which the
combined effect of reduced conduction and increased convection
results in the minimum heat loss.
Implication
 Thin insulation; for pipes with radius smaller than the critical
radius actually increase the heat loss
 Thick insulation; for pipes with a radius larger than the critical
radius decrease the heat loss
 Optimal insulation: to minimize the heat loss the insulation
thinness should be equal to or greater than the critical radius
Factors affecting critical radius
 Insulation material
 Surrounding environment
 Pipe material
Practical application
The concepts of critical radius is essential in various industries
 Energy conservation
 Process control
 Building Insulation
Example
The possible existence of an optimum insulation thickness for
radial system is suggested by the presence of competing effects
associated with an increase in this thickness. Although the
conduction resistance increase with addition of insulation the
convection resistance decrease due to increasing outer surface
area.
Hence there may exist an insulation thickness that minimize heat
loss by maximizing the total resistance to heat transfer. Resolve
these issues by considering the following system
I. A thin walled copper tube of radius is used to transport a low-
temperature refrigerant and is at a temperature Ti that is less that
that of the ambient air at Ta around the tube. Is there any optimum
thickness associated with application of insulation to the tube?
II. Confirm the above result by computing the total thermal resistance
per unit length of the tube a 10mm diameter tube having the
following insulation thickness 0, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 40mm
The insulation is composed of cellular glass and the outer
surface convection coefficient is 5w/m2k
Heat Transfer from Extended Surface
 Until now we have considered heat transfer from the boundaries of
solid to be in the same direction as heat transfer by conduction in the
solid.
 For an extended surface the direction of heat transfer from the
boundaries is perpendicular to the principal direction of heat transfer
in the solids.
In order to increase the heat transfer rate at plane wall there are two was
with out changing the geometry of the plane.
 Convection coefficient h could be increase by increasing the fluid
velocity
 Fluid temperature T∞ could be decrease
But the above two options have additional cost and for fan and cooler
The third option heat transfer rate increase by increasing the surface area
across which the convection occurs.
This may be done by employing fins that extends from the wall into the
surrounding fluids
There are different fin configurations
 A straight fin: any extended surface that attached to the plane
 Annular fin: one that is circumferentially attached to the cylinder
To determine the heat transfer rate associated with fin
Temperature distribution along the fin have to be obtained
By assuming the following
 One- dimensional condition in the longitudinal (x) direction
 Temperature is uniform
 Steady- state condition thermal conductivity is constant
 Radiation from surface is negligible
 No heat generation and convection heat transfer coefficient h is
constant
Energy conservation

Fourier’s law

Ac is cross-sectional area

Convection heat transfer

dAs is surface area

This result provides a general form of the energy equation for an
extended surface
Fin of Uniform Cross-sectional Area
To solve the above general heat equation for an extended surface it
needs to be more specific about the geometry
For the simplest case of straight rectangular and pin fins of uniform
cross-section
Each fin is attached to the base surface temperature T(0) = Tb and
extends into the fluids of temperature T∞
Ac is constant and As = Px
Exercise
1. The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials A, B,
and C the thermal conductivity of material A and C are 20w/m
k and 50w/m k there thickness are LA 0.3m, LB 0.15m and Lc
0.15m. Under steady state condition Tso 20oC and Tsi =600oC
and the oven air temperature is 800oC hi 25w/m2 K. what is
the value of thermal conductivity of material B, KB?
2. Two stainless steel plates 10mm thick are subjected to contact
pressure if 1bar under a vacuum conditions for which there is
overall temperature drop of 100oC across the plate.
A. What is the heat flux through the plates?
B. What is the temperature drop across the contact plane?
Rtc of stainless steel is 15*10-4m2 K/w
3. A thin electrical heater is inserted between a long circular rod
and a concentric tube with inner and outer radii of 20 and
40mm. The thermal conductivity is 0.15w/m k and 15w/m k, the
outer surface temperature is -15oC and ho = 50w/m2 k .
A. Determine the electrical power per unit length of the
cylinder that is required to maintain the outer surface of
the cylinder 5oC?
B. What is the temperature at the center of the cylinder A?