Energy 283 (2023) 129075

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Energy
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A novel inlet air cooling system to improve the performance of intercooled

gas turbine combined cycle power plants in hot regions
Yousef N. Dabwan a, b, Liang Zhang c, **, Gang Pei a, *
a
Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, China
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sana’a University, Sana’a, Yemen
c
School of Automotive and Transportation Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Dr L Luo In hot climates, the entry of high-temperature air into the compressor of intercooled gas turbine power plants
(IcGTCC) can lead to reduced electricity production during peak demand periods. To address this issue, this study
Keywords: proposes a novel inlet air cooling (IAC) system for improving the performance of IcGTCC in hot regions. This
Inlet air cooling system utilizes waste heat from the intercooler to cool the compressor’s inlet air via absorption chillers. The
Intercooled gas turbine
performance of this system was evaluated and compared to four popular IAC technologies: evaporative cooling,
Combined cycle
solar-powered absorption cooling, steam-operated absorption cooling, and vapor compression cooling. Addi­
Performance improvement
Absorption cooling tionally, the expected annual profit and payback period were estimated. Results show that the proposed IAC
system resolves the drawbacks of IcGTCC in hot regions, increasing the power output by 19% and the overall
efficiency by 2.3%. It is estimated that the proposed IAC system can improve plant efficiency by 8–18%
compared to literature designs, leading to higher annual profits (66% and 10% higher than steam and me­
chanical cooling systems, respectively). Moreover, it has a short payback period of 1.74 years, which is 3%, 67%,
and 85% shorter than mechanical, steam, and solar cooling systems, respectively, making it a highly cost-
effective solution.

significant improvement in the power plant’s performance [9,10].

This study conducted an extensive review of compressor inlet air
1. Introduction and background
cooling (IAC) technologies applied to gas turbine power plants. The
findings of this investigation are outlined in Table 1, which demon­
Gas turbines powered by natural gas are becoming increasingly
popular in power plants due to their superior efficiency and low emis­ strates the different air cooling technologies in use for simple and
combined cycle power plants. Each technology has its own advantages
sions levels [1]. Unfortunately, these gas turbine engines suffer from
their inability to maintain efficient operation at high ambient temper­ and disadvantages depending on environmental conditions, cooling
capacity, power increase, economic feasibility, and technical aspects
atures [2,3]. Every 1 ◦ C increase in ambient temperature above ISO
conditions causes a 0.92% decrease in power output and a 0.06% [10].
Two of the most widely employed cooling technologies for gas tur­
decrease in thermal efficiency [4]. This is because a rise in temperature
decreases the ambient air density, reducing volumetric efficiency and bine power plants are direct evaporative cooling (EC) and fogging
consequently lowering output power and overall efficiency [5–7]. This cooling (FC). EC is a process in which water is either injected directly
decrease in output power is further amplified when electricity demand into an inlet air stream (conventional evaporative) or air is passed over a
increases (usually during peak use times such as hot summer days), wet surface (media evaporative) [11–16]. This process can reduce the
leading to a substantial burden on the power plant [8]. To address this air temperature from its dry bulb temperature to nearly its wet bulb
issue, researchers proposed different inlet air cooling (IAC) technologies temperature. However, fogging is more efficient at cooling the air to the
to reduce the temperature of the inlet air before it is drawn into the wet bulb temperature [17–24]. A disadvantage of both EC and FC is that
compressor [9]. Cooling the inlet air to the compressor increases its they rely heavily on low relative humidity and water availability, as well
density, resulting in a higher flow rate for the same volume and thus a as having capacity limitations [5,25–27]. They can also cause the

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Zhang), [email protected] (G. Pei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129075
Received 10 May 2023; Received in revised form 6 September 2023; Accepted 11 September 2023
Available online 22 September 2023
0360-5442/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Nomenclature o Outlet
o&m Operation and maintenance
C Cost (USD) net Net
LHV Lower heating value (kJ/kg) ref Reference
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) w Water
hair Enthalpy of dry air [kJ/kg]
hg Enthalpy of saturated vapor (kJ/kg) Abbreviation
hw Enthalpy of water (kJ/kg) AB Absorption chiller
H Operational time of the power plant in a year APP Additional annual profit
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s) EV Evaporative cooling
ṁair Mass flow rate of air (kg/s) FC Fogging cooling
ṁcw Mass flow rate of condensed water (kg/s) GE General Electric Company
ṁEC Mass flow rate of water consumption by evaporative cooler GT Gas turbine
(kg/s) HPC High-pressure compressor
P Price (USD) HPT High-pressure turbine
IAC Inlet air cooling
Ẇ Power (kW)
ISO International Standard Organization
Q̇ Heat rate (kW)
IcGT Intercooled gas turbine
Q̇CL Cooling load (kW) IcGTCC Intercooled gas turbine combined cycle power plant
Greek letters LNG Liquified natural gas
ɳ Efficiency (%) LPC Low-pressure compressor
LPT Low-pressure turbine
Subscripts M− cycle Maisotsenko cycle
aux Auxiliary PBP Payback period
cc Combustion chamber SFC Specific fuel consumption
e Exit ST Steam turbine
elec Electricity Ref Reference
i Inlet VC Vapor compression
inv investment

deterioration of turbine blades due to erosion and corrosion over time that direct evaporative cooling and fogging cooling systems are more
[9]. According to the literature in Table 1, the utilization of EC and FC economical than other IAC technologies, but they are not as effective as
can boost the power output of gas turbine plants by a range of 2–10% chillers due to wet bulb temperature limits. Of the available technolo­
and 10–17%, respectively. gies, absorption cooling has been identified as the most efficient and
Another inlet air cooling (IAC) technology is mechanical cooling, visible IAC solution for gas turbine power plants. It is capable of
also known as vapor compression cooling [28–33]. This process relies on reducing turbine inlet temperature and can be powered by either waste
a vapor compression refrigerator to cool the compressor’s intake air, heat from gas turbines or solar energy [8,58–60,63]. Depending on
which can reduce the temperature to 5 ◦ C [34]. However, this tech­ economic and technical constraints, an optimal compressor inlet air
nology comes with a high capital and operating cost, as well as a cooling technology can be selected to best meet the power plant’s
requirement for power from the gas turbine output, leading to a partial operational requirements.
reduction in power generation. Despite these drawbacks, research has Recently, many researchers have proposed hybrid cooling systems as
shown that VC can improve the power output of a gas turbine power an efficient and cost-effective IAC solution for gas turbine power plants
plant by 8–22% [28–33]. [64–71]. Barakat et al. [66] investigated the potential of augmenting gas
Absorption cooling (AB) is also an attractive option for IAC as it can turbine performance by integrating an earth-to-air cooler with fogging
be driven by the waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and has no prac­ techniques, leading to an improvement of up to 9.8%. Zeitoun [68]
tical limit on the achievable compressor inlet air temperatures [35–44]. explored the effectiveness of dual-stage direct and indirect evaporative
Studies have shown that this system can increase the power supply of gas coolers for inlet air cooling in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, resulting in an in­
turbine power plants by 8–22% [35–44]. crease of up to 16% in electricity generation capacity. Sadighi Dizaji
Thermal energy storage technologies are also used to cool intake air et al. [69] proposed the combination of a Maisotsenko (M-cycle) cooler
in gas turbine power plants. This cooling system utilizes mechanical with an absorption chilling unit, demonstrating that the M-Cycle is a
chillers (vapor compression) to produce cold energy during times of low cost-effective solution that lowers the ambient temperature to the dew
consumption, such as at night, and store it for peak operating hours point with no additional moisture and reduces the necessary chilling
[45–47]. This cooling system requires low electrical power during peak capacity of the absorption unit. Similarly, Pourhedayat et al. [70] found
times, and can result in a 4–26% improvement in power output. that using a combination of M-cycle and a direct evaporative cooler can
The cold energy utilization of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is an result in a 29% boost in gas turbine power output. Lastly, Chen et al.
additional method of IAC employed in gas turbine power plants. It [71] developed a hybrid IAC system for combined cycle power plants
operates by utilizing the cooling capacity associated with the LNG using adsorption cooling and ice slurry thermal energy storage, showing
pressure drop to cool the compressor’s inlet air, resulting in a 0.5–15% that increasing the scale of cooling energy storage leads to a higher daily
improvement in power output [48–53]. Unlike other IAC systems, this electrical power increment, albeit with a decreasing rate of growth.
cooling system has no time restrictions on its cooling operation but is Intercooled gas turbines (IcGT) are becoming increasingly popular
only suitable for natural gas power plants. due to their superior performance and energy efficiency compared to
Multiple studies have been conducted to compare the efficiency and conventional gas turbines [72–77]. The air cooling process between the
effectiveness of various IAC technologies [8,55–63]. It has been found two compressor stages of an IcGT reduces compression power and

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Table 1
Summary of published studies on compressor IAC of gas turbine power plants.
IAC technology Ref. Type of gas turbine plant Ambient conditions Reported outcomes

Direct evaporative cooling (EC)

[11] Simple cycle Hot-arid, Ta (15–47 ◦ C) Power: +9.44%, Efficiency: +4.1%
[12] Simple cycle Hot-arid, Ta (77 ◦ C) Power: +2–5%
[13] Simple cycle Hot-humid, Ta (35 ◦ C), RH Power: +10%, Efficiency: +1.1%
(53%)
[14] Simple cycle Hot-humid, Ta (9–32 ◦ C), RH Power: +7%, Efficiency: +2.7%
(60%)
[15] Simple cycle Subtropical-humid, Ta Power: +11 MW
(9–32 ◦ C)
[16] Combined cycle Hot-arid, Ta (0–37 ◦ C), RH Power: +6.2 MW
(10–70%)
Fogging cooling (FC)
[17] Simple cycle Hot-arid, Ta (31–35 ◦ C) Power: +13%, Efficiency: +1%
[18] Simple cycle Hot-humid, Ta (35 ◦ C), RH Power: +10%
(53%)
[19] Simple cycle Subtropical-humid, Ta (29 ◦ C), Power: +↑, efficiency: +↑
RH (45%)
[20] Simple cycle Subtropical-humid, Ta Power: +7%, Efficiency: +5.5%
(15–22.5 ◦ C)
[21] Simple cycle Ta (29 ◦ C), RH (45%) Power: +↑, Efficiency: +↑
[22] Combined cycle Subtropical-humid, Ta (26 ◦ C), Power: +↑, Efficiency: +↑
RH (73%)
[23] Combined cycle Hot region Power: +17.247%,Efficiency: +3.5
[21] Combined cycle Hot-humid, Ta (40 ◦ C), RH Power: +↑,Efficiency: +↑
(50%)
[24] Simple cycle Ta (15–35 ◦ C) An annual profit of $2.4 million can be realized by inlet air cooling system.
Vapor compression (VC)
[28] Simple cycle Ta (10–41 ◦ C), RH (15–28%) Efficiency: +2%
[29] Micro gas turbine Ta (33 ◦ C), RH (52–54%) Power: +8%,Efficiency: +1.5%
[30] Simple cycle Ta (15–55 ◦ C) Power: +22.21%,Efficiency: +5%
[31] Simple cycle Ta (35 ◦ C), RH (20%) Power: +0.35% for 1 ◦ C dropping in inlet air temperature
[32] Simple cycle Ta (5–40 ◦ C), RH (60%) Power: +3.2 MW
[33] Combined cycle Ta (5–40 ◦ C), RH (25–85%) Power: +16.42%,Efficiency: +6.91%
Absorption chiller (AB)
[35] Simple cycle Ta (45 ◦ C) Power: +↑,Efficiency: +↑
[36] Simple cycle Ta (0–40 ◦ C) Power: +12.5%
[37] Simple cycle Ta (17–34 ◦ C), RH (35–96%) Power: +11.3%
[38] Simple cycle Ta (40 ◦ C), RH 65%) Power: +22%. Efficiency: +4.28%
[39] Simple cycle Ta (5–40 ◦ C) Efficiency: +2.5%
[40] Combined cycle Ta (48 ◦ C), RH (30%) Power: +(8–13%)
[41] Combined cycle Ta (25–35 ◦ C), RH (50–100%) Power: +8%
[42] Combined cycle Ta (25–65 ◦ C) Power: +6.24%
[43] Both simple and combined Ta (25–31 ◦ C), RH (35–70%) Power: +10% (simple)
cycles Power: +6% (combined)
[44] Hybrid solar combined Ta (36 ◦ C) Power: +27.7%
cycle Efficiency: +7.2%
Thermal energy storage
[45] Simple cycle Ta (8–46 ◦ C), RH (10–90%) Power: +(3.9–25.7%)
[46] Simple cycle Ta (0–38 ◦ C), RH (12–84%) Power: +11.63%, Efficiency: +3.59%
[47] Combined cycle Ta (0–45 ◦ C), RH (10–100%) Power: +(12–26%)
Liquified natural gas (LNG)
[48] Combined cycle Ta (10–45 ◦ C) Efficiency: +2.8%
[49] Combined cycle Ta (15–40 ◦ C), RH (30–90%) Power: +(0.50–2.47%)
Efficiency: +(0–0.11%)
[50] Combined cycle Ta (28–40 ◦ C), RH (30–90%) Power: + (1.83–14.4%)
[51] Combined cycle Ta (15–45 ◦ C) Power: +(8.5–10.5%)
Efficiency: +(0.09–2.2%)
[52] Combined cycle Ta (0–30 ◦ C) Power: +14.9%
Efficiency: +2.1%
[53] Combined cycle Ta (25–35 ◦ C) Power: +(10.7–12.7%)
Efficiency: + (2.2–0.58%)
Other air cooling technologies
M− cycle (Maisotsenko) [16] Simple cycle hot-humid climate conditions Power: +6.2%
Air-earth heat exchanger [54] Simple cycle hot-humid climate conditions Power: +9%, Efficiency: +4.8%
Comparative inlet air cooling technologies
FG and EC [55] Combined cycle Ta (20–35 ◦ C), RH (5–25%) These coolers can similarly improve thermal efficiency
FG and EC [56] Simple cycle Ta (28.2 ◦ C), RH (75%) Fogging: offers better enhancement in power with 22.4% compared to 2.55
for EC
VC& EC [57] Simple cycle Ta (34 ◦ C), RH (20%) VC: + power by 18.41% and efficiency by 4.18%
EC: + power by 10.48% and efficiency by 4.6%
AB& FG [58] Combined cycle Ta (15–35 ◦ C) Absorption chillers: boost power more than other
AB, VC, EC, and FG [59] Simple cycle Ta (12.5–32.5 ◦ C) Absorption chillers: the highest electric generation
FG, AB, Heat pump [60] Simple cycle hot-arid, hot-humid, and cold- Absorption chiller is recommended for hot climates with improvement net
humid power of 18%
(continued on next page)

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Table 1 (continued )
IAC technology Ref. Type of gas turbine plant Ambient conditions Reported outcomes

EC and M-cycle [61] Simple M-cycle evaporative desiccant inlet air cooling is economically viable
EC&VC [62] Simple cycle) Ta (55 ◦ C), RH (80%) VC: + power by 23.2%
EC: + power by 4.2%
EC, FG, VC, and AB [8] Combined cycle Ta (15–50 ◦ C) Chillers provide a higher increase in power supply than fogging or
evaporative cooling methods
EC, VC, and AB [63] Hybrid solar gas-turbine Ta (40 ◦ C), RH (70%) Absorption chillers offer the greatest boost to yearly energy production with
power plant an economical unit energy cost.
Hybrid air cooling
VC + EC [64] Simple cycle Ta (15–50 ◦ C) Power output: +10%
AB + EC [65] Simple cycle Ta (25–50C), RH (40–90%) Power output: +(7.8–15%)
Efficiency: +(2.2–9%)
Air earth heat [66] Simple cycle Ta (20–42 ◦ C), RH (20–80%) Power output: +9.8%
exchanger + FG Efficiency: +3.7%
AB + VC [67] Hybrid solar combined Ta (10–30 ◦ C) Power output: +15%
cycle Efficiency:4.3%
direct + indirect EC [68] Simple cycle weather of Riyadh city Power output: +16.8–19.3%
M-cycle + AB [69] Simple cycle Ta (15–55 ◦ C), RH (15–65%) Hybrid cycle leads to decrease the absorption chilling unit capacity
M-cycle + AB [70] Simple cycle Ta (15–50 ◦ C), RH (20–100%) Power output: +29%
AB + thermal energy [71] Combined cycle Ta (4–33 ◦ C) As the cooling energy storage scale increases, the daily electricity increases,
storage resulting in a slower rate of growth.

increases efficiency by up to 46% [78]. This process can be achieved temperature of the compressed air before it reaches the high-pressure
using either air or water for intercooling, making Ices an economical compressor stages. The exhaust gases from the topping cycle are then
choice for many applications. The LMS100 [79], produced by General sent to the dual pressure with reheat heat recovery steam generator
Electric (GE), is one of the most efficient intercooled gas turbines on the (HRSG) system, where steam is produced, which is then fed into a steam
market today. It is designed for a wide range of open cycle production turbine to generate electricity. The HRSG comprises two steam gener­
and combined cycle operations. Moreover, waste heat from intercooler ation subsystems: low-pressure (LP) and high-pressure (HP). Each sub­
systems can be used to further improve the performance of gas turbine system is equipped with a feed water pump, an economizer, an
power plants by recovering and reusing energy that would otherwise be evaporator, and one or more superheaters. Each pump’s feed water is
rejected into the environment [80,81]. This helps to reduce cooling costs preheated in the economizers, boiled in the evaporator, and superheated
and provides an additional revenue stream for many industrial plants. in the superheaters. One reheater (RHT) is located between the HP su­
Despite extensive research on gas turbine inlet air cooling technol­ perheaters. Moreover, one superheater between the HP superheaters
ogies, the combined effects of intercooling and inlet air cooling on the moderates the temperatures of HP steam by injecting water for safe
performance of a gas turbine power plant remain unexplored. Further­ operation. The deaeration economizer replaces the low-pressure econ­
more, previous literature has shown that the intercooler in an inter­ omizer in the HRSG. A deaerator removes the dissolved gases from the
cooled gas turbine was mainly used to extract the heat from compressed feed water. The HP steam expands in the HP steam turbine (HPT), then
air and reject it to the environment via a cooling tower, rather than enters the reheater before expanding further in the IP steam turbine
further performance enhancement. To address these two gaps, the cur­ (IPT). The outlet steam from the IPT mixes with the LP steam before
rent study introduces an innovative compressor inlet air cooling (IAC) entering the LP steam turbine (LPT). The exhaust steam from the LPT
system that utilizes waste heat emitted from an existing intercooler goes to a condenser, and the condensate is finally pumped back to the
design to improve intercooled gas turbine performance when operating HRSG. It is important to mention here that the reference intercooled gas
at high ambient temperatures. This novel IAC system uses waste heat turbine (LMS100PA) has a low exhaust gas temperature (less than
from the intercooler to power absorption chillers, which in turn cool the 440 ◦ C) compared to conventional gas turbines, which leads to a lower
inlet air, thereby reducing specific fuel consumption and increasing steam temperature in the bottoming cycle. Therefore, a dual pressure
plant performance. Furthermore, a comparative analysis between this with reheat heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) system was used.
novel IAC system and four other common IAC technologies (evaporative According to Sharma and Singh [84], the optimal combination for a dual
cooling, solar-powered absorption chillers, steam-operated absorption pressure heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is achieved when a
chillers, and vapor compression chillers) was conducted using different 60-bar pressure is applied to the high pressure (HP) side. This configu­
thermodynamic metrics to determine their effectiveness under various ration results in the highest power output for the overall plant. In the
operating conditions. Additionally, the payback period and added current study, a pressure of 60 bar was assumed for HP steam in the
annual profit for different IAC systems were also estimated. The results bottoming cycle. Table 2 outlines the main specifications and design
of this research are anticipated to assist power plant investors, scientists, parameters used in the simulation of the intercooled gas turbine com­
and designers in considering intercooled gas turbine power plants with bined cycle power plant, which were based on existing designs in the
IAC as a viable technology for generating electricity in hot areas. literature, typical standards, and optimal practice assumptions.
The IcGTCC power plants are heavily affected by ambient tempera­
2. System description ture [85,86]. This paper presents a novel inlet air cooling (IAC) system
that utilizes waste heat from the intercooler to reduce the impact of
2.1. Intercooled gas turbine combined cycle ambient temperature on the IcGTCC power plants. This system is
compared with four other types of IAC systems integrated with inter­
The intercooled gas turbine combined cycle (IcGTCC), as depicted in cooled gas turbines. The designs of these IAC systems are discussed in
Fig. 1, is an advanced energy system that combines two main cycles: the detail below.
topping cycle (a combustion turbine generator) and the bottoming cycle
(a steam turbine generator). In this study, the gas turbine manufactured 2.2. IcGTCC integrated with different inlet air cooling systems
by General Electric® LMS100PA [82,83] was used as the topping
generator due to its internal cooling design and high compression ratio Fig. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of an intercooled gas turbine
(1:37). This turbine utilizes an internal cooling system to reduce the combined cycle (IcGTCC) integrated with a novel compressor inlet air

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 1. An intercooled gas turbine combined cycle (IcGTCC) power plant.

cooling system. This cooling system utilizes waste heat from the inter­ power and overall plant efficiency.
cooler to generate hot water for absorption chillers (ABwaste-heat). The Figs. 3–6 show the schematic diagrams of the IcGTCC integrated with
produced hot water has a temperature of 100 ◦ C, a pressure of 1.72 bar, a steam-powered absorption cooling (ABsteam), a solar-powered ab­
and a mass flow rate of 107.7 kg/s, and is subsequently used for ab­ sorption cooling (ABsolar), a vapor compression cooling system (VC), and
sorption chillers (ABwaste-heat). During operation at high ambient tem­ a direct evaporative cooling (EC) system, respectively. In each of these
peratures, the absorption chillers utilize all of the hot water to produce configurations, an integrated air cooling system is used to reduce the
cold water. However, at moderate ambient temperatures, only a portion temperature of the air entering the compressor to ISO conditions (15 ◦ C).
of the hot water is used by the absorption chillers, while the remaining For example, a part of the low-pressure steam (2 bar and 220 ◦ C) is
hot water is directed to the cooling towers. The cold water from the extracted from the bottoming cycle and sent to the cooling system to
ABwaste-heat system, which has a temperature of 7 ◦ C, is passed through a power absorption chillers (Fig. 3). The mass flow rate of the extracted
heat exchanger to cool the air entering the compressor to ISO conditions steam is a function of the cooling load of the inlet air (it increases with an
(15 ◦ C). This inlet air cooling system is predicted to increase net output increasing cooling load). In the mechanical vapor compression

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Table 2
Design and operating parameters of the IcGTCC power plant.
Parameter Units Value Comment

ISO atmospheric conditions 1.013 bar, 15 C, RH = 60%

◦

(1) Topping Cycle

Fuel (Natural gas, LHV) kJ/kg 44,472 [68]
Mass flow rate of air entering compressor kg/s 225.4 Evaluated from public data [82,87]
Pressure loss at inlet % 1 [88,89]
Pressure loss at outlet % 1 [88,89]
Pressure ratio of LPC 3.6:1 Evaluated from public data [83,86,90,91]
Pressure ratio of HPC-A 3.9:1
Output pressure of HPC-B bar 37
Polytrophic efficiency of compressors % 92 [73,86,89,92]
Mechanical efficiency of compressors % 99.2 [73,86,92]
Intercooler pressure loss % 6 [88,91]
Pressure loss at combustor % 4 [89,91,93]
Heat loss (dQ/Q) in combustion chamber % 0.4 [91,93]
Combustion chamber efficient % 99 [73,89,94,95]
Combustor Outlet Temperature ◦
C 1399 Evaluated from public data [83,85]
Uncooled isentropic efficiency of turbines % 93.5 Evaluated from public data [86,89]
Mechanical efficiency of turbines % 99.2%
Power turbine polytrophic efficiency % 93.5
Power turbine mechanical efficiency % 99.2
Generator efficiency % 98.5
Exhaust temperature ◦
C 432 Evaluated from public data [82]
(2) Bottoming Cycle
Isentropic efficiency of HP steam turbine % 88.0 Evaluated from public data [73]
Isentropic efficiency IP and LP steam turbines bar 92
Mechanical efficiency of turbines % 98.5
HP steam turbine inlet pressure bar 60 Evaluated from public data [84,96–100]
IP steam turbine inlet pressure bar 12
LP steam turbine inlet pressure bar 2
HP steam turbine temperature ◦
C 426 Assumed based on exhaust temperature from topping cycle
Reheat steam temperature ◦
C 422
LP steam turbine temperature ◦
C 225 Evaluated from literature [101,102]
Stack temperature ◦
C 113 Evaluated from public data [72,73]
Condenser operating pressure bar 0.085 Evaluated from public data [103]
Deaerator operating pressure bar 1.2 Evaluated from public data [73]
Rise in cooling water temperature in condenser ◦
C 10 [73]
Air side pressure losses at each HRSG component % 2 [104–106]
Water side pressure losses at each HRSG component % 5 [106]
Heat losses at HRSG components % 0.75 [107,108]
Pinch point temperature difference (◦ C) 10 [73,100,109]
Pressure drops in pipes % 5 [110]
Shaft speed rpm 3600 [100]
Efficiency of Power generator % 98.5 [73]
Pumps efficiency % 75 [111]

refrigeration system shown in Fig. 4, a part of the electrical power 3. Operation and performance criteria
produced by the power plant generators is used by the refrigeration
system to cool the inlet air of the compressor. The electrical power The importance and definition of operating and assessment criteria
consumed by the mechanical vapor compression refrigeration system is are outlined below.
also a function of the cooling load of the inlet air, and it would be high at
a higher ambient temperature. In the case of a solar-powered cooling 3.1. General analysis
system (Fig. 5), thermal energy from the solar system powers absorption
chillers to cool the compressor’s inlet air. In this configuration, ET-100 The thermodynamic principles of mass and heat transfer applied to
solar parabolic trough collectors [112–114] are used in the solar energy any operating control volume can be given as [119,120]:
field to heat the heat transfer fluid (Therminol VP-1) to 350 ◦ C, which in ∑ ∑
turn is used to produce steam at 250 ◦ C for absorption chillers. The ṁi = ṁe (1)
absorption chillers are then used to produce chilled water at 7 ◦ C to cool ∑ ∑
the inlet air to ISO conditions through a heat exchanger. The model Q̇ + ṁi hi = Ẇ + ṁe he (2)
validation of the solar system was completed and reported in our pre­
vious research [115–118]. The solar irradiance of 850 W/m2 is consid­ 3.2. Overall efficiency
ered in this study.
To prevent any possible damage to the compressor blades, a moisture The overall efficiency of a power plant is defined as the ratio of the
strainer is placed after the inlet air heat exchangers and before the energy it supplies to the total energy input. It is typically expressed as
compressor to remove liquid droplets resulting from cooling [44,121–124]:
condensation.
Ẇ net
ηoverall = (3)
Q̇fuel

The net electrical power produced (Wnet) is calculated using the

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 2. An IcGTCC integrated with absorption chillers powered by waste heat (ABwaste-heat).

expression [44]:
Q̇fuel
Ẇ net = Ẇ net(GT) + Ẇ net(ST) − Ẇ aux (4) SFC = (6)
Ẇ net
The energy input from the fuel (Qfuel) can be calculated using the
following equation [44]: 3.4. Inlet air cooling systems

Q̇fuel = ṁfuel × LHV (5) Application of the absorption chiller and/or mechanical vapor
compression chiller to cool the air before entering the compressor of the
gas turbine is depicted in Figs. 2–5. Fig. 7 illustrates the cooling process
3.3. Specific fuel consumption (SFC) from state 1 to state 2 on a psychometric diagram. To analyze this
process, the mass and energy balances can be applied to selected control
SFC is a measure of the efficiency of an engine or propulsion system, volume [5]:
calculated by dividing the amount of fuel consumed per unit time by its ( ) ( )
QCL = ṁair,1 hair , 1 + ω1 hg,1 − ṁair,2 hair,2 + ω2 hg,2 − ṁcw hw (7)
output power over that same period. It is expressed as [77,122]:

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 3. An IcGTCC integrated with absorption chillers powered by extracted steam (ABsteam).

ṁair ω1 − ṁair ω2 = ṁcw (8) /

Wref = QCL (COPVC (1 − μx)n ηeu
)
(10)

Where hair,1 and hair,2 are the enthalpies of air at points 1 and 2, where μ is an empirical constant that depends on the type of refrigerant,
respectively. Hg enthalpy of saturated vapor; ω1 and ω2 are humidity and x is the quality of the refrigerant at the exit of the IAC system. The
ratios of air at points 1 and 2, respectively; ṁcw mass flow rate of empirical constant ‘n’ depends on the number of compression and
condensed water [kg/s]. expansion stages and n = 1 for a simple refrigeration cycle with single-
The heat energy required to operate the absorption refrigeration stage compressor. The compressor energy use efficiency ηeu is a
(AB) system at the selected COP can be determined by Refs. [33,40,125]: parameter provided by the compressor manufacturer and depends on
Qabs = QCL /COPAB (9) factors such as the pressure ratio of the refrigeration cycle, the appli­
cation of the system, and the type of compressor being used.
The refrigeration work of vapor compression refrigeration (VC) can The cooling load associated with the evaporative cooling system can
be determined using the following relation [28,33,126]: be calculated from Ref. [127]:

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 4. An IcGTCC integrated with absorption chillers powered by solar energy (ABsolar).

( )
QCL = ṁair Cp,air Tdry bulb,1 − Tdry bulb,2 (11) The water consumed by the evaporative system may be computed
using the mass balance principle using the following equation [20,23,
Where Tdry bulb,1 & Tdry bulb,2 are dry bulb temperatures of the air at the 66,128]:
inlet and exit of the cooler. The dry bulb temperature at the cooler exit
ṁw,EV = ṁair ω1 − ṁair ω2 (14)
can be estimated as [6,32,66,127]:
( )
Tdry bulb,2 = Tdry bulb,1 − Tdry bulb,1 − Twet bulb,2 ε (12)
3.5. Economic analysis
Where ϵ is evaporative cooler effectiveness (assumed 95%), Twet bulb,2 is
wet bulb temperature at the exit of the evaporative cooler. To calculate The economic feasibility of the investigated IAC systems can be
the specific humidity (ω), one can utilize the interaction between the accurately determined by taking into account their annual total cost.
ambient air and the saturated air. This can be expressed as [66]; This cost comprises both the installation and operational costs of the
( ) inlet air cooling system. When determining the operational cost, one
Cp,air Tdry bulb,1 − Tdry bulb,2 = (ω2 − ω1 )hfg (13) must take into account the additional annual profit (AAP) that can be
acquired from using an inlet air cooling system, which can be estimated

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 5. An IcGTCC integrated with vapor compression cooling (VC) system.

from Refs. [68,129,130]: hours that a power plant operates during one year, and Pelec is the price
of sailing electricity. The additional fuel cost because of using IAC
AAP = △Cincome − △Cfuel − △Cwater − Co&m (15)
technology was determined by Refs. [44,68,129,130]:
ΔCincome is additional income with inlet air cooling; ΔCfuel is addi­
△Cfuel = △mfuel ∗ Pfuel (17)
tional fuel cost; ΔCwater is additional water cost; and Co&m is the oper­
ation and maintenance cost of the inlet air cooling system. The Δmfuel annual increase in fuel consumption because of IAC, and Pfuel is
additional income resulting from the use of inlet air cooling systems can
the unit price of fuel. The additional water cost because of using IAC
be calculated by assessing increased energy sales and can be estimated
systems was estimated from Refs. [68,129,130]:
from Refs. [44,68,129,130]:
△Cwater = △mw ∗ Pw (18)
△Cincome = △Ẇ net ∗ H ∗ Pelec (16)
Δmw is the total annual water consumption, and Pw is the unit price of
˙ net is the annual increase in net power output, H is the number of
ΔW water. The total investment cost of the IAC system was determined by

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 6. An IcGTCC integrated with direct evaporative cooling (EC) system.

[129]:
∑ 4. Plants modeling
Cinv = CIAC (19)
The thermodynamic (energy and mass balance) and economic
IACi is the installation cost of IAC components. The main economic modeling work in this study is mainly carried out using Thermoflex
parameters are shown in Table 3. The operation and maintenance cost of software with its PACE, which is well-accepted and widely used software
the IAC per year is considered to be 10% of the investment cost (Cinv) in academia and industry [77,133,134]. Thermoflex is a modular pro­
[130], whereas the operation and maintenance cost of solar collectors gram with a graphical interface that allows one to assemble a model
was assumed to be 0.2 of the investment cost [131,132]. The payback from icons representing over two hundred different components [135,
period (PBP) was estimated from the following equations [39,44,65,68]: 136]. The software’s comprehensive coverage of design and off-design
Cinv simulation, coupled with its ability to model all types of power plants,
PBP = (20) including conventional steam cycles, combined cycles, solar power
AAP
plants, and repowering.

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 7. (a) Cooling process by the absorption chiller or mechanical vapor compression chiller on a psychometric diagram; (b) Cooling process by the evaporation
effects on a psychometric diagram.

6.1. Required cooling capacity for inlet air cooling (IAC) process
Table 3
Economic parameters.
The required cooling capacity for a gas turbine compressor IAC
Parameter Units Value References process depends on the power output of the gas turbine and the oper­
Natural gas, LHV: kJ/kg 46,286 [68] ating environment. Generally, the greater the power output of the gas
Annual operating hours hour 8100 [77,83] turbine, the more cooling capacity is required. This capacity can be
Price of fuel US$/GJ 3.75 [77,83]
affected by the ambient temperature and the compressor’s inlet air
Price of import water US$/m3 0.6 [62]
Price of selling electricity US$/kWh 0.05 [62,68,77]
temperature. Fig. 9 demonstrates the cooling loads that are needed to be
removed from the air before it enters the compressor of the reference
intercooled gas turbine combined cycle in order to bring the air from any
5. Validation ambient temperature to ISO condition (15 ◦ C). As seen in Fig. 9, the
cooling load increases with rising ambient temperatures and relative
The modeling and simulation of intercooled gas turbine combined humidity. For example, the cooling load is 29.6 MW when the plant is
cycle power (IcGTCC) were carried out with Thermoflex software for operating at 50 ◦ C and 60% relative humidity. It is important to note that
design point and off-design performance. The design parameters in the optimal inlet air cooling system for intercooled gas turbines can be
Table 2 have been used in the simulation. The current model layout of selected through a thermo-economic analysis that factors in different
the IcGTCC in this study as simulated by Thermoflex is shown in Fig. 8 at ambient temperatures and the ISO relative humidity level of 60%.
ISO condition. The performance of this reference plant was validated
with the theoretical and actual data from Ref. [82]. Table 4 shows the
6.2. Inlet air temperature drop
performance of the current model of intercooled gas turbine power plant
and the actual data of the intercooled gas turbine power plant (LMS100
The off-design behavior of the considered configurations is studied at
PA) developed by General Electric [82]. According to Table 4, the cur­
ambient temperatures of 15–50 ◦ C. The drop in the compressor inlet air
rent model can expect the performance of GE’s LMS100PA power plant
temperature due to different cooling systems is presented in Fig. 10.
with high accuracy.
From Fig. 10, it can be observed that the ABsolar, ABsteam, and VC cooling
systems are the most effective at cooling in hot regions, with a tem­
6. Results and discussion
perature drop of up to 35 ◦ C. However, it should be noted that these
systems also require a significant amount of energy and may have a
Five configurations of compressor inlet air cooling systems are pre­
negative effect on the overall performance of the power plant. In
sented in this study to cool air to ISO conditions (15 ◦ C, 60% RH) before
contrast, the ABwaste-heat system is able to reduce the temperature of the
it enters the compressor of an intercooled gas turbine power plant. These
inlet air by 5–19 ◦ C, depending on the ambient temperature. This is due
systems include absorption chillers powered by waste heat (ABwaste-heat),
to the fact that the thermal energy recovered from the intercooler unit of
absorption chillers powered by solar energy (ABsolar), absorption chillers
the plant operating at outdoor air temperatures higher than 45 ◦ C is not
powered by extracted steam (ABsteam), mechanical vapor compression
enough to cool the inlet air to less than 20 ◦ C. Although the maximum
cooling systems (VC), and direct evaporative cooling systems (EC). The
temperature reduction achieved by ABwaste-heat system is lower
General Electric® (LMS100PA) [82,83] intercooled gas turbine com­
compared to the other cooling methods, it is still a notable improvement
bined cycle power plant was used as a reference for this comparison. The
in the plant’s performance.
range of ambient temperature considered in this evaluation was from 15
to 50 ◦ C, increasing the condensation temperature of the power plant
from 40 ◦ C to 52 ◦ C. Thermo-economic analysis under off-design con­ 6.3. Inlet mass flow rate-ambient temperature relationship
ditions was used to select an optimal cooling system for the intercooled
gas turbines operating in hot regions. The inlet air mass flow rate of a plant without IAC decreases signif­
icantly as the ambient air temperature rises, as shown in Fig. 11. This is
because the density of the air decreases as the ambient air temperature

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 8. Reference IcGTCC plant as simulated by Thermoflex software.

Table 4
Validation of the current model of the IcGTCC against General Electric’s theoretical and real data [82].
Performance parameters GE’s LMS100 PA [82] Current model Error (%)

Altitude (m) – 0 –
Ambient temperature (◦ C) 15 15 –
Relative humidity (%) 60 60 –
Simple cycle
Net power output (MWe) 117 117.466 0.398
Net electrical efficiency (%) 44.3% 43.21% 0.203
Net heat rate (kJ/kWh, LHV) 8143 8143 0
Exhaust temperature (◦ C) 432 432 0
Exhaust mass flow rate (kg/s) 234.5 234.5 0
Combined cycle
Net power output (MWe) 140 139.130 0.621
Net electrical efficiency (%) 52.1 52.36 0.499
Net heat rate (kJ/kWh, LHV) 6793 6875 1.20

rises, which reduces inlet volumetric efficiency and, in turn, mass flow the evaporative cooling system exhibits the lowest efficacy in preserving
rate. This reduction in mass flow rate has a direct effect on the power the mass flow rate reduction. This is primarily due to its lower cooling
output and efficiency of the plant. However, the use of IAC systems can efficiency compared to the other IAC systems.
help counteract this reduction in mass flow rate. As shown in Fig. 11, the
inlet air mass flow rate remains constant even as the ambient temper­
ature rises from 15 to 50 ◦ C when using ABsteam, ABsolar, and VC cooling 6.4. Net power
systems. This is because these cooling systems were set to keep the
compressor’s inlet air temperature at 15 ◦ C, which prevents the inlet The net power of a gas turbine power plant is strongly influenced by
mass flow rate from being reduced. On the other hand, the ABwaste-heat the ambient air temperature. As evidenced by Fig. 12, the net power
system is not as effective in saving the reduction in mass flow rate at output decreases as the ambient temperature rises, resulting in a
higher outdoor air temperatures above 45 ◦ C. This is attributed to the decrease in thermal efficiency. The net power of the intercooled gas
insufficient recovery of thermal energy from the intercooler unit, which turbine power plant (IcGTCC) decreases by an average of 0.89% as the
is unable to cool the inlet air to temperatures below 20 ◦ C. Furthermore, compressor intake air temperature rises 1 ◦ C, which is consistent with
previous studies for conventional gas turbine power plants [2,37,41,52,

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

Fig. 9. Required cooling capacity for an inlet air cooling system.

Fig. 12. Net power and improvement factor vs ambient air temperature.

benefits. On the other hand, the current novel inlet air cooling (ABwaste-
heat) can improve power output by 5–19% for ambient temperatures
higher than 25 ◦ C. The net power enhancement using ABwaste-heat is
almost constant when the ambient temperature exceeds 45 ◦ C. This is
because the temperature drop by the ABwaste-heat cooling system is
almost constant (19 ◦ C) when the outdoor air temperature is higher than
45 ◦ C, which is directly affected by net power enhancement.

6.5. Overall efficiency

The overall efficiency of a gas turbine power plant is greatly influ­

Fig. 10. Temperature drops via inlet air cooling versus ambient temperature. enced by the ambient air temperature and the energy input from fossil
fuels. This relationship is clearly displayed in Fig. 13, which shows a
66,119,137]. The net power supply of the IcGTCC without IAC dropped decrease in overall efficiency as the air temperature rises. While the
from 137.7 MWe at 15 ◦ C to 100.7 MWe at 50 ◦ C (a 26.9% reduction). degree of this decrease may vary from one gas turbine power plant to
This decline in net power output is attributed to the decrease in inlet another, it is evident that plants with an inlet air cooling system expe­
volumetric efficiency and mass flow rate caused by the reduced density rience greater levels of efficiency than those without, except in cases
of air at higher ambient temperatures [5,36]. where ABsteam and VC cooling systems are used.
To minimize the reduction in net power output caused by high By inspecting Figs. 12 and 13, it is evident that the net power output
ambient temperatures, the use of an IAC system is recommended. Fig. 12 of a gas turbine combined cycle (IcGTCC) integrated with VC or ABsteam
demonstrates how different cooling technologies can enhance the total cooling systems is slightly higher; however, the overall efficiency is
power output. Among the cooling technologies analyzed, evaporative lower in comparison to plants with other IAC systems. This is because
inlet air cooling offers the lowest power enhancement due to the the total enhancement in net power resulting from the IAC is offset by an
ambient wet bulb constraint on the inlet air temperature. However, increase in the energy demands of the VC and ABsteam cooling systems. In
solar-powered absorption cooling shows the potential for significant other words, the increase in fuel consumption due to the VC or ABsteam
performance improvements, with a total power enhancement of up to
31.4%. It is worth noting, however, that the higher cost associated with
solar-powered absorption cooling offsets the power enhancement

Fig. 11. Mass flow rate of inlet air to the compressor versus ambient Fig. 13. The relationship between overall efficiency and ambient air
temperature. temperature.

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

humidity can expect an average 1.7% increase in specific fuel con­

sumption. This is because warmer air has a lower density than colder air,
thus reducing engine efficiency and increasing fuel consumption.
However, the use of inlet air cooling strategies such as ABwaste-heat or
ABsolar can significantly reduce the specific fuel consumption of the
IcGTCC. Specifically, the enhancement in specific fuel consumption can
reach 2.75% and 3.9% for the IcGTCC with ABwaste-heat or ABsolar,
respectively, when compared to the IcGTCC without inlet air cooling.
Moreover, electric chillers are not recommended for cooling inlet air at
high ambient temperatures over 42 ◦ C due to their high power con­
sumption, which results in a decrease in plant performance and an
increment in specific fuel consumption. Lastly, the use of ABsteam cooling
systems is not recommended due to their increase in specific fuel con­
sumption, as the extracted steam from the bottoming cycle is used to
cool inlet air instead of producing electricity in the steam turbines.

6.7. Economic analysis

Fig. 14. The relation between specific fuel consumption and ambient air
temperature. To accurately evaluate the performance of each IAC system, an
economic analysis is essential for selecting the optimal solution. An
annual analysis should be conducted to analyze the additional power
cooling systems leads to a slight improvement in net power, which in
output and fuel savings resulting from the incorporation of an IAC sys­
turn leads to a decrease in overall efficiency. Consequently, the VC and
tem. Considering an ambient temperature of 45 ◦ C, the costs for the
ABsteam cooling systems are not suitable for intercooled gas turbine
components of the different IAC systems have been determined from
combined cycles in extremely hot regions. The highest increase in
data found in the literature or provided by Thermoflex PACE. A sum­
overall efficiency can be achieved by integrating ABwaste-heat or ABsolar
mary of the component prices and capital costs of the various IAC
cooling systems into the intercooled gas turbine power plants. The
technologies is provided in Table 5.
integration of the novel cooling system (ABwaste-heat) with the IcGTCC
Table 6 lists the total investment cost, payback period (PBP), and
can improve the plant’s efficiency by up to 2.83% compared to the
annual added profit (APP) for five different inlet air cooling systems
conventional IcGTCC and 8–18% compared to the literature design.
(IAC). The payback period varies from 0.2 to 11.6 years, depending on
the IAC system. The solar-powered absorption chiller (ABsolar) system
6.6. Specific fuel consumption has the highest payback period due to its high investment cost; thus, the
increased power revenue cannot offset the high annual operating profit
Fig. 14 shows the specific fuel consumption of the intercooled gas (AAP). In contrast, the ABwaste-heat system has the second shortest
turbine power plant (IcGTCC) with different IAC strategies as a function payback period due to its medium capital cost and high APP. Evapora­
of ambient temperature. Fig. 14 demonstrates that the specific fuel tive cooling (EC) has the lowest payback period, even though it has the
consumption of the conventional IcGTCC is significantly influenced by lowest boosted power, due to its low total investment cost. Overall, the
the ambient temperature. For every 10 ◦ C increase in ambient temper­ ABwaste-heat system is particularly attractive as it offers a promising
ature, a conventional IcGTCC operating at sea level and 60% relative payback period and superior performance in terms of net power

Table 5
Price breakdown.
Item ABwaste-heat ABsolar ABsteam VC EC

Absorption Chiller (196 US$/kW cooling) [130,136] 4,192,600 8,979,890 8,979,486 – –

Compression Chillers (107.5 US$/kWc) [47,136] – – – 3,498,097 –
Evaporative cooler (50$/kWc) [62,136,138] – – – – 221,450
Pumps (483 × electric power) (USA$) [136,139] 158,233 498,036 298,160 190,507 200
Air-water cooling coil [136] 1,200,352 1,334,927 1,335,011 1,334,882 –
Shell-Tube Evaporator and Superheater [136] – 494,072 – – –
Wet Cooling Tower [136] 523,780 1,089,433 908,349 461,024 –
Pipes [136,140] 490,180 786,223 586,440 639,554 10,748
Solar Field (520US$/m2) [77,118,141,142] – 40,568,110 – – –
Sum of the Costs of Components (Total Investment Cost) 6,565,145 53,750,691 12,107,446 6,124,064 232,398

Table 6
Thermo-economic analysis.
Item ABwaste-heat ABsolar ABsteam VC EC

Total investment cost 6,565,145 53,750,691 12,107,446 6,124,064 232,398

Boosted electric power (MWe) 19.616 27.353 20.477 22.603 5.338
Annual boosted electric energy (MWh/year). 158889.6 221559.3 165863.7 183084.3 43237.8
Increase fuel consumption (kg/s) 0.699 0.994 0.947 1.006 0.202
Annual increase in fuel consumption (ton/year) 20382.8 28985.0 27614.5 29335.0 5890.3
Water consumption (kg/s) 6.65 30.91 11.82 13.51 0.84
Annual increase in water consumption (m3/year) 193914.0 901335.6 344671.2 393951.6 24494.4
Overall thermal efficiency (%) 51.1 51.4 49.8 49.2 50.0
APP (Million USD) 3.7724 4.6283 2.2704 3.4132 1.1416
PBP (Year) 1.74 11.61 5.33 1.79 0.20

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Y.N. Dabwan et al. Energy 283 (2023) 129075

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