IPE-331: PRODUCTION

PROCESSES

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET
 Course Outlines
METAL CASTING PROCESSES:
 Introduction, Sand casting procedures, Pattern making, Material types and
construction of patterns, Pattern allowances, Molding sand, Molding sand
properties, Molding process, Molding materials, Casting processes, Sand
casting defects etc.
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING:
 Tool geometry, Chip formation, Mechanics of metal cutting, Cutting tool
material, Cutting fluid and Machining economics.
METAL JOINING METHODS:
 Introduction, Classification, Types of weld and weld joint, Different
welding processes, Weld Symbols, Defects in Welds, Testing of welds,
Quality Control of welds, Robotic welding, Brazing and Soldering

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 References
Textbook
 Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials - S. Kalpakjian and et. al.
 Metal Cutting: Theory & Practice- A. Bhattacharyya
 Metal Cutting Theory and Cutting Tool Design - Ersinov and others
 Metal Cutting Principles - M. C. Shaw
 Materials and Processes in Manufacturing - E. P. DeGarmo and et. al.
 Manufacturing Processes - M. L. Begeman and et. al.
Journals
 CIRP Annals
 JSME International Journal
 Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology
 Journal of Material Processing Technology
 ASME
 Wear
 IMechE

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 Marks Distribution
Total Marks: 400
Class Test (20%) Class Attendance
Final Examination (70%)
1 2 3 4 5 (10%)
20 20 20 20 20 40 280

Class Test-1 Metal Casting Processes

Class Test-2 Metal Casting Processes
Class Test-3 Theory of Metal Cutting
Class Test-4 Joining Processes
Class Test-5 Joining Processes

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 Manufacturing
Manufacturing is a process for converting ideas and market or customer needs into
artifacts; includes design, procurement, test, finance, human resources, marketing, etc.
Manufacturing is the conversion of raw materials into useful products
 Creating shapes by various means and assembling these shapes into a useful
product. A physical product always has a shape
Function
Aesthetics
 These shapes are created by a wide variety of processes
Manufacturing Trends
 Products must meet specifications, design requirements, & regulatory standards.
 Product must be economic and environmentally friendly.
 Quality must be built into the design.
 Methods must be flexible.
 Manufacturers must listen to customer feedback.
 Productivity must be constantly improved.

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 Societal pressures, Government regulations,
Company plans and policies etc.
Customer
needs

Products
Manufacturing
material
Raw

Man, Money, Machines and Automation etc.

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 Engineering Materials

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 Manufacturing Processes

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 Manufacturing Products

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 Hip Replacement

Components of a total hip

replacement. Manufacturing steps in the
production of a roll-formed
and machined total hip Manufacturing steps in the
replacement stem production of a forged stem. Hip
stems can also be produced by
investment casting, metal injection
molding, insert injection molding,
and assorted other processes.
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 Automated welding of automobiles

Automated spot welding of

automobile bodies in a
mass production line.

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 CAD/CAM to Make Sunglasses Mold

Computer model of the sunglass as

designed and viewed on the
Machine the die cavity
monitor.
using a CNC milling
machine

Final product

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LECTURE-01: METAL
CASTING PROCESSES

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET
 Introduction
Casting is the process of production of objects by pouring molten material in to a
cavity called a mold which is the negative of the object, and allowing it to cool
and solidify. Sand casting is a means of producing rough metal castings using a
mold usually made from sand formed around a replica of the object to be cast that
is removed once the sand has been compacted.

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 Pattern Materials for Casting
A pattern has been defined as a model of an object to form a cavity of a sand mold for
casting. The pattern is like the original object with some dimensional allowances. The
following material are used for making pattern:
Wood
 Advantages: (i) Easily available (ii) Cheap (iii) Light in weight (iv) Easy to work
and (iv) Good finish.
 Disadvantages: (i) readily affected by moisture (ii) wear out quickly by sand
abrasion (iii) warp badly if not stored properly (iv) less strength, tends to break on
miss-handling (v) shape changes when dries out and (vi) does not last long
Metals: Aluminium, Cast iron, Brass, White metal etc.
 Advantages: (i) no effect of moisture and (ii) no cracking, bending etc. due to
improper storing
 Disadvantages: (i) less easy to shape and work (ii) heavy in weight (iii) costly and
(iv) affected by rust or corrosion
Plaster-Gypsum Cement
Plastic Compound
Wax
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 Pattern Allowances
Shrinkage Allowance: The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for
shrinkage; these are called contraction allowances, and their exact values depend on the
alloy being cast and the exact sand casting method being used. Some alloys will have
overall linear shrinkage of up to 2.5%, whereas other alloys may actually experience no
shrinkage or increase in size in the casting process. The shrinkage amount is also
dependent on the sand casting process employed, for example clay-bonded sand,
chemical bonded sands, or other bonding materials used within the sand.
Draft or Taper Allowance: The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for
draft, which means that its sides are tapered so that when it is pulled from the sand, it
will tend not to drag sand out of place along with it. This is also known as taper which
is normally between 10 and 30.
Distortion Allowance: it is found that big castings tend to warp or distort during the
cooling period due to their size, shape and type of metal. Uneven shrinkage also causes
distortion. To overcome this effect, the pattern s made initially distorted in opposite
direction. Such an allowances depends on the judgment and experience of the pattern
maker who knows the shrinkage characteristics of the metal.
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 Finishing or Machining Allowance: The rough surfaces of the casting are to be
finished or machined. Therefore, the rough casting must be made bigger than the actual
component in size and hence the pattern should also be bigger in size than the actual
component.
Shaking or Rapping Allowance: When the pattern is rapped or shaken for easy
removal from the cavity, it is found the cavity in the mold is slightly increased in size.
To compensate this increase, the pattern should be initially made slightly smaller. In
small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored, but in large sized
castings or in those that must fit together without machining or where high precision is
required, shaking allowance is provided by making the pattern slightly smaller.

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 Types of Pattern
Variety of patters are used in casting and the choice depends on the configuration of
casting and number of casting required. The type of pattern selected for a particular casting
will depends on the following several conditions:
 Shape and size of casting
 Number of casting required
 Method of molding used
 Difficulty of the molding operation.
 Characteristics of castings

Different types of patterns:

 Single piece pattern  Sweep pattern
 Split pattern  Cope and drag pattern
 Loose piece pattern  Skeleton pattern
 Gated pattern  Shell pattern
 Match plate pattern  Follow board pattern

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 Single piece pattern: This type of pattern is made without joints,
partings or any loose pieces. The molder has to cut gates and users in the
sand mold by hand by which process it is difficult to obtain uniformity in
the casting. The single piece pattern is generally used for large casting of
simple shape.
Split pattern : A split pattern is made in two or more parts joined
together by dowel pins. When the casting is of peculiar design and
intricate shape, its pattern cannot be made in single piece, because it
cannot be withdrawn from the mold. Therefore such a pattern is made
split in two or more pieces.
Loose piece pattern : Loose piece pattern is made of loose
component pieces assembled together by dowel pins. The whole
pattern can be removed from the sand mold by taking out all the
component pieces one by one. The main piece is usually removed
first, after that the separate loose pieces, which may have to be
turned or moved before taking out, are removed.

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 Gated pattern : Gated pattern are used for mass production of
small castings. The passage through which the molten metal
flows into the mold is called gate. In mass production if the gate
is made by hand for every small mold, it will take a lot of time.
Therefore, a number of small castings are produced in a single
multi-cavity mold by joining a number of patterns through gates.

Match plate pattern : When split patterns are mounted with

one half on one side of a plate and the other half directly opposite
on the other side of the plate, the pattern is called match plate
pattern. On one plate, called the match plate, many patterns can
be mounted.
Sweep pattern : The sweep pattern are used to prepare mold of
symmetrical and regular shapes particularly in large sizes. A sweep
pattern consists of a wooden board fixed to metal rod. The outer
contour of the board is similar to the contour of the castings.

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 Cope and drag pattern : If the casting is large,
the complete mold is too heavy and difficult to
handled by a single operator. For such castings the
cope and drag patterns are made. The pattern is
made in two halves, split on a convenient joint line.
The first half is in cope and the other half in drag.
After removing the two halves from the molding
sand, the cope and drag are then assembled to
make the complete mold.

Follow board pattern : The pattern having thin sections,

tend to get distorted or collapse during ramming. Sagging
of thin pattern due to ramming can be easily overcome by
constructing a supporting block (follow board) which may
fit inside the pattern to serve as a support during ramming.

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 Molding Sand
Molding sand is the principal raw material used in molding because it possesses several
major characteristics required for molding. The molding sands classified into two
categories according to the nature of its origin.
 Natural or Green sand: It is collected from natural resources like river beds or is
dug from pits. It contains the only binder as water. It has the advantages of
maintaining moisture content for a long time, wide working range of moisture
content and permits easy patching and finishing of molds
 Synthetic sand: It is an artificial sand prepared in the foundry by mixing clay free
sand, binder and other materials as required. Its properties can be easily controlled
by mixture content. Advantages of synthetics sand
Low sand maintenance cost
Improved permeability, lower moisture
Easier to work on mass production molding
Semi-skilled workers can work on machine molding
No sand dumping

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 Properties of Molding Sand
Refractoriness: It is the property by virtue of which the sand can withstand high
temperatures without fusing. This property is very important because always molten
metals with high temperature are poured in it and poor refractoriness would cause
fusion of the sand. As a result slag will form which will come on the surface of the
casting to spoil it. The degree of refractoriness depends upon the casting metals.
Permeability: Permeability is also called porosity. It is the property by virtue of which
the molding sand permits the escape of gasses and steam through it. As the hot molten
metal is poured in the cavity, steam and gasses are formed due to the heat of the metal.
These gasses must escape to atmosphere otherwise if either the mold may burst or blow
holes in the casting will be formed.
Cohesiveness: It is property by virtue of which the sand particles stick together. So
cohesiveness provides sufficient bond to hold together. It is also referred to as strength.
This is also a very important property, that the molding sand must have. Because lack
of this property would result in breaking of the mold when the molten metal is poured
in it.

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 Adhesiveness: The property to adhere with other materials is adhesiveness. It is this
property by virtue of which the molding sand is held successfully in the molding flask
and does not fall out of the flask when it is removed.
Plasticity or Flowability: It is the property of the molding sand due to which it
acquires a predetermined shape under pressure and retains the same when the pressure
is removed. When once the mold is made by fixing the pattern in the sand and ramming
it the shape of the mold should not disturb after the taking out the pattern from the sand.

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 Types of Moldings
Casting is a process in which a liquid is poured into a mold in order to produce a product.
There are several types of molds that are used in the casting process. Some are temporary
and are destroyed during the casting process. Others are permanent and are reused again
and again. The type of mold are as follows:
 Green sand molding: Green sand molding is a type of molding in which the mold
is in moist state while pouring the metal into it. Here the word green means wet or
moist. Green sand molding is widely used for casting practically all ferrous and
non ferrous alloys. It is suitable for small, medium and often large castings. The
advantages and disadvantages of green sand molding are as follows:
Advantages:
 It is cheap and least expensive method
 Green sand molds do not require baking operation hence non-baking equipments
 Green sand molding is less time consuming
Disadvantages:
 It is not very strong hence liable to be damage during handling
 The surface finish of the casting is not very good
 The green sand molds cannot be stored for long time

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  Dry sand molding: Dry sand molding is similar to the green sand molding but the
mold is dried or baked before pouring, until the moisture is driven off. The drying
of mold increases its strength, erosion resistance and improves surface condition.
The dry sand molds are stronger and can be handled more easily with less damages
and can be stored for a long time.
Advantages:
 Dry sand molds are generally stronger than green sand molds and therefore can
withstand much additional handling.
 Better dimension control than if they were molded in green sand.
 The improved quality of the sand mixture due to the removal of moisture can result
in a much smoother finish on the castings than if made in green sand molds. Where
molds are properly washed and sprayed with refractory coatings, the casting finish is
further improved.
Disadvantages:
 This type of molding is much more expensive than green sand molding and is not a
high-production process. Correct baking (drying) times are essential.

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  Skin dry molding: Skin-dried molding are sometimes preferred to green sand
molding where assurance is desired that the surface moisture and other gas-forming
materials are lowered. By skin drying the face of the mold after special bonding
materials have been added to the sand molding mixture, a firm mold face is
produced similar to that obtained in dry sand practice. Shakeout of the mold is
almost as good as that obtained with green sand molding. Skin-dried molds are
commonly employed in making medium-heavy and heavy castings.
Advantages:
 Less equipments is needed than for making a dry sand molding
 Skin dry molding takes less time than dry sand molding
 This types of mold is stronger than green sand mold
 This process reduces surface moisture and other gas-forming materials from mold
Disadvantages:
 These molds are more expensive to produce. Mold sections must be completely dry
and cool prior to assembly

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  Loam molding: These molding are used for very large ferrous work. It is prepared
with brick or large iron pieces. These pieces are plastered with a thick loam mortar
and then dried. These molds are very strong and has all the advantages over dry
sand molds.
Disadvantages:
 It takes quite long time to prepare the mold
 The material of the molds cannot be reused. So it is expansive.
 Metal molding: Metal molding consists of the molds made of metal. Metal mold
are used for small and accurate castings. Die casting, centrifugal casting,
permanent mold casting are the processes in which metal molds are used.
Advantages:
 It has very long life and it does not get eroded on metal pouring
 It can be stored for a long time
 The castings have smooth surface and accurate shape
Disadvantages:
 The metal mold is costly
 Once the mold is made it is difficult to change its shape. It take longer time to make
mold.
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 Casting Terminology
Flask : The box containing the mold
Cope : The top half of any part of a 2-part mold
Drag : The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold
Core : A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print : A region used to support the core
Mold Cavity : The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Riser : An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage
Gating System : Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity
Pouring Cup : The part of the gating system that receives poured metal
Sprue : Vertical channel
Runners : Horizontal channels
Parting Line : Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part mold
Core Box : Mold or die used to produce cores
Chaplets : Chaplets are small metal props, placed in the mold cavity to support the core.

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 Casting Processes
The different casting processes are as follows:
 Sand casting
 Permanent mold casting
 Slush casting
 Pressed casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting
 Pressure casting
 Investment or lost-wax casting
 Plaster casting
 Continuous casting
 Chill casting
 Malleable casting

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 Sand Casting
A sand casting or a sand molded casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a
sand mixture and pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in the mold. The mold is then
cooled until the metal has solidified. In the last stage the casting is separated from the
mold. There are six steps in this process:
 Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
 Incorporate a gating system.
 Remove the pattern.
 Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
 Allow the metal to cool.
 Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

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 Steps in Sand Casting

Core making Pattern

(if needed) making

Preparation Mold
Sand
of sand making

Raw Solidification Removal of sand

Melting Pouring
metal and cooling mold

Finished Cleaning and

Casting inspection

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 Elements of a Gating System
Pouring Basin: This is where the molten metal
employed to manufacture the part enters the mold.
The pouring basin should have a projection with a
radius around it to reduce turbulence.
Down Sprue: From the pouring basin, the molten
metal for the casting travels through the down
sprue. This should be tapered so its cross-section is
reduced as it goes downward.
Sprue Base: The down sprue ends at the sprue
base. It is here that the casting's inner cavity
begins.
Ingate/Choke Area: Once at the sprue base, the Gating System for Casting
molten material must pass through the ingate in
order to enter the inner area of the mold. The
ingate is very important for flow regulation during
the metal casting operation.
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 Runners: Runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal to the different areas
inside the mold.
Main Cavity: The impression of the actual part to be cast is often referred to as the main
cavity.
Vents: Vents help to assist in the escape of gases that are expelled from the molten
metal during the solidification phase of the metal casting process.
Risers: Risers are reservoirs of molten material. They feed this material to sections of
the mold to compensate for shrinkage as the casting solidifies. There are different
classifications for risers.
 Top Risers : Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
 Side Risers : Risers that feed the metal casting from the side.
 Blind Risers : Risers that are completely contained within the mold.
 Open Risers : Risers that are open at the top to the outside environment.

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 Chills
Chills: Directional solidification is very important to the manufacture
of a part during the metal casting process, in order to ensure that no
area of the casting is cut off from the flow of liquid material before it
solidifies. To achieve directional solidification within the metal
casting, it is important to control the flow of fluid material and the
solidification rate of the different areas of the metal casting. Chills are
small pieces of metal, capable of quick heat absorption. They are
placed inside the mold cavity before pouring. Chills are of two basic
types.
 Internal chills are located inside the mold cavity and are usually
made of the same material as the casting. When the metal
solidifies the internal chills are fused into the metal casting itself.
 External chills are located just outside of the casting. External
chills are made of a material that can remove heat from the metal
casting faster than the surrounding mold material. Possible
materials for external chills include iron, copper, and graphite.
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 Animation of Sand Casting Step

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 Die Casting
Gravity-Die Casting: Following Figure, is similar to sand casting except that the
mould is machined from solid metal, usually cast iron. This means that the mould
and cavity are permanent. Being metal, the mould can be machined accurately and,
having good thermal conductivity, it allows the casting to cool quickly. The surface
finish is better than can be produced by sand casting, but as metal moulds are
required, product sizes are generally smaller than those possible with sand casting.
Typical products include bicycle cranks and engine pistons. Of course, the metal
being cast must have a lower melting point than the mould metal.

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 Pressure-Die Casting: It is a development of gravity-
die casting in which the molten metal is injected into a
steel mould under pressure; it is the metal equivalent of
injection molding. Again, the metal being cast must have
a lower melting point than the mould material. Pressure-
die casting is quicker than sand and gravity die casting
and because the fluid is under pressure, finer surface
details can be replicated. It is commonly used for door
handles, electric iron bases and hollow sections requiring
fine detail such as carburetor bodies.

Break Drum Aluminum

Pressure Die Casting

Pressure Die Casting-Engine block

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 Advantages:
 Cost of castings is relatively low with high volumes.
 High degree of design complexity and accuracy.
 Excellent smooth surface finish.
 Suitable for relatively low melting point metals (8710C) like lead, zinc, aluminum,
magnesium and some copper alloys.
 High production rates.
Disadvantages:
 Castings must be smaller than 600mm and the thickest wall section should be kept
below 13mm
 High initial cost (Cost of moulds and machine set up)
 A large production volume is required to make the process cost effective
 Some porosity is common with die casting
 Die casting is limited to high fluidity metals (Zinc, Aluminium, Magnesium,
Copper, Lead and Tin)

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 Investment or Lost-Wax Casting

1. WAX INJECTION: Wax replicas of the 2. ASSEMBLY: The patterns are attached to a
desired castings are produced by injection central wax stick, called a sprue, to form a
molding. These replicas are called patterns. casting cluster or assembly.

3. SHELL BUILDING: The shell is built by

4. DEWAX: Once the ceramic is dry, the wax
immersing the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry
is melted out, creating a negative impression of
and then into a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to
the assembly within the shell.
eight layers may be applied in this manner.
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5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING: In the
6. KNOCKOUT: When the metal has cooled
conventional process, the shell is filled with molten
and solidified, the ceramic shell is broken off
metal by gravity pouring. As the metal cools, the
by vibration or water blasting.
parts and gates, sprue and pouring cup become one
solid casting.

8. FINISHED CASTINGS: After minor

finishing operations, the metal castings-
7. CUT OFF: The parts are cut away from the identical to the original wax patterns-are
central sprue using a high speed friction saw. ready for shipment to the customer.
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 Advantages
 Excellent accuracy and flexibility of design.
 Useful for casting alloys that are difficult to machine.
 Exceptionally fine finish.
 Suitable for large or small quantities of parts.
 Almost unlimited intricacy.
 Suitable for most ferrous / non-ferrous metals.
 No flash to be removed or parting line tolerances.
Disadvantages
 Limitations on size of casting.
 Higher casting costs make it important to take full advantage of the process to
eliminate all machining operations.

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 Centrifugal Casting
A permanent mold made of metal or ceramic
is rotated at high speed (300 to 3000 rpm).
The molten metal is then poured into the
mold cavity and due to centrifugal action the
molten metal conform to the cavity provided
in the mould. Castings are known for their
higher densities in the outer most regions.
The process gives good surface finish.
Applications: pipes, bushings, gears,
flywheels etc.

Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process.

Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped parts can be
cast with this process.
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 Squeeze Casting
Squeeze casting, also known as liquid metal
forging, is a combination of casting and
forging process. The molten metal is poured
into the bottom half of the pre-heated die. As
the metal starts solidifying, the upper half
closes the die and applies pressure during the
solidification process. The amount of pressure
thus applied is significantly less than used in
forging, and parts of great detail can be
produced. Coring can be used with this
process to form holes and recesses. The
porosity is low and the mechanical properties
are improved. Both ferrous and non-ferrous
materials can be produced using this method.

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 Comparison of Casting Process
Casting Processes Advantages Limitations
Sand Casting Almost any metal can be cast Coarse finish
No limit on size and shape Dimensional accuracy not so good
Low equipment coat Finishing required
Economical for low volume production Low production rate
Investment Casting Almost any metal can be cast Limitation on part size
Good surface finish & dimensional accuracy Expensive pattern and mold
Fairly high production rate High labor cost
Intricate shapes can be cast
Low finishing cost
Die Casting Excellent surface finish Limitation on part size
Excellent dimensional accuracy High cost of die
High production rate Generally limited to casting of non-
Complex shape can be cast ferrous metals
Little or no finishing cost
Centrifugal Casting High production rate Expensive set-up
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish Good for production of cylindrical
parts only

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 Casting Defects
Defects may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:
 Fault in design of casting pattern
 Fault in design on mold and core
 Fault in design of gating system and riser
 Improper choice of molding sand
 Improper metal composition
 Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring

Casting defects are mainly divided in three categories.

 Major or most severe defects: They result in scrapping of the casting. Metal
penetration and rough surfaces that interfere with machining and finishing
operations and casting that fails either to meet physical requirements or functional
requirements are some of the examples of this class.
 Intermediate defects: They result in the high cost of repairs, but save castings from
scrapping.
 Minor defects: They permit the castings to be easily and economically repaired.

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 Surface Defect
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace
molten metal from convex surface.

Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat

surface. A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is
called blister. These are due to improper
permeability or venting.

A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould

surface and the molten metal flows between the displaced sand and the
mold.
Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface
caused by dropping of sand.

Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles
in the mould. These defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold
and high temperature of the molten metal adds on it.
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 Internal Defects
The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal.
Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also occur when
excessive moisture or excessive gas forming materials are used for mould making.

Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas

bubbles, while porosity indicates a large
number of uniformly distributed tiny holes.

Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing

just below the casting surface.

Inclusions are the non-metallic particles

in the metal matrix, Lighter impurities
appearing the casting surface are dross.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 129/58

 Visible Defects
Wash is a low projection near Swell is the deformation of
the gate caused by erosion of vertical mould surface due
sand by the flowing metal. to hydrostatic pressure
caused by moisture in the
sand.
Rat tail is a long, shallow,
angular depression caused Shift is due to
by expansion of the sand. misalignment of two parts
of the mould or incorrect
Hot tear is the crack in core location.
the casting caused by high
residual stresses. Misrun are caused by insufficient
superheat provided to the liquid metal.
Shrinkage is essentially
solidification contraction
and occurs due to improper
use of Riser. Shrinkage

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 129/59

Lecture-02: Metal Casting Processes 129/60
LECTURE-02: THEORY
OF METAL CUTTING

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
BUET
 Introduction
Production or manufacturing of any object is a value addition process by which raw
material of low utility and value due to its irregular size, shape and finish is converted
into a high utility and valued product with definite size, shape and finish imparting
some desired function ability.
Machining is an essential process of semi-finishing and often finishing by which jobs of
desired shape and dimensions are produced by removing extra material from the
preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the
work surfaces in machine tools. The chips are separated from the workpiece by means
of a cutting tool that possesses a very high hardness compared with that of the
workpiece, as well as certain geometrical characteristics that depend upon the
conditions of the cutting operation. Among all of the manufacturing methods, metal
cutting, commonly called machining; is perhaps the most important. Forgings and
castings are subjected to subsequent machining operations to acquire the precise
dimensions and surface finish required. Also, products can sometimes be manufactured
by machining stock materials like bars, plates, or structural sections.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/62

 Methods of Machining
In the metal cutting operation, the tool is wedge-shaped and has a straight cutting
edge. Basically, there are two methods of metal cutting, depending upon the
arrangement of the cutting edge with respect to the direction of relative work-tool
motion:
 Orthogonal cutting or two dimensional cutting
 Oblique cutting or three dimensioning cutting

Orthogonal Machining Oblique Machining

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/63

 Orthogonal Cutting or Two Dimensional Cutting
 The cutting edge of the tool remains at 900 to the direction of feed
 The chip flows in a direction normal to the cutting edge of the tool
 The cutting edge of the tool has zero inclination with the normal to the feed
 The chip flows in the plane of the tool face. Therefore, it makes no angle with the
normal (in the plane of the tool face) to the cutting.
 The shear force acts on a smaller area, so shear force per unit area is more.
 The tool life is smaller than obtained in oblique cutting
 There are two mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces on the tool
 The cutting edge is bigger than the width of cut.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/64

 Oblique Cutting or Three Dimensioning Cutting
 Cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction of feed
 The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge.
 Cutting edge is inclined at an angle λ (inclination angle) to the normal to the feed.
 The chip flows at an angle β (chip flow angle)to the normal to the cutting edge.
 The shear force acts on a larger area, hence the shear force per area is smaller
 The tool life is higher than obtained in orthogonal cutting
 There are three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces on the tool
 The cutting edge is smaller than the width of cut.

Lecture-02: Metal Casting Processes 35/65

 Cutting Tool Geometry
Cutting tool is device with which a material could be cut to the desired size, shape or
finish. So a cutting tool must have at least a sharp edge. There are two types of cutting tool.
The tool having only one cutting edge is called single point cutting tools. For example
shaper tools, lathe tools, planer tools, etc. The tool having more than one cutting edge is
called multipoint cutting tools. For example drills, milling cutters, broaches, grinding
wheel honing tool etc. A single point cutting tool may be either right or left hand cut
tool depending on the direction of feed.
Primary Cutting Edge

Left Hand Right Hand

Cutting Tool Cutting Tool

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/66

 Cutting Tool Nomenclature
The geometry of a cutting tool consists of the following elements: face or rake surface, flank,
cutting edges and the corner. Face or rake is the surface of the cutting tool along which the chips
flow out. Flank surfaces are those facing the work piece. There are two flank surfaces, principal and
auxiliary flank surfaces. Principal cutting edge performs the major portion of cutting and is formed
by the intersecting line of the face with the principal flank surface. Auxiliary cutting edge (often
called end cutting edge) is formed by the intersection of the rake surface with the auxiliary flank
surface. Corner or cutting point is the meeting point of the principal cutting edge with the auxiliary
cutting edge.

Tool axis

Shank of tool
Auxiliary Rake or Face
cutting edge
Principal cutting edge
Principal flank surface
Corner
Auxiliary flank surface

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/67

 Single Point Cutting Tool

Side rake angle (γx)

End cutting edge
angle (φe)

Side clearance
angle (αx)

Side cutting edge

angle (φs)
Nose radius (r)

Back rake
angle (γy)

End
clearance
angle (αy)
Note: All the rake and clearance angles
are measured in normal direction

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/68

 Side Cutting Edge Angle (φs): The side cutting-edge angle is usually referred to as the lead
angle. It is the angle enclosed between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal direction of the
tool. The value of this angle varies between 0° and 90°, depending upon the machinability,
rigidity, and, sometimes, the shape of the workpiece. Usually, the recommended value for the
lead angle should range between 15° and 30°.
Auxiliary or End Cutting Edge Angle (φe): The end cutting-edge angle serves to eliminate
rubbing between the end cutting edge and the machined surface of the workpiece. Although this
angle takes values in the range of 5° to 30°, commonly recommended values are 8° to 15°.
Side Clearance Angle (αx) and End Clearance Angle (αy): Side and end clearance angles
serve to eliminate rubbing between the workpiece and the side and end flank, respectively.
Usually, the value of each of these angles ranges between 5° and 15°.
Back Rake Angle (γy) and Side Rake Angle (γX): Back and side rake angles determine the
direction of flow of the chips onto the face of the tool. Rake angles can be positive, negative, or
zero. Its value usually varies between 0° and 15°.
Nose radius (r): Nose radius is favorable to long tool life and good surface finish. There is an
improvement in surface finish and permissible cutting speed as nose radius is increased from
zero value.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 42/69

 Chip Formation
Every Machining operation involves the formation of chips. The nature of which
differs from operation to operation, properties of work piece material and the
cutting condition. Chips are formed due to cutting tool, which is harder and more
wearer-resistant than the work piece and the force and power to overcome the
resistance of work material. The chip is formed by the deformation of the metal
lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process of shear. Four main categories of
chips are:
 Discontinuous Chips
 Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips
 Continuous Chip Built-up-Edge (BUE)
 Serrated Chips

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/70

 Types of Chips
Discontinuous Chips: These chips are small segments, which adhere loosely to each other. They are formed
when the amount of deformation to which chips undergo is limited by repeated fracturing. Hard and brittle
materials will produce such chips.
Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips: In continuous chip formation, the pressure of the work piece builds until
the material fails by slip along the plane. The inside on the chip displays steps produced by the intermittent
slip, but the outside is very smooth. It has its elements bonded together in the form of long coils and is
formed by the continuous plastic deformation of material without fracture ahead of the cutting edge of the
tool and is followed by the smooth flow of chip up the tool face.
Continuous Chip Built Up Edge: This type of chip is very similar to that of continuous type, with the
difference that it is not as smooth as the previous one. This type of chip is associated with poor surface
finish, but protects the cutting edge from wear due to movement of chips and the action of heat causing the
increase in tool life.
Serrated Chips: These chips are semicontinuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is
produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain. This chip
is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base and
austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at higher cutting speeds.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/71

 Actual Chip Forms and Classifications

C-type and ε- Short helical

type broken broken chips
chips

Medium helical Long helical

broken chips broken chips

Desired

Not Desired
Long helical
unbroken chips Long and snarled
unbroken chips

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/72

 Chip Formation in Metal Machining
Since the practical machining is complex we use orthogonal cutting model to explain the
mechanics.In this model we used wedge shaped tool. As the tool forced into the material
the chip is formed by shear deformation.

Uncut chip
Thickness
a1=So sin φ
Rough
Chip
Shear surface
Thickness
plane (a2)

Shear Chip
Angle
(β) Shiny
surface
Positive rake

Rake angle (γ)

Rake
Clearance surface
angle (α)
Flank
surface
Workpiece Tool
Negative rake
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/73
 Chip Reduction Coefficient (ξ)
Chip reduction coefficient (ξ) is defined as the ratio of chip thickness (a2) to the uncut chip
thickness (a1). This factor, ξ, is an index of the degree of deformation involved in chip
formation process during which the thickness of layer increases and the length shrinks. In
the USA, the inverse of ξ is denoted by rc and is known as cutting ratio. The following
Figure shows the formation of flat chips under orthogonal cutting conditions. From the
geometry of the following Figure.

a 2 AC OA cos(β  γ 0 ) cosβ cosγ 0  sinβ sinγ 0

ξ   
a1 AB OA sinβ sinβ
cosγ
 0  sinγ
tanβ 0
cosγ  cosγ 
 tanβ  0 
and β  tan 1 o  Shear angle
ξ  sinγ  ξ  sinγ 
o  o
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/74
 Velocity Relationships
The following Figure shows the velocity relation in metal cutting. As the tool advances, the
metal gets cut and chip is formed. The chip glides over the rake surface of the tool. With
the advancement of the tool, the shear plane also moves. There are three velocities of
interest in the cutting process which include:
Vc Cutting velocity
Vf Velocity of the chip relative to the tool. It is called chip flow velocity
Vs Velocity of displacement of formation of chip, relative to the workpiece along the
shear plane. It is called velocity of shear

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/75

 According to principles of kinematics, these three velocities, i.e. their vectors must form a
closed velocity diagram. The vector sum of the cutting velocity, Vc, and the shear velocity,
Vs, is equal to chip velocity, Vf. Thus,

V V V
f c s
V V V
s  c  f
sin(90o  γ ) sin 90o  (β  γ  sinβ
o  o 
sinβ V sinβ V
V V  c  c
sin 900  (β  γ ) cos(β  γ o )
f c ξ
 o 
V
or, c  ξ
Vf

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/76

 Kronenberg derived an interesting relation for chip reduction coefficient (ξ) which is of
considerable physical significance. Considering the motion of any chip particle as shown
in the following Figure to which principles of momentum change are applied:
dv dθ F dv
F  m and N  mω 2 r  mv μ  
dt dt N v dθ
π
V ( -γo )
dv f dv 2
  μ dθ      πdθ
v V v 0
c
V  π 
 ln  f   μ  γ 
V   2 o
 c
   
π  π 
V μ   γ  μ   γ  This equation demonstrates that the chip reduction coefficient
c e  2 0  2 0 

ξe   and chip flow velocity is dependant on the frictional aspects at
V the interface as well as the orthogonal rake angle (γ0). If γ0 is
f increased, chip reduction coefficient decreases.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/77

 Mechanics of Metal Cutting
The force acting on a cutting tool during the process of metal cutting are the fundamental
importance in the design of cutting tools. The determination of cutting forces necessary for
deformation the work material is essential for several important requirements:
 to estimate the power requirements of a machine tool
 to estimate the straining actions that must be resisted by the machine tool
components, bearings, jigs and fixtures
 to evaluate the role of various parameters in cutting forces
 to evaluate the performance of any new work material, tool material, environment,
techniques etc. with respect to machinability

Px = Feed force in the direction of the tool travel

Py = Thrust force in the direction perpendicular to the produced surface
Pz = Cutting force or main force acting in the direction of the cutting velocity.
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/78
 Px  Pxysin..................[1]
Py  Pxycos.................[2]

Several forces can be defined

relative to the orthogonal
cutting model. Based on these
forces, shear stress, coefficient
of friction, and certain other
relationships can be defined.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/79

 Merchant Circle Diagram (MCD)
The following relationships suggest a circle representation of forces as done by Merchant
and indicated in the following Figure.
R  F  N  P  P  P  P .......[3]
s n z xy
F  Pz sin γ o  Pxy cos γ o .....................[4]
N  Pz cos γ o  Pxy sin γ o ....................[5]
Ps  Pz cos β  Pxy sin β......................[6]
Pn  Pz sin β  Pxy cos β.....................[7]

From Equation [4] and [5]

F Pz sinγ o  Pxy cosγ o
μ   tan η.....[8]
N Pz cosγ o  Pxy sinγ o
Where,
μ = kinetic coefficient of friction
η = mean angle of friction at the rake surface
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/80
 From the geometry of force relations of MCD circle
Pz  R cos(η  γ 0 )................[9]
Ps  R cos(β  η  γ 0 )...........[10]
 cos (η  γ 0 ) 
Fron Equation [9] and [10] Pz  Ps  ..........[11]
 cos (β  η  γ o 
)
Based on the shear force, the shear stress (τs) which acts along
the shear plane between the work and the chip is:
Ps S t P sinβ
τs  , where As  area of the shear plane  o  τ s  s ..........[12]
As sinβ So t
From Equation [11]and [12]
 cos(η  γ 0 ) 
Pz  τ s S0 t  ...........[13]
 sinβ cos(β  η  γ o 
)
 sin(η  γ 0 ) 
Similarly, Pxy  τ s S0 t  .......[14]
 sinβ cos(β  η  γ o ) 
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/81
 Earnest-Merchant Theory
Ernst and Merchant extended their analysis and studied the relationship between the shear
angle and the cutting conditions. They suggested that the shear angle always takes the
value that reduces the total energy consumed in cutting to a minimum. Because the total
work done in cutting is dependent upon and is a direct function of the component Pz of the
cutting force, they developed an expression for Pz in terms of β and the constant properties
of the workpiece material. Condition for maximum cutting force (Pz) from Equation [13]
dPz dP d  τ s S0 t cos(η  γ 0 ) 
 0, or, z  . 0
dβ dβ dβ  sinβ cos(β  η  γ o ) 
 cosβ cos(β  η  γ 0 )  sinβ sin(β  η  γ 0 ) 
τ s S0 t cos(η  γ 0 )  0
 sinβ cos(β  η  γ 0  2

π
cosβ cos(β  η  γ 0 )  sinβ sin(β  η  γ 0 )  0, or cos(β  β  η  γ 0 )  0  cos 
2
π η γ0
β   ..................[15]
4 2 2
Combining Equation [13] and [15], Pz  2 τ s S0 t cot β
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/82
 Tool Wear
Productivity and economy of manufacturing by machining are significantly affected by life
of the cutting tools. Cutting tools may fail by brittle fracture, plastic deformation or gradual
wear. Turning carbide inserts having enough strength, toughness and hot hardness
generally fail by gradual wears. With the progress of machining the tools attain crater wear
at the rake surface and flank wear at the clearance surfaces, as schematically shown in
following Figure (next slide) due to continuous interaction and rubbing with the chips and
the work surfaces respectively. Among the aforesaid wears, the principal flank wear is the
most important because it raises the cutting forces and the related problems.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/83

 Features of Wear of Turning Tool

VB = Average flank wear

VN = Flank notch wear
VM = Maximum flank wear
VS = Average auxiliary flank wear
VSM = Maximum auxiliary flank wear
KT = Crater depth
KM = Distance from center of crater
KB = Crater width

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/84

 The life of the tools, which ultimately fail by systematic gradual wear, is generally
assessed at least for R&D work, by the average value of the principal flank wear
(VB), which aggravates cutting forces and temperature and may induce vibration with
progress of machining. The pattern and extent of wear of the auxiliary flank (VS)
affects surface finish and dimensional accuracy of the machined parts.
However, tool rejection criteria for finishing operation were employed in this
investigation. The values established in accordance with ISO Standard 3685 for tool
life testing. A cutting tool was rejected and further machining stopped based on one or
a combination of rejection criteria:
i. Average Flank Wear ≥ 0.3 mm
ii. Maximum Flank Wear ≥ 0.4 mm
iii. Nose Wear ≥ 0.3 mm
iv. Notching at the depth of cut line ≥ 0.6 mm
v. Average surface roughness value ≥ 1.6 µm
vi. Excessive chipping (flanking) or catastrophic fracture of cutting edge.
Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 42/85
 Mechanism of Tool Wear
In general there are seven basic types of wear that affect a cutting tool:
 Abrasion: Mechanical wearing, hard particles in workpiece removes small
portions of the tool, that cause flank and crater wear. This is the dominant cause of
flank wear.
 Adhesion:Two metals contact under high pressure and temperature that cause
welding between the materials.
 Diffusion:Atoms on the boundry of workpiece and tool changes place. This is the
principle cause for crater wear.
 Chemical Reactions: The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the chip-tool
interface in machining at high speeds can result in chemical reactions, in
particular, oxidation, on the rake surface of the tool. The oxidized layer, being
softer than the parent tool material, is sheared away, exposing new material to
sustain the reaction process.
 Plastic Deformation: Cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature
cause the edge to deform plastically. This cause flank wear.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/86

 Cutting Tool Materials Properties
A good type of tool material should possess certain desired properties such as
 The material must remain harder than the work material at elevated operating
temperature.
 The material must withstand excessive wear even though the relative hardness of
the tool-work materials changes.
 The frictional coefficient at the chip-tool interface must remain low for minimum
wear and reasonable surface finish.
 The material must be sufficiently tough to withstand the shocks of intermittent
cutting; if not reinforcement must be provided.
 The tool material should also possess high thermal conductivity for quickly
removing heat from the chip-tool interface, have a low coefficient of thermal
expansion, not be distorted after heat treatment, be easy to regrind and also easy to
weld to the tool holder

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/87

 Cutting Tool Materials
Carbon Tool Steels (10-15 m/min)
 Medium alloy steels
 Poor properties above 200OC and inexpensive
 Uses: Taps and core drills for machining soft materials and wood working tools

High Speed Steels (HSS) (35 m/min)

 Hot hardness is quite high, so the HSS cutting tools retain the cutting ability upto 600OC
 Wear resistance is high and hardenability is good
 Uses: Drills, milling cutters, taps, lathe cutting tool, gear hobs etc. are made of HSS.

Carbides (70-120 m/min): A hard material made of compacted binary compounds of carbon
and heavy metals, used to make tools that cut metal.
 Made using powder metallurgy and usually used as an insert

Ceramics (350-400 m/min)

 High abrasion and high hot hardness
 Not good for interrupted cutting
 Requires dry, or constant profuse cutting fluids

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/88

 All carbides, when finished, are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to it
impact and shock loading. Due to this, vibrations are very harmful for carbide
tools. The machine tools should be rigid, faster and more powerful. Light feeds,
low speeds and chatter are harmful. Due to the high cost of carbide tool materials
and other factors, cemented carbides are used in the form of inserts or tips which
are brazed or clamped to a steel shank as shown in the following Figure.

Methods of attaching inserts to tool shanks

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 24/89

 Types of Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a variety of reasons such as improving tool
life, reducing workpiece thermal deformation, improving surface finish and flushing away
chips from the cutting zone. Practically all cutting fluids presently in use fall into one of
four categories:
 Straight oils
 Soluble oils
 Semi-synthetic fluids
 Synthetic fluids
Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in machining operations in an undiluted
form. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and often contain polar
lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils and esters as well as extreme pressure additives
such as Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus. Straight oils provide the best lubrication and
the poorest cooling characteristics among cutting fluids.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/90

 Soluble oil fluids form an emulsion when mixed with water. The concentrate consists
of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce a stable emulsion. They are used
in a diluted form (usual concentration 3 to 10%) and provide good lubrication and heat
transfer performance. They are widely used in industry and are the least expensive
among all cutting fluids.

Semi-synthetic fluids are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil fluids
and have characteristics common to both types. The cost and heat transfer performance
of semi-synthetic fluids lie between those of soluble oil fluids and synthetic fluid.

Synthetic fluids contain no petroleum or mineral oil base and instead are formulated
from alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with additives for corrosion
inhibition. They are generally used in a diluted form (usual concentration 3 to 10%).
Synthetic fluids often provide the best cooling performance among all cutting fluids.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/91

 Properties of Cutting Fluid
A good type of cutting fluid should possess certain desired properties such as:
 Good cooling capacity and lubricating qualities
 Rust resistance and stability- for long life
 Resistance to rancidity and foaming
 Non-toxic
 Transparent-to allow the operator to see the work clearly during machining
 Relatively low viscosity-to permit the chips and dirt to settle quickly
 Nonflammable-to avoid burning easily and should be non-combustible
 Ability to disposed of in an environmentally responsible way.
 In addition, it should not smoke excessively, form gummy deposit which
may cause machine slide to become sticky, or clog the circulating system.

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 12/92

 LECTURE-03: METAL
JOINING METHODS

Nikhil R. Dhar, Ph. D

Professor, IPE Department
93 BUET
 Introduction
Welding i.e. the action of the verb “To weld” is same as “To well” which means to boil
or to heat to a high temperature. The weld may be defined as a localized union or
consolidation of metals by the application of heat and with or without the application of
pressure. Welding is usually employed to unite metals where the joining is permanent
and is required to transmit stress and sometimes to develop pressure tightness. In recent
past remarkable advances have given welding a dominant place in the metal industries
and different techniques of welding were developed to achieve certain goals.
The American Welding Society (AWS) definition for a welding process is "a materials
joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without the use of filler material".

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/94

 Welding Classification
WELDING PROCESSES

Arc Welding Other Welding Processes

 Gas Metal Arc (GMAW)  Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
 Gas Tungsten Arc (GTAW)  Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
 Plasma Arc (PAW)  Thermit Welding (TW)
 Shielded Metal Arc (SMAW)
 Submerged Arc (SAW) Oxyfuel Gas Welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Solid State Welding  Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW)
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)  Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)
 Explosion Welding (EXW)
 Friction Welding (FRW) Brazing
 Hot Pressure Welding (HPW)  Diffusion Brazing (DFB)
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)  Induction Brazing (IB)
 Resistance Brazing (RB)
Resistance Welding
 Flash Welding (FW) Soldering
 Percussion Welding (PEW)  Infrared Soldering (IRS)
 Projection Welding (RPW)  Iron Soldering (INS)
 Resistance-Seam Welding (RSEW)  Resistance Soldering (RS)
 Resistance-Spot Welding (RSW)

Department of Industrial & Production Engineering 20/95

Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages of Welding
 A good weld is as strong as the base metal
 General welding equipment is not very costly
 Portable welding equipments are available
 Welding permits considerable freedom in design
 Welding can join metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar
 Welding can be mechanized
Disadvantages of Welding
 Welding gives out harmful radiation (light), fumes and spatter
 Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces
 Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold the parts to be welded
 Edge preparation of the workpiece is generally required before welding
 A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job
 Welding heat produces metallurgical changes
 A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.
Application of Welding
 Aircraft construction and Automobile construction
 Bridges and Buildings, Household and Office furniture
 Pressure vessels, Tanks and Storage tanks, Rail, Road equipment, Piping and Pipelines
 Ships, Trucks and Trailers, Machine tool frames, Cutting tools and dies
 In addition, arc welding are also used in repair and maintenance work

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 Types of Weld Joint
Welding produces a solid connection between two pieces called a weld joint. a weld joint is the
junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined by welding. There are five basic types
of joints for bringing two parts together for joining. The five types can be defined as follows:

(a) Butt joint (b) Corner joint (c) Lap joint

(d) Tee joint (e) Edge joint

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 Types of Welds

Square groove weld Single bevel groove weld

Inside single fillet corner joint Outside single fillet corner joint

Single V-groove weld single J-groove weld

Double fillet tee joint

Double fillet lap joint
Single U-groove weld
Double V-groove weld for
thicker sections

Plug weld Slot weld

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of
either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) from a welding power supply, is used
to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is
laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a
shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
 The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
 This process finds innumerable applications, because of a wide variety of electrodes.
 A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
 Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.

Disadvantages
 Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it mechanization is difficult.
 In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the weld is to be progressed
with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect may occur at the place where welding is
restarted with the new electrode.
 The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to M1G welding.
 Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other related defects are more as
compared to MIG or TIG welding.
 Because of fumes and particles of slag, the arc and metal transfer is not very clear and thus welding
control in this process is a bit difficult as compared to MIG welding.
Applications
 Almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded by this process.
 SMAW is used both as a fabrication process and for maintenance and repair jobs.
 The process finds applications in (a) Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications; (b) Ship
building; (c) Pipes and Penstock joining; (d) Building and Bridge construction; and (e) Automotive
and Aircraft industry, etc.

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 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an
arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces
energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal
vapors known as plasma. Manual gas tungsten arc welding is often considered the most
difficult of all the welding processes commonly used in industry. Because the welder must
maintain a short arc length, great care and skill are required to prevent contact between the
electrode and the workpiece.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 No flux is used; hence there is no danger of flux entrapment
 Because of clear visibility of the arc and the job, the operator can exercise a better control on the
welding process
 Weld in all positions and produces smooth and sound welds with fewer spatters
 It is very much suitable for high quality welding of thin (0.125mm) materials
 It is a very good process for welding nonferrous metals and stainless steel.
Disadvantages
 Under similar applications, MIG welding is a much faster process as compared to TIG welding,
since TIG welding requires a separate filler rod
 Tungsten if it transfers to molten weld pool can contaminate the same. Tungsten inclusion is hard
and brittle
 Filler rod end if it by chance comes out of the inert gas shield can cause weld metal
contamination
 Equipment costs are higher than that for flux shielded metal arc welding.
Applications
 Welding aluminum, magnesium, copper and their alloys, carbon steels, stainless steels, high
temperature and hard surfacing alloys like zirconium etc.
 Welding sheet metal and thinner sections
 Welding of expansion bellows, transistor cases, instrument diaphragms, and can-sealing joints
 Precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft, chemical and instrument industries
 Rocket motor chamber fabrications in launch vehicles.
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Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding is frequently referred to as MIG welding. MIG welding is a commonly used high deposition
rate welding process. Wire is continuously fed from a spool. MIG welding is therefore referred to as a semiautomatic
welding process.
Principle of Operation
Before igniting the arc, gas and water flow is checked.
Proper current and wire feed speed is set and the electrical
connections are ensured. The arc is struck by any one of the
two methods. In the first method current and shielding gas
flow is switched on and the electrode is scratched against
the job as usual practice for striking the arc. In the second
method, electrode is made to touch the job, is retracted and
then moved forward to carry out welding; but. before
striking the arc, shielding gas, water and current is switched
on. About 15 mm length of the electrode is projected from
the torch before striking the arc. During welding, torch
remains about 10-12 mm the job and length is kept between
1.5 to 4 mm. Arc length is maintained constant by using the
principles of self-adjusted arc, and self-controlled arc in
semi-automatic (manually operated) and automatic welding
sets respectively. Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 Because of continuously fed electrode, MIG welding process is much faster as compared to TIG
 It can produce joints with deep penetration
 Thick and thin, both types of workpieces can be welded effectively
 Large metal deposition rates are achieved by MIG welding process
 The process can be easily mechanized
 No flux is used. MIG welding produces smooth, neat, clean, and spatter free welded surfaces, which require no
further cleaning AND reducing welding cost.
 Higher arc travel speeds associated with MIG welding reduce distortion considerably.
Disadvantages
 The process is slightly more complex as compared to TIG because a number of variables (like electrode stick out,
torch angle, welding parameters, type and size of electrode, welding torch manipulation, etc.) are required to be
controlled effectively to achieve good results.
 Welding equipment is more complex, more costly and less portable
 Since air drafts may disperse the shielding gas, MIG welding may not work well in outdoor welding applications
 Weld metal cooling rates are higher than with the processes that deposit slag over the weld metal
Applications
 The process can be used for welding of carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum, magnesium, copper,
nickel, and their alloys, titanium, etc.
 For welding tool steels and dies
 For the manufacture of refrigerator parts
 MIG welding has been used successfully in industries like aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel, and shipbuilding.

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Shielding Gas
The shielding gas, forms the arc plasma, stabilizes the arc on the metal being welded, shields
the arc and molten weld pool, and allows smooth transfer of metal from the weld wire to the
molten weld pool. The primary shielding gasses used are:
 Argon
 Argon - 1 to 5% Oxygen
 Argon - 3 to 25% CO2
 Argon/Helium

CO2 is also used in its pure form in some MIG welding processes. However, in some
applications the presence of CO2 in the shielding gas may adversely affect the mechanical
properties of the weld.

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Submersed Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. It requires a continuously fed
consumable solid or tubular (flux cored) electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from
atmospheric contamination by being “submerged” under a blanket of granular fusible flux. When molten,
the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work.

SAW is normally operated in the automatic or

mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held)
SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery
are available. The process is normally limited to the 1F,
1G, or the 2F positions (although 2G position welds have
been done with a special arrangement to support the
flux). DC or AC power can be utilized, and combinations
of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode
systems. Constant Voltage welding power supplies are
most commonly used, however Constant Current systems
in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 High deposition rates (over 45 kg/h) have been reported)
 Deep weld penetration and Sound welds are readily made
 High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over 100 in/min (2.5 m/min) is possible
 Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted
 Practically no edge preparation is necessary
 The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works.
 Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, corrosion resistant and have good impact value.
 Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.
 The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld.
Disadvantages
 Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel based alloys;
 Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
 Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels;
 Flux and slag residue can present a health & safety issue;
 Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
Applications
 Fabrication of pipes, pressure vessels, boilers, structural shapes, rail road and earth moving equipment, cranes and under
structure of railway coaches and locomotives.
 Automotive, aviation, ship-building and nuclear power industry
 Rebuilding of worn out parts and depositing wear resisting alloys. Hard facing of tractor rollers and idlers and crane pulleys.

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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used
to join two to four overlapping metal sheets which are up
Force
to 3 mm thick each. In some applications with only two
overlapping metal sheets, the sheet thickness can be up to 6
mm. Two copper electrodes are simultaneously used to Electrode
clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through Current +
the sheets. When the current is passed through the Weld nugget
electrodes to the sheets, heat is generated in the air gap at
Sheet metal
the contact points. At the contact points between electrodes
parts
and workpiece the heat dissipates throughout the copper
electrodes quickly, since the copper is an excellent
conductor. However at the air gap between metal sheets the
heat has no where to go, as the metal is a poor conductor of
heat by comparison. Therefore the heat remains in the one Electrode
location, which melts the metal at that spot. As the heat Current -
dissipates throughout the workpiece over a second or so, it
cools the spot weld, causing the metal to solidify.
Force

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The steps in a spot welding cycle are
F F F

Weld
Electrode Molten nugget
metal

F F F

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 Low cost
 High speed of welding
 Less skilled worker will do
 More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts
 High uniformity of products
 Operation may be made automatic or semi-automatic, and
 No edge preparation is needed
Disadvantages
 The initial cost of equipment is high
 Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of equipment and its controls
 In some materials, special surface preparation is required
 Bigger job thickness' cannot be welded
Applications
 Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done satisfactorily.
 Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not require gas tight joints can be
more economically joined by spot welding than by mechanical methods
 The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal parts such as cases,
covers, bases or trays is another application of spot welding.
 Spot welding finds application in automobile and aircraft industries.

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Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
The seam-welding form of the resistance process is a series of overlapping welds. Two or more
sheets of base metal are usually passed between electrode rollers, as shown in following Figure,
which transmit the current and also the mechanical pressure required for producing a welded
seam which is normally gas-tight or liquid-tight.

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Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels
Electrode Individual weld nuggets
Sheet metal
wheel
parts
Overlapping weld
nuggets

V V

Conventional resistance seam welding Roll spot welding

Continuous weld
seam

Continuous resistance seam

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 It can produce gas tight or liquid- tight joints
 Overlap can be less than for spot or projection welds
 A single seam weld or several parallel seams may be produced simultaneously

Disadvantages
 Welding can be done only along a straight or uniformly curved line
 It is difficult to weld thicknesses greater than 3mm
 A change in the design of electrode wheels is required to avoid obstructions along the
path of the wheels during welding.
Applications
 Girth welds can be made in round, square or rectangular parts
 Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals of common industrial use
can be seam welding.
 Besides lap welds, seam-welding can be used for making butt seam welds too.

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Thermit Welding (TW)
Thermit welding differs from other welding processes principally in that the heating is
obtained from the thermit chemical reaction rather than from fire or electric current. A mixture
of a metallic oxide and finely divided aluminum were ignited. The two materials react
exothermically thereby converting the mixture into a superheated mass of the metal itself and
a slag. The superheated metal flows into a mood around the parts to be united and weld them
into one homogeneous mass while the slag overflows on top of the mold. Thermit welding
now finds only limited application, chiefly in the repair of large iron and steel castings, though
it was the traditional method for joining rails on site.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly power-supply is required.
Therefore broken parts (rails etc.) can be welded on the site itself.

Disadvantages
 Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy sections, i.e., mill housings and heavy rail
sections.
 The process is uneconomical if used to weld cheap metals or light parts.

Applications
 For repairing fractured rails (railway tracks).
 For butt-welding pipes end to end.
 For welding large fractured crankshafts.
 For building up worn wobblers.
 For welding broken frames of machines
 For replacing broken teeth on large gears.
 For welding new necks to rolling mill rolls and pinions.
 For welding cables for electrical conductors.
 For end welding of reinforcing bars to be used in concrete (building) construction.)

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Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Electron beam welding (EBM) is defined as a fusion welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the
heat obtained from a concentrated beam composed primarily of high velocity electrons. As the high velocity
electrons strike the surfaces to be joined, their kinetic energy changes to thermal energy thereby causing the
workpiece metal to melt and fuse.
The electron beam is produced in a high vacuum
environment by an electron gun, usually consisting of a
tungsten or tantalum cathode, a grid or forming
electrode and an anode. A stream of electrons is giving
off from a tungsten filament heated to about 2200oC.
The electrons are gathered, accelerated to a high velocity
and shaped into a beam by the potential difference
between cathode and anode. The beam is collimated and
focusing by passing through the field of an electro-
magnetic focusing coil or magnetic lens. Beams
typically are focused to about 0.25 to 1 mm diameter
and have a power density of about 10 kW/mm2, which
is sufficient to melt and vaporize any metal.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 Ability to make welds that are deeper, narrower and less tapered than arc welds with a total heat input much
lower than in arc welding
 Superior control over penetration and other weld dimensions and properties
 High welding speeds are common: no filler metal is required; the process can be performed in all positions
and preheating or post heating is generally unnecessary
 Clean and sound welds
 Energy conversion efficiency is high, about 65%

Disadvantages
 The equipment is expensive and high operating cost
 High cost of precision joint preparation and precision tooling
 Limitations of the vacuum chamber. Work size is limited b the size of the chamber
 Production rate and unit welding cost are adversely affected by the need to pump down the work chamber for
each load.
Applications
 Materials that are difficult to weld by other processes, such as zirconium, beryllium and tungsten can be
welded successfully by this method but the weld configuration should be simple and preferably flat.
 Narrow weld can be obtained with remarkable penetrations
 The high power and heat concentrations can produce fusion zones with depth-to-width ratios of 25:1 with
low total heat input, low distortion and a very narrow heat-affected zone
 Heat sensitive materials can be welded without damage to the base metal.

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 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
The word LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser beam
welding is defined as a welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from the
application of a concentrated coherent light beam impinging upon the surface to be joined.
The laser crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder, the ends being flat
and parallel to a high degree of accuracy and silvered to give mirror-
reflecting surfaces. There is a small aperture on the axis of the crystal,
through the mirror at the output end. When the crystal is pumped with
high-intensity white light from a xenon or krypton lamp, the Cr ions in
the crystal get excited. The excited ions posses more energy and some
of it are given as a red fluorescent light. This light is reflected
backward and forward in the crystal between the two ends (mirrors),
striking more Cr ions on the path. These ions affected by the collisions
are each caused to emit their quota of red light. There is a cumulative
effect of the increasing red light existing more and more Cr ions, until
the number of collisions is high enough to cause a burst of red light
through the small aperture in the mirror at the output end of the crystal.
The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a
pinpoint area by an optical lens.

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Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications
Advantages
 Welds can be made inside transparent glass or plastic housings
 A wide variety of materials can be welded
 As no electrode is used, electrode contamination or high electric current effects are eliminated
 Unlike electron beam welding it operates in air, no vacuum is required
 Laser beam being highly concentrated and narrowly defined produces narrow size of the heat
affected zone
 It is possible to weld heat-treated alloys without affecting their heat-treated condition
 Because it is light, it is clean – no vaporized metal or electrodes dirty up the delicate assemblies.
Disadvantages
 The major drawback to laser beam welds is the slow welding speeds (25-250 mm/min) resulting
from the pulse rates and puddle sizes at the fusion point
 Laser welding is limited to depths of approximately 1.5 mm and additional energy only tends to
create gas voids and undercuts in the work
 Most industrial laser are of the CO2 variety and consume considerable amounts of power
 Reflected or scattered laser beams can be quite dangerous to human eyes.
Applications
 Laser is a high energy light beam that can both weld and cut the metals
 For connecting leads on small electronic components and in integrated circuitry in the electronic
industry
 It is possible to weld wires without removing the polyurethane insulation. The laser simply
evaporates the insulation and completes the weld with the internal wire.
 Laser beam is used for micro welding purposes. It is particularly suitable for the welding of
miniaturized and microminiaturized components.

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Defects in Welding
Defects during welding may be caused by the presence of impurities and gases at the
liquification temperature, fast solidification of the weld metal, thermal shock and
microstructural changes. Common defects in welding and their remedies are discussed
below:
Lack of Fusion and Lack of penetration
Porosity and blow holes
Slag inclusions
Cracking
Distortion
Welding profile
Residual stresses
Surface damage

Any of these defects are potentially disastrous as they can all give rise to high stress intensities
which may result in sudden unexpected failure below the design load or in the case of cyclic
loading, failure after fewer load cycles than predicted.

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Lack of Fusion and Lack of Penetration
 To achieve a good quality join it is essential that the fusion zone extends the full thickness of the
sheets being joined. Thin sheet material can be joined with a single pass and a clean square edge
will be a satisfactory basis for a join. However thicker material will normally need edges cut at a V
angle and may need several passes to fill the V with weld metal. Where both sides are accessible
one or more passes may be made along the reverse side to ensure the joint extends the full
thickness of the metal.
 Lack of fusion results from too little heat input and / or too rapid traverse of the welding torch (gas
or electric).

Porosity and Blow Holes

 This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise from damp
consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in the vicinity of the
weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in dry conditions and work is
carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding.
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Slag Inclusions
 These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining thick plate using flux
cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run before
the following run.
Cracking
 This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain accompanying
phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a combination of poor
design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual stresses and cracking. Where alloy
steels or steels with a carbon content greater than about 0.2% are being welded, self cooling may
be rapid enough to cause some (brittle) martensite to form. This will easily develop cracks.
 To prevent these problems a process of pre-heating in stages may be needed and after welding a
slow controlled post cooling in stages will be required. This can greatly increase the cost of welded
joins, but for high strength steels, such as those used in petrochemical plant and piping, there may
well be no alternative.

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Distortion
 While welding a job, base metal under the arc melts, base metal ahead gets preheated and the
base metal portion already welded starts cooling. There is good amount of temperature difference
at various points along the joint and thus at any instant certain areas of the base metal expand
and others including weld bead contract. This phenomena lead to distortion. Distortion is the
change in shape and difference between the positions of the two plates before welding and after
welding. The various factors leading to distortion are:
More number of passes with small diameter electrodes
Slow arc travel speed
Type of joint. A V-joint needs more metal to be deposited to fill the groove as compared to a
U- joint, thus leading to comparatively more distortion
High residual stresses in plates to be welded
Welding sequence being improper. Use of jigs and fixtures, clamps, presetting, wedging, and
proper tacking may minimize distortion.

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Welding Profile
 Weld profile is important not only because of its effects on the strength and appearance of the weld,
but also because it can signal incomplete fusion or the presence of slag inclusions in multiple layer
welds.
Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of weld metal.
Undercutting results from the melting away of the base metal and the consequent generation
of the groove in the shape of a sharp recess or notch. If it is deep or sharp, an undercut can act
as a stress raiser and can reduce the fatigue strength of the joint; in such cases, it may lead to
premature failure.
Overlapping is the surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding practice and by the
selection of improper materials.

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Residual Stresses
 Because of the localized heating and cooling during welding, expansion and
contraction of the weld area causes residual stresses in the workpiece. Residual
stresses can cause the following defects:

Distortion, warping and buckling of the welded parts

Stress-corrosion cracking
Further distortion, if a portion of the welded structure is subsequently removed
(by machining or by sawing)
Reduced fatigue life.
Surface Damage
• Some of the metal may spatter during welding and be deposited as small droplets on
adjacent surfaces. In arc welding processes, the electrode may inadvertently touch
the parts being welded at places other than the weld zone (arc strikes). Such surface
discontinuities may be objectionable for reasons of appearance or of subsequent use
of the welded part.

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Robotic Welding
Robot welding is the use of mechanized programmable tools (robots), which completely automate a
welding process by both performing the weld and handling the part. Processes such as gas metal arc
welding, while often automated, are not necessarily equivalent to robot welding, since a human
operator sometimes prepares the materials to be welded. Robot welding is commonly used for
Resistance Spot welding and Arc Welding in high production applications, such as the Automotive
Industry.
Robot welding is a relatively new application of robotics, even though robots were first introduced
into US industry during the 1960s. The use of robots in welding did not take off until the 1980s,
when the automotive industry began using robots extensively for Spot Welding. Since then, both the
number of robots used in industry and the number of their applications has grown greatly. Cary and
Helzer suggest that, as of 2005, more than 120,000 robots are used in North American industry, about
half of them pertaining to welding. Growth is primarily limited by high equipment costs, and the
resulting restriction to high-production applications.
Robot arc welding has begun growing quickly just recently, and already it commands about 20% of
industrial robot applications. The major components of arc welding robots are the manipulator or the
mechanical unit and the controller, which acts as the robot's "brain". The manipulator is what makes
the robot move, and the design of these systems can be categorized into several common types, such
as the SCARA robot and Cartesian coordinate robot, which use different coordinate systems to direct
the arms of the machine.
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 Spot welding

Arc welding

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Welding Automation with Robots
There are two basic categories of welding automation: semi-automatic and fully automatic
 Semi-automatic welding occurs when an operator manually loads the part(s) into the welding fixture. The
torch/part motions and welding parameters are controlled by a weld controller to ensure a quality, repeatable
weld. When the weld is completed, the operator removes the completed part and then the process starts over.
 Fully automatic welding utilizes a custom machine or succession of machines to load the workpiece, place
the part or torch into position, effect the weld, supervise quality control, and then when the product is
finished, unload it. If necessary, additional "part in place" and final product quality checks may be designed
into the machine. The details of the specific operation designate whether a machine operator may or may not
be necessary.
There are many factors that need to be considered when setting up a robotic welding facility. Some of the
consideration for a robotic welding facility are listed below:
 Accuracy and repeatability
 Number of axes and Reliability
 Fixtures
 Programming
 Seam tracking systems
 Maintenance and Controls
 Weld monitors
 Arc welding equipment
 Positioners and Part transfer

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Benefits of Automated Welding
Well-engineered welding systems include benefits that range from improved weld
quality to decreased variable labor costs. The foremost advantages are:
Improved Weld Quality: Mechanized welding improves weld integrity and
repeatability.
Increased Output/Volume: Production weld speeds are set by the machine at a
reasonable percentage of maximum. With minimized part set up time, and
higher weld speeds increased output will occur.
Decreased Scrap/Rework: Automating the torch/part motions and part
placement minimizes the error potential.
Decreased Variable Labor Costs: Relying on human welders dramatically
increases a manufacturer's labor costs. A Semi-Automatic system will normally
have at least twice the output of a skilled welder. A fully automatic system with
sufficient stations can run at four times the pace of semi-automatic system or at
eight times the pace of a skilled welder.
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