Developing learners’ writing

skills
Methods in teaching English as a
foreign language
 What makes writing difficult for
students?
• Think about your experience in writing in
English. What makes writing difficult for you?
• As a students at school, what types of texts
did you have to write?
• Did you get any feedback on your writing as a
student?
• Does your writing at university differ from
your writing at school?
 Difficulties with writing
• As a literacy skill, it is not acquired naturally, even in one's own
language;
• It has to be learnt in a systematic way, usually with the help of a
teacher or someone familiar with the writing conventions in the
respective language.
• Difficulties related to personality factors – self-esteem, introversion,
risk-taking, motivation, concentration, need of world knowledge,
imagination; time and space to get organised, etc.
• Difficulties related to the nature of writing itself –familiarity with
style (the degree of formality); genre conventions in foreign
language writing, as they differ from those in their own language;
recognising written text script, layout, structure, organisation and
register.
 What are the differences between
written and oral discourse?
• Think about the differences between written
and oral discourse in terms of their
permanence, explicitness, density,
organisation, etc. Discuss the differences with
your partner/group.
Differences between written and oral discourse
Criteria Written Oral
1. Permanence Fixed and stable Fleeting, in real time
2. Explicitness Explicit - makes clear Less explicit - real-
the context and all time situation and
references shared knowledge
3. Density High density of Info diluted;
information redundancy
4. Detachment Detached in time and Immediate interaction
space and feedback
5. Organisation Organized and Improvised with
carefully formulated ongoing alterations
and self-corrections
6. Speed of Slow production and Quick production and
production and quick reception (in reception - depends
reception silent reading on speed of delivery
7. Register Standard language Less standard, local
dialect
8. Type of skill Learnt Acquired and learnt
 Macro-skills of writing
• 1. Using cohesive devices, rhetorical forms and conventions of
written discourse.
• 2. Appropriately accomplishing the communicative functions of
written texts according to form and purpose.
• 3. Conveying links and connections between events and
communicate such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new
information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
• 4. Distinguishing between literal and implied meaning when writing.
• 5. Correctly conveying culturally specific references in the context of
the written text.
• 6. Developing and using a battery of writing strategies, such as
accurately assessing the audience's interpretation, using pre-writing
devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases
and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using
feedback for revising and editing.
 Micro-skills of writing
• 1. Producing graphemes and orthographic
patterns of English.
• 2. Producing writing at an efficient rate of speed
to suit the purpose.
• 3. Producing an acceptable core of words and
appropriate word order patterns.
• 4. Using acceptable grammatical systems (tense,
agreement, pluralization), patterns and rules.
• 5. Expressing a particular meaning in different
grammatical rules.
 Writing as a means, an end, or both
• Writing as a means – to take/make notes; to
write/ copy vocabulary or grammar rules,
exercises; to do written tests;
• Writing as an end – to express one’s ideas; to
narrate, describe, argue, etc.
• Writing as both means and end – to combine
writing with other skills, e.g. respond to a read
text, illustrate the meaning of idioms, etc.
 Types of classroom writing
• Imitative writing – copying and written exercises (Putting words in alphabetical
order or categories, Doing puzzles, Playing Bingo, Odd word out, Labeling items,
Finding words, Filling in speech bubbles, Ordering jumbled sentences, Writing
dialogues, dictations, etc.
• Intensive writing – controlled (Students don’t see the words; they label and
classify items, complete texts, correct sentences, make notes) and guided writing
(parallel writing using a model text, sentence linking activities, reconstructing a
model text, jumble texts, answer questions, dictocomp /dictogloss).
• Self-writing – creative writing and free writing – recording personal information,
writing film/ book reviews, personal diaries, blogs, fiction; note taking for later
recall.
• Display writing – essay examinations, research reports, portfolios.
• Real writing - academic (peer-editing, group problem-solving) , vocational
(letters, directions, fill-out forms) and personal (letters, e-mails, postcards,
SMS/texts).
 Approaches to developing students’
writing skills
• Reflect on your own experience as a language
learner and a language teacher, and the
context you are currently working in.
• What is your approach to teaching writing?
• Do you get students to write in class or do you
assign writing tasks for homework?
 Product approach
• Centres on the use of a model text;
• Provides a clear model of a certain type of text;
• Students' attention is drawn to certain features of the
text through a series of exercises based on the text's genre
features, such as paragraphs, linking devices or vocabulary.
• Firstly, the students' awareness of the text features is
raised.
• Secondly, there is a controlled practice of these features,
usually in isolation.
• Next, organisation of ideas is discussed
• Finally, students write a similar text, or product,
themselves.
 Process approach
• Emphasises the creativity of the writing process, not seen as diligent imitation and
following of model texts, but as a series of stages in the composing process.
• The process is not linear, but cyclical - the writer is constantly moving between stages
torevise his/her work. The main stages in the process approach involve:
• Pre-writing: specifying the task, generating or collecting ideas through brainstorming,
questions, questionnaires, etc., sifting through, selecting and ordering ideas.
• Composing or drafting: learners start to write their texts using examples of drafts
written by the teacher or authentic examples of texts or parts of texts, e.g. beginnings
and endings, focussing on both ideas and formulaic expressions.
• Evaluating and revising: students evaluate their own and other learners’ work, making
sure that the text conforms to expectations of this text type in terms of its purpose,
organisation of ideas and effect on the audience. The teacher may also respond to the
text, making suggestions rather than corrections. Activities may also focus on the use of
cohesive devices, range of vocabulary, aspects of style, etc.
• Editing and redrafting: students produce subsequent edited drafts, using the feedback
given on their initial drafts.
 Genre approach
• The emphasis is on identifying appropriate genres for the learners. It has
some similarities to a product approach and can be viewed as an
extension of this.
• Compared to the product approach, it places more emphasis on
authenticity in the texts, on the style aspects of each type of text, and
most importantly, on the effect on the target reader. It can be viewed in a
sense as a reaction against the process approach, with its focus on the
writer and the processes of creating texts.
• The procedure followed in teaching often includes the following kind of
steps:
1. exposing the learners to examples of the genre.
2. analysing the text (social context, purpose, text organisation and
language features).
3. learners producing partial texts with support from other learners or the
teacher.
4. learners constructing their own text.
 Responding to students’ writing
Think about how teachers usually deal with giving students feedback
on their writing.
• 1. Do they help them during the writing process? Do they
encourage peer support?
• Do they encourage students to self-check their work? What
techniques do they use?
• 2. What do teachers look for when they mark students’ work?
• 3. What do students expect from the teacher when they get their
work back?
• 4. Did your teachers use a correction code when marking your
work? What did it consist of? How do they ensure it is followed up?
• 5. Did your teachers give you a mark? What criteria did they use for
this?
 Categories for evaluating writing
• Content /0-24 points/
• thesis statement
• related ideas
• development of ideas through personal experience, illustration,
facts, opinions
• use of description, cause/effect, comparison/contrast
• consistent focus
• Organization /0-24 points/
• effectiveness of introduction
• logical sequence of ideas
• conclusion
• appropriate length
• Syntax and Vocabulary /0-12 points each, total 24 points max./
 Sample categories for evaluating writing
• Discourse /0-20 points/
• topic sentences; paragraph unity; transitions
• discourse markers; cohesion
• rhetorical conventions; reference
• fluency
• economy
• variation
• Mechanics /0-12 points/
• spelling
• punctuation
• citation of references (if applicable)
• neatness and appearance
• Total: 100 points
 Raising students’ awareness of what
good writing involves
Get students to reflect on and discuss these questions:
• What is the purpose of the text?
• Does it achieve that purpose?
• Is it clear and easy to understand?
• Are headings used appropriately?
• Do some sentences or paragraphs need to be broken down
or combined?
• Does anything need to be added to, or taken away from,
the text?
• Does the text need to be reorganised in some way?
• Are the grammar, spelling, punctuation and choice of words
correct?
 Self-evaluation checklist 1
• Content
• The content is relevant and appropriate to the genre.
• I have included relevant information for my intended reader(s).
• I have answered the question (included all the points needed).
• Organisation
• The text is divided clearly into paragraphs.
• Each paragraph has a clear purpose.
• Each paragraph contains (normally) at least two sentences.
• The order of the information is logical.
• There is a clear introduction and conclusion.
• The text is laid out appropriately.
• The text is organised in an appropriate way for this genre.
 Self-evaluation checklist 2
• Language
• There is a variety of language (vocabulary, structure).
• The style is appropriate for the genre
(formal/neutral/informal)
• I have checked spelling.
• I have used complete sentences and checked the
punctuation.
• I have checked the language e.g. subject/verb agreements
• 1) Tenses
• 2) Part of speech
• 3) Linking words
 References
• Hedge, T. 1988. Writing Oxford University Press
• Raimes, A. 1983. Techniques in Teaching Writing Oxford University Press (ch. 9)
• White, R. & Arndt, V. 1991. Process Writing Longman (chapters 6 & 7)
• Tribble, C. 1996. Writing Oxford University Press
• Littlejohn, A. 1993. Writing 3 Oxford University Press
• Badger, R. & White, G. April 2000. A process genre approach to teaching writing
• ELTJ 54/2
• Byrne, D. 1979. Teaching Writing Skills Longman
• Cresswell, A. July 2000. Self-monitoring in student writing: developing learner
responsibility ELTJ 54/3
• Paltridge, B. 1996. Genre, text type and the language learning classroom ELTJ
• 50/3
• Pincas, A. 1982. Teaching English writing Macmillan