Solar cell lab and hand-in assignment

MD AJMIR HOSSAIN NION

Part 1: General questions (8 p)

a) n and p aide are separated but when they brought back together ,there creates a
strong gradient in the charge carrier concentration between two sides . majority
charge carriers start to diffuse from one side to another which creates a carrier
movement from high concentration to low concentration. Opposite types of charge
carrier recombine with each other and in this recombination process a a region around
the junction become depleted of charge carriers and the the only charges present is
the fixed charges (ions) on the dopant atoms ( donar and acceptor ) that’s create a
electric field. Minority charge carriers create drift current and goes to opposite
direction with respect to the majority carriers . this creats a steady state situation
where diffusion current is equivalent to drift current with zero bias hence a p-n
junction formed.

When the photon energy becomes the higher than the band gap , the moniority
carriers of both region created free electron- hole pair which creats a large increase of
the concentration of minority carriers. Now the drift current is greater than the
diffusion current . when the photon energy continuously hits the solar cell , it creats a
large negative current which implies that the solar cell is pushing power to the external
circuit . free minority carriers generated in or close to the depletion region will be gone
to their respected terminal . the role of the depletion region is to collect the electron
and hole to their respected terminal due to its strong magnetic field that separate the
minority carriers to their respective terminals.
b) a. Band gap of the p-type material
b. Band gap of the n-type material
c. Conduction band
d. Fermi energy
e. Valence band
c) At open circuit conditions in a solar cell, where the current is zero, there is an equilibrium
established due to the inbuilt electric field. This equilibrium occurs when the generation of
light-induced carriers (both majority and minority) results in equal and opposite diffusion and
drift currents. As a consequence, there is no net current flow in the solar cell. The presence of
the inbuilt electric field plays a crucial role in maintaining this balanced state.
d) A – 2
B- Baseline
C–3
D-1
e) 1: With a reduction in the diffusion length to 13μm within the bulk material, there is a
limitation on the distance over which minority carriers can diffuse from one region to another.
This decrease in diffusion length implies that fewer minority carriers can traverse the material,
leading to an increase in recombination events.
2 : The recombination rate at the front surface has escalated from 10^6 cm/s to 10^8 cm/s.
This increase signifies that higher frequency photons are now prevalent, generating an
augmented number of free electron-hole pairs. Consequently, this elevated recombination at
the front surface leads to lower efficiency, particularly at lower wavelengths.
3 : The increase in front reflectance, rising from 10% to 30%, implies that a greater proportion
of incident light is now being reflected rather than absorbed. As a consequence, the maximum
efficiency of the system is diminished, and it is now expected to achieve a maximum efficiency
of 70%.

Part 2: Comparison of Thin Film and Silicon Solar Cells (6p)

a) thin film CIGS solar cell: n-type is CdS and p-type is CIGS
Si solar cell: n-type is phosphorous-doped Si and p-type is Boron-doped Si
b) Si solar Cell: silver ( Ag) is used as a contact. It has excellent electrical conductivity,
good adhesion to the silicon wafer and is usually designed in a grid pattern to minimize
shading of the active area.
Thin film solar cell: Aluminium and molybdenum (Mo) are used as contacts. It has high
electric conductivity, good adhesion to the absorbed layer, and compatibility with the CIGS
material.

c) Ag is preferred as a top contact because it has the ability to occupy very small space and
can make a path for the light to fall on the solar cell.
d) for providing the physical support. The substrate is used to the thin CIGS. But in Si solar
cells, it has a thick layer .so it does not need any physical support.

Part 3: IV and QE characterisation of solar cell samples (22 p)

a)

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 Sample Jsc Jm Voc (V) Vm(V) FF (%) Efficiency
(mA/cm2) (mA/cm2) (%)
A -0.0179 -0.015042 0.369 0.27 61.5 8.12
B -0.0163 -0.014426 0.707 0.55 68.8 15.87
C -0.0128 -0.011490 0.762 0.58 68.3 13.33

Jm and Vm are the optimal values that gives maximum power. I used MATLAB to calculate the
maximum power and hence Jm and Vm.
Cell area was given as 0.5cm2 and for power input, 1cm2 of cell produces 0.1W. therefore
𝐽 ×𝑉 (𝑊/𝑐𝑚)
0.5cm2 produces 0.05W. We can then calculate the cell efficiency as 𝑚0.05𝑚(𝑊/𝑐𝑚)

b)
Sample A Sample B Sample C
FFo (%) 75.7 84.7 85.5
In all cases, FFo is greater than FF because ideally we assume that the value of n (signifies the
defect level hence Shockley Reed Hall Recombination) is equal to 1. In reality n is greater than
1 and as n increases, the fill factor decreases. Series resistance and diode losses also affect
the FF. Only diode losses can not be engineered. The larger modules have higher series
resistance.

c)

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 Sample A Sample B Sample C
QE- Jsc (mA/cm2) 37.0 29.6 26.1
IV- Jsc (mA/cm2) 35.8 32.6 25.6

The Jsc values obtained from QE and IV data are almost similar. The slight difference could be
as a result of error in measurements
d) In agreement. However, IV-Jsc measurements must take into account the cell area, which
includes the dead section (fingers and bus bars), whereas QE-Jsc measurements are directly
acquired from the measuring device and are therefore more accurate.
e) The estimated ideal Jsc value is 70mA/cm2, assuming that every photon entering the cell
produces a hole-electron pair and that every electron-hole pair was captured. Jsc is actually
greatly impacted by a significant and inevitable generation loss (since E_g>E_ph, there is no
creation of free electron-hole pairs), which lowers Jsc to about 44 mA/cm2, which is less than
50 mA/cm2. Jsc would decrease much more if we additionally account for other preventable
losses (such as collection, reflection, and partial absorption).

a) f) Using Matlab to generate the graphs shown below and hence the maximum EQE, the
maximum value of EQE for sample A is 0.9122=91.22% that indicates a reflection loss of
8.78% which is equivalent to 6mA/cm2 in reference to idea Jsc (70mA/cm2). Similary, the
maximum EQE for sample B=81.61% reflection loss =18.39% and the maximum EQE for
sample C=89.76% reflection loss =10.24%

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g)bandgap
h) Bandgap. Eg for each sample can be determined by calculating E from λ and plotting
hc 1240
(QE(E))2 vs E, where E = λ = λ . On the graph, a linear part near to the low energy side
is determined and extrapolating a line of best fit to the x-axis. The x-intercept is read off

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which indicates the bandgap of a given sample. Therefore Eg for sample: A=1.01eV,
B=1.10eV, C=1.30eV as shown in the graphs below.

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i) The band gap, Eg of the CIGS will depend on the Ga content that is 𝐸𝑔 ≈ 0.98 + 0.69𝑥 −
𝐺𝑎
0.2𝑥(1 − 𝑥) where 𝑥 = 𝐺𝑎+𝐼𝑛
j) when the solar cell samples investigated, as the bandgap increase, both Voc and FF
𝐸𝑔 𝑘𝑇 𝐽𝑠𝑐
increases while Jsc decreases. Theoretically, Voc = 𝑞 − 𝑞 𝑙𝑛( 𝐽𝑜 ) implying that Voc is
voc −ln(voc +0.72) Voc
directly proportional to Eg, FF = where voc = nkT , this tells us FF increase
voc +1
q
𝐽𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑚𝑝
with Voc while Jsc decrease with increasing Eg as shown by the equation, 𝐽𝑠𝑐 = .
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐹𝐹
Therefore the practical results matches the theory.but the FF for Sample C is slightly off and
it happens due to the error of taking the reading .

Part 4: Loss analysis of your solar cells (30 p)

a)

Table 4.1: effects of loss mechanisms on JV parameters

Loss mechanism Main JV parameter that is Short explanation
affected
Generation losses Jsc Photons with E < Eg cannot
be absorbed
Thermalisation Voc Due to phonon emission ,
the electron and hole energy
separate
Reflection from front surface Jsc Reflectance is > 0 for some
wavelengths

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 Diode losses FF The highest physical value
of FF for a real diode is FF0,
which is < 100% (see
equation list)
Incomplete light absorption Jsc Lower material thickness
leads to incomplete light
absortion
Incomplete collection of Jsc Some charge carriers fail to
charge carriers diffuse all the way to the
depletion region
Series/shunt resistance FF
Non-ideality FF The ideality factor n is often
>1
Unavoidable recombination Voc Uncontrolled Auger
recombination and radiative
recombination happen on
their own. merely be
dependent on the substance
and temperature
Excess/real recombination Voc Owing to impurity-induced
defect levels (localized
levels), n>1.

b)
Sample Bandgap (eV) Generation loss Thermalisation loss
(W/m2) (W/m2)
A 1.01 155.6 373.8
B 1.1 194.6 325.8
C 1.3 288.6 250

c)

Table 4.2: Values of Voc and Jsc after thermalization and generation processes, but
neglecting other losses

A B C
Upper limit to Voc 1.0039 1.0904 1.3078
(after thermalization
loss)(mA/cm2)

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 Upper limit to Jsc 45.9 43.5 35.3
(after generation
loss)(mA/cm2)
Only generation and thermalisation losses occurring, 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡,1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐽𝑠𝑐 𝐹𝐹 = 1.0039 × 45.9 ×
10 × 1 = 460.79𝑊/𝑚2
All the assumptions below for CIGS are made according to the si solar cell losses . [ 1, 2 , 3 ]
Jsc: we take highly transparent material with very low reflection, so reflection loss in
cell A is equal to 2 mA/cm2, that incomplete light absorption losses are equal to 2
mA/cm2, and that incomplete charge carrier collection is equal to 4 mA/cm2 [2].
Voc: In the case of Si as the material, the excess/real recombination losses would be
0.15V and the inevitable recombination losses would be 0.24V. Nevertheless, the
sample we worked with was a direct-bandgap thin layer CIGS, which suggests that it
would produce more excess and inevitable recombination than Si material[1]. As a
result, for Sample A, we assume that excess and inevitable recombination losses are
0.28 and 0.35 V, respectively.
J q
FF: According to the diode equation, ln( + 1) = V we can plot dark
Jo nkT oc
current against voltage and then we draw a tangent to the curve as shown below
q
[3]. The gradient = to the tangent is determine from where the value of n is
nkT
q 1 38.685
calculate at a temperature of 300K ( = V). Therefore n = =
kT 0.02585 31.793
𝑉𝑜𝑐 0.369
1.22. The voltage across the non ideal cell, 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑛𝑘𝑇 = = 11.7and
1.22×0.02585
𝑞
voc−ln(voc +0.72) 11.7−ln(11.7+0.72)
the fill factor, FF = = = 72.3%
voc+1 11.7+1

Diode losses = 12% and the negligible resistive losses<<1%[1].

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d)
(don’t forget to describe your approach, assumptions etc)

Table 4.3 Breakdown of individual loss mechanisms on the power output of cell A

Scenario Voc (V) Jsc (mAcm- FF (%) Power Loss in this

2
) output for step /
1000 Wm-2 W/m2
irradiance/
W/m2
No losses! - - 100 1000 0
With only generation and 1.0039 45.9 100 460.79 529.4
thermalisation losses
reflection loss 1.0039 43.9 100 440.71 20.08
Incomplete light absorption 1.0039 41.9 100 420.6341 20.07
Incomplete collection of 1.0039 37.9 100 380.4781 40.15
charge carriers
Unavoidable recombination 0.6539 37.9 100 247.82 132.66
Excess/real recombination 0.3739 37.9 100 141.71 106.11
Diode losses 0.3739 37.9 88 124.70 17.01
Non-ideality 0.3739 37.9 60.3 85.44 39.26
Measured values for cell A 0.369 37.0 61.5 83.97 -
We take all the values according to the lecture notes as shown in the reference section.
References

1. Lecture notes-F4 SC physics IV - maximising efficiency and effect of conditions.pdf,

Solar energy-Technology and systems, Uppsala University, 2023

2. Lecture notes-F4 SC physics III - efficiency and JL.pdf, Solar energy-Technology and
systems, Uppsala University, 2023

3. Lecture notes-F4 SC physics II - pn junction bias and illumination.pdf, Solar energy-

Technology and systems, Uppsala University, 2023

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