Course code: EEE111

Course Title: Analog Electronics-I

Semester: Summer 2023

Course Teacher
Dr. Monir Morshed
Professor
Email:[email protected]
Semiconductor Diodes
 Semiconductors in Summary
• The most popular material is silicon.
• Pure crystals are intrinsic semiconductors.
• Doped crystals are extrinsic semiconductors.
• Crystals are doped to be n type or p type.
• A doped semiconductor will have mostly
 majority carriers and a few thermally
generated minority carriers.
 Electrons are majority carriers in n type.
 Holes are majority carriers in p type
 PN-Junction and Depletion Region
 When a p-type materials are combined with n-type
materials, a pn junction forms and a semiconductor diode
is created.

When p and n type material is combined:

 The n region loses a free electron as they diffuse across the junction and
combines with a hole.
 A positive charge is left in the n region and a negative charge is created in
the p region, forming a barrier potential.
 This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion
region due to the “depletion” of free carriers in the region.
 The diode
• A diode can be made by a silicon or a germanium semiconductor
material.
• For a diode half is doped as a p region and another half is doped
as an n region.
• In a pn junction a depletion region exist in between p and n type
materials.

A K
 The diode

(a) Through-hole mounted packages (b) Surface-mounted diode packages

Semiconductor Diode Notation
 Diode Operating Condition

A diode has three operating conditions:

No bias
Reverse bias
Forward bias
 Diode Operating Conditions

No Bias:
No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V
There is no diode current: ID = 0A
Only a modest depletion region exists.
 Forward Bias (Vd>0)
• A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the
positive potential to the p -type material and the negative potential
to the n -type material.
• Vbias must be greater than ‘barrier potential’.
 Reverse Bias (Vd<0)
• The positive terminal of an external potential of V volts is applied
to the n -type material and the negative terminal is connected to
the p -type material.
• Reverse bias is a condition that prevents current through junction.
• Depletion region get wider with this configuration,
 Diode Equation
In general, characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the
following equation, referred to as Shockley’s equation, for the forward-
and reverse-bias regions:

where, is the reverse current

is the applied forward bias voltage across the diode
n is an ideality factor, it’s value is between 1 and 2 depending on
the diode material and structure, which is normally 1.

The voltage is called the thermal voltage and is determined by

(v)
where, k is the Boltzmann's constant=1.38×10-23 J/K
is the absolute temperature in kelvins= 273+the temperature in °C.
q is the magnitude of electronic charge= 1.6×10-19 C
 Diode Equation
Problem: At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components
in an enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT.

Solution:
we know that,

Now, T=273+oC=273+27=300 K

1.38×10−23 J/K
1.6×10−19 C
I-V Characteristics

ID(mA)

-VD VD

-ID(mA)
 Knee Voltage
• The minimum amount of voltage required for conducting the
diode is known as “knee voltage” or “threshold voltage” or “ cut
in voltage”.
• The forward voltage at which the current through pn-junction
starts increasing rapidly is known as knee voltage.
• Knee voltage of germanium diode is 0.3 volts.
• Knee voltage of silicon diode is 0.7 volts.
 Breakdown Region
The breakdown region is in the diode’s reverse-bias region.
• At some point the reverse bias voltage is
so large (at breakdown voltage VBV) the
diode breaks down and the reverse
current increases dramatically.
• This can be destructive if the power
dissipated exceeds the "safe" level
• The maximum reverse voltage that
won’t take a diode into the zener
region is called the peak inverse
voltage or peak reverse voltage.
• Two mechanisms:
 Zener breakdown: Due to high electric field at the depletion region (up to
about 5V)
Avalanche breakdown: Due to high kinetic energy of electrons (5V and above)
 Resistance Levels
Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.

There are three types of resistance:

DC (static) resistance
AC (dynamic) resistance
Average AC resistance
 DC or Static Resistance
• For a specific applied DC voltage (VD) the diode has a specific current
(ID) and a specific resistance (RD).The resistance of a diode at a
particular operating point is called the dc or static resistance diode. It
can be determined using equation

• In general, lower the current through a diode the higher the resistance
level.
 Resistance Levels
Example: Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of the following figure
at
i. ID 2 mA (low level)
ii. ID 20 mA (high level)
iii. VD 10 V (reverse-biased)
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
• Static resistance is using dc input. If the input is sinusoidal the
scenario will be changed.
• The varying input will move instantaneous operating point UP
and DOWN of a region.
• Thus specific changes in current and voltage is obtained. It can
be determined using equation

In the forward bias region:

The resistance rd depends on the amount of

current (ID) in the diode.
Analytical Derivation of rd
 Average AC Resistance
• If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing,
the resistance associated with the device for this region is called
the average ac resistance.
• It can be determined by a straight line drawn between the two
intersection established by the maximum and minimum values
of input voltage.
 Equivalent Circuit model of a diode
• Three different approximations can be used when analyzing diode
circuits
 Ideal equivalent circuit
 Simplified equivalent circuit
 Piecewise-linear equivalent circuit

• Ideal equivalent circuit: It treats a forward-biased diode like a

closed switch with a voltage drop of zero volts, as shown below.
 Equivalent Circuit model of a diode
• Simplified equivalent circuit: The second approximation treats a
forward-biased diode like an ideal diode in series with a battery,
as shown below

=0.7 V for Si
 Equivalent Circuit model of a diode
• Piece-wise equivalent circuit: It treats a forward-biased diode
like a closed switch with a voltage drop of zero volts, as shown
below.
 The third approximation of a diode includes the bulk
resistance, rB.
 The bulk resistance, rB is the resistance of the p and n
materials.
 The third approximation of a forward-biased diode is
shown below
 Summary Table

3rd Approximation

2nd Approximation

1st Approximation
Circuit Models for the Semiconductor
Diode

First approximation

Second approximation Third approximation

 Reverse Recovery Time (trr)
• Reverse recovery time is the time required for a
diode to stop conducting when switched from
forward bias to reverse bias.
 Diode Specification Sheets
Diode data sheets contain standard information, making cross-
matching of diodes for replacement or design easier.

1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature

2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range
 Other Types of Diodes

• There are several types of diodes besides the standard

• p-n junction diode.Three of the more common are:

• Zener diodes
• Light-emitting diodes
 Zener Diode
A Zener diode is one that is designed to safely operate in its zener
region; i.e., biased at the Zener voltage (VZ).

=Vz

Common zener diode voltage ratings are between 1.8 V and 200 V
 Zener Diode Characteristics

• Typical specifications for a

10-V, 500-mW, 20% Zener
diode
• Expected to vary as 10 V +
20%, or from 8 V to 12 V.
• Both 10% and 50% diodes
are also readily available.
 Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED emits light when it is forward biased, which can
be in the infrared or visible spectrum.

The forward bias voltage is usually in the range

of 1.5 V to 2.5 V.
Light-Emitting Diodes
 Causes of Light in LEDs

• In a forward-biased LED, free electrons

cross the junction and fall into holes

– As these electrons fall from a

higher to a lower energy level,
they radiate energy

– In an LED, the energy is radiated as

light

– The color of the light depends on

the bandgap of the diode material