UNIT – 1 ELASTICITY

1.1 Introduction:
All bodies get deformed under the action of force. If the distance between any
two points in a body remains invariable, the body is said to be a rigid body. In practice it
is not possible to have a perfectly rigid body. The deformations are
(i) There may be change in length
(ii) There is a change of volume but no change in shape
(iii) There is a change in shape with no change in volume
The size and shape of the body will change on application of force. There is a
tendency of body to recover its original size and shape on removal of this force.

1.2 Various Definitions:

Elasticity: The property of a material body to regain its original condition on the
removal of deforming forces, is called elasticity.The nearest approach to perfectly elastic
body is a quartz fibre.

Plasticity: The bodies which do not show any tendency to recover their original
condition on the removal of deforming forces are called plasticity. Putty is considered to
be the perfectly plastic body.

Load: The load is the combination of external forces acting on a body and its effect is to
change the form or the dimensions of the body. Any kind of deforming force is known as
Load.
When a body is subjected to a force it undergoes a change in size or shape or
both. Elastic bodies offer appreciable resistance to the deforming forces. As a result,
work has to be done to deform them. This amount of work is stored in body as elastic
potential energy. When the deforming force is removed, its increased elastic potential
energy produced a tendency in the body to restore the body to its original state of zero
energy or stable equilibrium. This tendency is due to the internal forces which come
into play by the deformation.

Stress: When a force is applied on a body, there will be relative displacement of the
particles. Due to the property of elasticity, the particles tend to regain their original
position. The restoring or recovering force per unit area set up inside the bodyis called
stress.
 The stress is measured in terms of the load or the force applied per unit
area. Hence its units are dynes/cm2 in CGS and Newton/m2in MKS.
 It has a dimension [ML-1T-2]. It is same as that of pressure.

There are two types of stress.

(1) Normal Stress: Restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surfaceis
called normal stress.

(2) Tangential or Shearing Stress: Restoring force per unit area parallel to the
surface is called tangential or shearing stress.
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Strain: The unit change produced in the dimensions of a body under a system of forces
in equilibrium, is called strain. The strain being ratio. It is dimensionless quantity. It has
no unit.

There are following three types of strains.

(1) Longitudinal or Linear Strain: It is defined as the change in length per unit
original length of an object when it is deformed by an external force. There is
no change in shape of the body.
The ratio of change in length to the original length is called longitudinal or
linear strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑙)
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = … … …. (1.1)
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)
It is also called Elongation strain or Tensile strain.

(2) VolumeStrain: It is defined as change in volume per unit original volume,

when an object is deformed by the external force. There is no change in shape
of the body.
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is called volume
strain.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑣)
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = … … … (1.2)
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)

(3) Shear strain: When the force applied parallel to the surface of the body then
the change takes place only in the shape of the body. The corresponding
strain is called shear strain.
The angular deformation produced by an external force is called shear
strain. It is measured in radians.

Characteristics of a Perfectly Elastic Material

If a body is perfectly elastic then
 Strain is always same for a given stress.
 Strain vanishes completely when the deforming force is removed.
 For maintaining the strain, the stress is constant.

 Hooke’s law
This fundamental law of elasticity was proposed by Robert Hooke in 1679and it
states that “Provided the strain is small, the stress is directly proportional to the strain”. In
other words, the ratio of stress to strain is a constant quantity for the given material and
it is called the modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴𝐸= … . … … (1.3)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The units and dimensions of the modulus of elasticity are the same as that of
stress.

 Elastic Limit:
When the stress is continually increased in the case of solid, a point is reached at
which the strain increased more rapidly. The stress at which the linear relationship
between stress and strain hold good is called elastic limit of the material.
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 Stress-Strain Diagram:
The direct proportionality between
stress and strain is found to be true only for
small values of strain as shown in the figure
1.1
The portion OA of the curve is a
straight line showing that the stress is directly
proportional to strain. It shows that Hooke’s
law is strictly obeyed up to the value of stress
corresponding to point A. This point is called
Elastic limit.
Beyond point A, the curve is not a
straight line. In this region AB, the strain
increases more rapidly than the stress and the
behavior is partly elastic and partly plastic. If
the object is unloaded at B, it does not come
back to its original condition along path AO,
but takes the dotted path BC. The object is said to
Fig: 1.1
have acquired permanent set. And OC is called the residual strain.
Beyond the point B, the length of the wire starts increasing without any
increase in stress. Thus, wire begins to flow after point B and it continues up to
D. The point B, at which the wire begins to flow is called yield point.
Beyond the point F, the graph indicates that length of the wire increases,
even if the wire is unloaded. The wire breaks ultimately at point E, called the
breaking point of the wire. The portion of the graph between D and E is called
the plastic region.

1.3 Three types of elasticity:

There are three types of strain, therefore we have three types of elasticity.
(1) Linear elasticity called Young’s modulus, corresponding to linear strain.
(2) Elasticity of volume or Bulk modulus, corresponding to volume strain.
(3) Elasticity of shape or shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity, corresponding to
shear strain.

1.3.1 Young’s Modulus:

When the deforming force is applied to the body only along a particular
direction, the change per unit length in that direction is called longitudinal, linear or
elongation strain.
The force applied per unit area of cross section is called longitudinal or linear
stress.
The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain, within the elastic limit, is called
Young’s modulus. It is denoted by Y
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌= … … … (1.4)
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Consider a wire of length L having area of cross section ‘a’, fixed at one end and
loaded at the other end.
Suppose that a normal force F is applied to the free end of the wire and its length
increase by l.

Page 3 of 33
 𝐹 𝑙
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑎 𝐿

𝐹𝐿
𝑌= 𝑜𝑟 𝑌 = ….….… (1.5)
𝑎𝑙

Young’s modulus can also be defined as the force applied to a wire of unit length
and unit cross sectional area to produce the increase in length by unity.
The units of Young’s modulus are N/m2 in MKS and dyne/cm2 in CGS system.

1.3.2 Bulk Modulus:

It is defined as the ratio of the normal stress to the volume strain. It is denoted
by K. The bulk modulus is also known as the coefficient of cubical elasticity.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐾= … … . …. (1.6)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Consider a cubic of volume V and surface area ‘a’. Suppose that a force F which
acts uniformly over the whole surface of the cubic, produces a decrease in its volume
by v then,
𝐹 𝑣
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑎 𝑉
𝐹𝑉
∴𝐾=
𝑎𝑣

Now, the pressure is𝑃 =

−𝑃𝑉
∴𝐾=
𝑣
If the volume increase on increasing the stress the bulk modulus given by
𝑃𝑉
𝐾= … … …. (1.7)
𝑣
The units of bulk modulus are Pa or N/m2 in SI.
Compressibility: The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a material is called
compressibility i.e.1/K.

1.3.3 Modulus of Rigidity:

It is defined as the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain. It is also called shear
modulus. It is denoted by η.
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂= … … … (1.7)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Consider a rectangular block, whose lower face

aDCc is fixed and the upper face ABbd is subjected to
tangential force F as shown in Fig 1.2. Let ‘a’ be the area
of the each face and AD = L be the perpendicular
distance between them. The tangential force will
displace the upper face of parallelepiped by a distance
AA’ = l. If∠𝐴𝐷𝐴 = 𝜃, then 𝜃 is the angle of shear.

Fig: 1.2

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 𝐹
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑎
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝜃
𝐹
𝜂= =
𝜃 𝑎𝜃
For solids, angle of shear is very small, so in ∆ADA’
𝐴𝐴′ 𝑙
𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐴𝐷 𝐿
The distance ‘l’ through which the upper face has been displaced is called
lateral displacement.
𝐹𝐿
∴𝜂= … … … (1.8)
𝑎𝑙

1.4 Work done per unit volume in case of elongation strain:

In order to deform a body, work must be done by the applied force. The energy
spent is stored in the body and is called the energy of strain. When the applied forces
are removed, the stress disappears and the energy of strain appears as heat.
Let us consider the work done during the case of elongation strain or stretched of a
wire. Consider a wire of length l and area of cross section ‘a’ suspended from a rigid
support. Suppose that a normal force ‘F’ is applied at its free end and its length increases
by dl.
The work done for a small displacement dl is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 … … … … (1.9)

We know that,
𝐹
𝑎
𝑌=
𝑙
𝐿
𝑌𝑎𝑙
∴𝐹=
𝐿
Substituting this value of F in above equation (1.9), we get
𝑌𝑎𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑙
𝐿

Therefore, the total work done for the stretching a wire of length ‘l’given by,

𝑊= 𝑑𝑊

𝒍
𝑌𝑎𝑙
𝑊= 𝑑𝑙
𝐿
𝟎
𝒍
𝑌𝑎 𝑌𝑎 𝑙
∴𝑊= 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 =
𝐿 𝐿 2
𝟎
1𝑌 𝑎 𝑙 1
∴𝑊= × 𝑙 = 𝐹 ×𝑙
2 𝐿 2
1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ … … … (1.10)
2
This work done stored in form of potential energy.
Now, the volume of the wire = a l
Page 5 of 33
 1𝐹×𝑙 1 𝐹 𝑙
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = × … … … (1.11)
2𝑎 × 𝐿 2 𝑎 𝐿

1
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 … … … (1.12)
2

1.5 Deformation of cube:

cube When the force applied to a cube, the deformation
produced in size, shape and volume. We can calculate the expression for
corresponding
esponding elastic constants as follows.
1.5.1 Bulk Modulus:

Let us consider a unit cube ABDCGHEFA.

AB
Suppose force Tx, Ty and Tzare the force acting
perpendicular to the faces BEHD and AFGC, ABDC
and EFGH, ABEF and DHGC respectively,
espectively, as shown
in figure 1.3
Let ‘α’’ be the increase per unit length per
unit tension along the direction of the force and ‘β’
be the contraction produced per unit length per
unit tension direction perpendicular to the force.
Due to the applied force, the elongations
produce in the edges AB, B, BE and BD are Txα, Tyα and
Fig: 1.3 Tzα respectively.. Similarly, the contraction produced
in the perpendicular to these edges will be Txβ, Tyβ and Tzβ.
The length of edges after elongation and contraction becomes,
𝐴𝐵 = 1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽
𝐵𝐸 = 1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽
𝐵𝐷 = 1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽
The volume of cube now becomes
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝐸 × 𝐵𝐷
𝑉 = 1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽 × 1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽 × (1 + 𝑇 𝛼 − 𝑇 𝛽 − 𝑇 𝛽)
𝑉 = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) (𝑇 + 𝑇 + 𝑇 )
Neglecting
eglecting squares and products of α and β.
In the case of bulk modulus, the force acting uniformly in all the directions,
Hence,𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 = 𝑇
∴ 𝑉 = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) 3𝑇
The original volume of cube is unity; therefore increase
ncrease in volume of the cube
𝑣 = 𝑉 − 1 = 1 + (𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) 3𝑇 − 1
∴ 𝑣 = 3𝑇(𝛼 − 2𝛽 )
If pressure P is applied instead of tension T out words, the cube compressed and the
volume decreased by the amount 3𝑃 (𝛼 − 2𝛽 ).
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 3𝑃(𝛼 − 2𝛽)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 3𝑃(𝛼 − 2𝛽 )
1
∴𝐾 = … … … (1.13)
3(𝛼 − 2𝛽)
1 1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = … … … (1.14)
𝐾 3(∝ −2𝛽)

Page 6 of 33
 1.5.2 Modulus of rigidity:
‘ Let shearing force 𝐹⃗ be applied on the top face
Consider a cube with an edge ‘L’.
ABHG of a cube, which produce shear by an angle 𝜃 and linear displacement ‘l’ as shown
in fig 1.4

The face ABCD becomes A’B’CD.

𝐹
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐻𝐺
𝐹
= =𝑇
𝐿
𝑙
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇
∴ 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜂 = =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Fig: 1.4
A shearing stress along AB is equivalent to a tensile stress along DB and an equal
compression stress along CA at right angles.
If α and β are the longitudinal and lateral strains per unit stress respectively.
respectively
Then extension along diagonal DB due to tensile stress = DB T 𝛼 and, and extension
along diagonal DB due to compression stress along AC = DB T 𝛽.
Therefore, the total
otal extension along DB = DB T( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
But, from above figure diagonal 𝐷𝐵 = √𝐿 × 𝐿
∴ 𝐷𝐵 = √2𝐿
Therefore, the total extension of dia
diagonal 𝐸𝐵 = √2 L T( 𝛼 + 𝛽) … … … … (1.15)
’
In ∆ BB’E, Cos BB’E =
∴ 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵’ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ∠𝐵𝐵’𝐸
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐵𝐵’ = 𝑙 and ∠𝐵𝐵’𝐸 = 45
𝐵𝑢𝑡
∴EB’ = 𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 45
𝑙
∴ 𝐸𝐵 = … … … … (1.16)
√2
Now, comparing equation(1.15 .15) and (1.16), we get
∴ = √2 L T( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
√
𝐿𝑇 1
∴ =
𝑙 2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝑇 1
∴ =
2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝑇 1
∴ =
𝜃 2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
1
∴𝜂 = … … … (1.17)
2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)

1.5.3 Young’s Modulus:

odulus:
Let us consider unit tension ap
applied
plied on the edge of the unit cube, which produces the
∝
extension ′𝛼′ linear stress =1 and linear strain = = α.
Young’s modulus = Y = … … … (1.18)
Page 7 of 33
 1.6 Relation connecting the Elastic Constants:
We know that
1
𝐾 =
3(𝛼 − 2𝛽 )
and,
1
𝜂 =
2( 𝛼 + 𝛽)
1
(𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) = … … … … (1.19)
3𝐾
1
(𝛼 + 𝛽) = … … … … (1.20)
2𝜂
Subtracting (1) and (2)
1 1
3𝛽 = −
2𝜂 3𝐾
3𝐾 − 2𝜂
3𝛽 =
6𝜂𝐾
3𝐾 − 2𝜂
𝛽= … … … … (1.21)
18𝜂𝐾
Multiplying equation(1.20) by 2 and adding equations (1.19) and (1.20) we get,
1 1
3𝛼 = +
𝜂 3𝐾
3𝐾 + 𝜂
3𝛼 =
3𝐾𝜂
𝛼= … … … … (1.22)
Form equation of young’s modulus,
1 1
𝑌= 𝑖. 𝑒 𝛼 = … … … … (1.23)
𝛼 𝑌
Using equation(1.23) in (1.22)
1 3𝐾 + 𝜂
=
𝑌 9𝐾𝜂
9 3𝐾 𝜂
∴ = +
𝑌 𝐾𝜂 𝐾𝜂
9 3 1
∴ = + … … … … (1.24)
𝑌 𝜂 𝐾
The above equation gives the relation connecting the three elastic constants Y, K
and 𝜂.

1.7 Poisson’s Ratio:

When we stretch a wire, it becomes longer but thinner. The increase in its length
is always accompanied with decrease in its cross section.
The strain produced along the direction of the applied force is called primary or
linear or tangential strain(α) and strain produced at right angle to the applied force is
called secondary or lateral strain (β).
Within the elastic limit, the lateral strain (β) is proportional to the linear
strain(α) and the ratio between them is a constant, called Poisson’s ratio(σ).
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛽
𝜎= = … … … (1.25)
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛼

Page 8 of 33
If the body under tension suffers no lateral strain then Poisson’s ratio is zero.

1.7 Limiting values of ‘’ :

We know that,
3𝐾(1 − 2𝜎) = 2𝜂 (1 + 𝜎)
Where, K and 𝜂 are essentially positive quantities.
 Now ifσ is positive, then the RHS and hence LHS must be positive.
This is true, if 1 − 2𝜎 > 0
∴ 2σ < 1
1
∴ σ<
2
∴ σ < 0.5 … … … … (1.26)
 Ifσ is negative, then the LHS and hence RHS must be positive.
This is true, if 1 + 𝜎 > 0
∴ σ > −1
∴ −1 < 𝜎 … … … … (1.27)
Combining relation (1.26) and (1.27), we have
−1 < 𝜎 < 0.5 … … … … (1.28)
Thus the limiting values of σ are -1 and 0.5. In actual practice, the value of σ lie between
0.2 to 0.4.

1.8 Determination of Poisson’s Ratio for Rubber:

To determine the value of σ for rubber, we take

about a meter long tube AB and suspended vertically as
shown in figure 1.5. Its two ends are property stopper with
rubber corks and liquid glue. A glass tube C of half meter
long and 1 cm in diameter is fitted vertically into the cork
A through a suitable hole. A suitable weight W is then
suspended from the lower end of the tube. This will
increase the length and the internal volume of the tube.
It results in the fall of the level of meniscus in glass
tube C. Both the increase in length (dL) and the decrease in
the meniscus level (dh) are measured.
Let L, D and V be the original length, diameter and
volume of the tube respectively. Then the area of cross-
section of tube is
D πD
A = πr = π = … … … … (1.29)
2 2
Fig: 1.5
Differentiating above equation, we have
π πD
dA = 2D dD = dD
4 2
πD D 2
∴ dA = dD
2 2 D
πD 2
∴ dA = dD
4 D
2A dD
∴ dA = … … … … (1.30)
D
Page 9 of 33
Now, the increase in length of rubber tube dL and the increase in volume dV are
accompanied with the decrease in area of cross section dA.
Volume = area of cross section × length
V + dV = (A − dA)(L + dL)
∴ V + dV = A L + A dL − dA L – dA ∙ dL … … … … (1.31)
Neglecting dA ∙ dL being very small.
We have,
V + dV = A L + A dL − dA L
∴ V + dV = V + A dL − dA L
∴ dV = A dL − dA L … … … … (1.32)
Substituting the value of dA, we get,
2A dD
dV = A dL − L … … … … (1.33)
D
Dividing by dL on both sides,
dV 2AL dD
= A−
dL D dL

2AL dD dV
∴ = A−
D dL dL

dD D dV
∴ = A−
dL 2AL dL

dD D A 1 dV
∴ = −
dL 2L A A dL

dD D 1 dV
∴ = 1− … … … … (1.34)
dL 2L A dL

Now Poisson’s ratio is given by

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐷 𝐷
𝜎= =
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐿
𝐿
𝐿 𝑑𝐷
∴𝜎= × … … … … (1.35)
𝐷 𝑑𝐿
Substituting the value of 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐿 from equation (1.34) in (1.35), we get
𝐿 D 1 dV
𝜎= × 1−
𝐷 2L A dL
1 1 dV
∴ 𝜎 = 1− … … … … (1.36)
2 A dL

If r be the internal radius of the tube, so that A = πr

1 1 dV
∴𝜎 = 1− … … … … (1.37)
2 πr dL

If ‘a’ be the internal radius of the capillary tube, we have dV = πa ∙ dh

1 1 πa ∙ dh
∴𝜎 = 1−
2 πr dL

Page 10 of 33
 1 a dh
∴𝜎= 1− … … … … (1.38)
2 r dL

The value of ‘a’ and ‘r’ are determined by a

travelling microscope and a vernier caliper
respectively and the average value of 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝐿 is
obtained from the slope of the straight line graph by
plotting a number of corresponding value of dh
against the dL as shown in figure 1.6.

Fig: 1.6

1.9 Twisting couple on a cylinder or wire:

When a cylinder or a wire is clamped at one end and twisted at the other
end through an angle 𝜃 about its axis, then it will be under tension. Due to the
elasticity of the material, a restoring couple is set up in it which is equal and
opposite to the twisting couple.
Consider a cylindrical rod of length l radius r and coefficient of rigidity 𝜂.
Its upper end is fixed and a couple is applied in a plane perpendicular to its
length at lower end as shown in fig.1.7(a)

Fig:1.7
Consider a cylinder is consisting a large number of co-axial hollow
cylinder. Now, consider a one hollow cylinder of radius x and radial thickness dx
as shown in fig.1.7(b). Let 𝜃 is the twisting angle. The displacement is greatest at
the rim and decreases as the center is approached where it becomes zero.
As shown in fig.1.7(a), Let AB be the line parallel to the axis OO’ before
twist produced and on twisted B shifts to B’, then line AB become AB’.

Page 11 of 33
 Before twisting if hollow cylinder cut along AB and flatted out, it will form
the rectangular ABCD as shown in fig.1.7(c). But if it will be cut after twisting it
takes the shape of a parallelogram AB’C’D.
The angle of shear ∠ 𝐵𝐴𝐵′ = ∅
From fig.(c) 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑙∅
From fig.(b) BB = xθ
∴ 𝑙∅ = 𝑥𝜃

𝑥𝜃
∴ ∅= … … … … … … (1.39)
𝑙

The modules of rigidity is

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹
𝜂= =
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝜙
𝜂𝑥𝜃
∴ 𝐹 = 𝜂∙∅ = ……… (1.40)
𝑙

The surface area of this hollow cylinder = 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥

∴ Total shearing force on this area= 2𝜋𝑥𝑑𝑥 ∙ … … … (1.41)

𝜃
= 2𝜋𝜂 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 … … . …. (1.42)
𝑙
Now, The moment of this force= 2𝜋𝜂 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 … … … (1.43)

2𝜋𝜂𝜃
= 𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 ……… (1.44)
𝑙
Now, integrating between the limits x = 0 and x = r,
We have, total twisting couple on the cylinder
2𝜋𝜂𝜃
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙

2𝜋𝜂𝜃
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙

2𝜋𝜂𝜃 𝑥
=
𝑙 4

𝜋𝜂𝜃𝑟
∴ Total twisting couple = … … … … … … (1.45)
2𝑙

Then, the twisting couple per unit twist (𝜃 = 1) is

𝜋𝜂𝑟
𝐶= … … … … … (1.46)
2𝑙

This twisting couple per unit twist is also called the torsional rigidity of the
cylinder or wire.

Page 12 of 33
1.10 Torsional Pendulum :
Definition: A heavy cylindrical rod or disc,
suspended from the end of a torsion wire, whose upper end
is fixed and a system is capable for oscillating in a
horizontal plane is called torsional pendulum.
The rod or disc is turned in the horizontal plane to
twist the wire. But the wire is torsion or elastic, hence it
released and it execute torsional vibrations about the axis.
Let 𝜃 be the twisting angle. Then the restoring couple set up
in it is

πηθr
Cθ = … … … … … … (1.47)
2l

Fig: 1.8 This produces an angular acceleration in the rod or the

disc. If I be the moment of inertia of the rod or the disc about the wire, we have

dω
∴I = −Cθ (∵ τ = Iα)
dt

dω C
∴ = − θ … … … … … … (1.48)
dt I

The negative sign indicates that restoring couple is in the opposite direction to
the deflecting couple. The angular acceleration of the disc of rod is proportional to
its angular displacement 𝜃 and therefore, its motion is simple harmonic.
Now, we can write
dω C
∴ + θ=0 … … … … … … (1.49)
dt I
𝑑 𝜃 C
∴ + θ=0 … … … … … … (1.50)
𝑑𝑡 I
𝑑 𝜃
∴ +μθ=0 … … … … … … (1.51)
𝑑𝑡
where, 𝜇 =
Equation (1.51) is known as the equation of motion of torsional pendulum.
The periodic time of torsional pendulum is given by
displacement θ
t = 2π = 2π
angular acceleration θ

I
t = 2π … … … … … … (1.52)
C

This is called the equation of time period for torsional pendulum.

Equation (1.52) can also be written as,

Page 13 of 33
 M. I of the disc or rod about the wire
t = 2π … … … (1.53
53)
Restoring couple per unit twist of the wire

From Equation (1.52),

), we can write
write,
4𝜋 𝐼
𝑡 = … … … … … … (1.54)
𝐶

4 𝜋2 𝐼
∴ 𝐶= … … … … … … (1
1.55)
𝑡2

Using this equation we can determine the torsional couple per unit twist of the wire.
But, 𝐶 = and 𝐼 =
Where, M is the mass and R is the radius of the disc.
Now, substituting the above values of C and I in equation (1.55
(1.55).
We get,
𝜋𝜂𝑟 4𝜋 𝑀𝑅
=
2𝑙 𝑡 2
4𝜋 𝑀𝑅 𝑙
∴𝜂= … … … … … … (1.56)
𝑡 𝑟

This is the expression for determination of modulus of rigidity η of a wire using

torsional pendulum.
dulum. The value of the radius of the wire should be measured accurately
because in the equation it occurs in the fourth power of the radius of the experimental
wire.

1.11 Determination of the coefficient of rigidity ((𝜼)) for a write :

1.11.1 Statical Method :This
This m
method is based on the direct application
ation of the
expression for the twisting couplec
couple =

 Horizontal twisting apparatus for a rod :

The arrangement of o the

apparatus is shown in figure
1.9 A rod of 50 cm in length and
about 0.25 cm in radius is ffixed
at one end with block B1. A
large pulley B2 attached to the
other end of the rod. A cord is
wound round the pulley and
mass M suspended at the other
end. Hence couple acts on the
rod and twisting produced in it.
The Pointer P1and P2 are
clamped on thee rod a known
distance ‘l’. The twisting
produced can be measured
with the help of scale
Fig: 1.9 S1 and S2.
Page 14 of 33
 If R is the radius of the pulley, than couple acting on the rod is𝑀𝑔𝑅, where M is
mass suspended. This couple is balanced by the torsional couple due to rod and
is equal to
πηr (θ − θ )
=
2𝑙

Where, r is the radius of rod, and 𝜃 and 𝜃 are the angles of twist produced at
the two pointers.
Equating the two couples, we have
πηr (θ − θ )
= 𝑀𝑔𝑅
2𝑙

2𝑀𝑔𝑅𝑙
∴ 𝜂= … … … (1.57)
πr (θ − θ )

Fig: 1.10
The experiment is repeated with different masses and a graph is plotted between
M and the twist (𝜃 − 𝜃 ). The slope of the straight line gives the mean of
which is used in the above expressions to find out 𝜂.

 Draw backs of the statical method :

(a) There being a pointer moving over the circular scale, an error is caused
due to the eccentricity of the axis of the rod with respect to it.
(b) Since the force is applied through the pulley, a side pull is produced on the
rod. This results in friction in the bearings which opposes the rod from
twisting freely.

1.11.2 Dynamical Method:

In this method, a disc or rod, which is suspended from the wire and performing
torsional vibrations about the wire and the time period of a body is determined.
Maxwell derived a method using which we can easily determine the moment of inertia
of a body without knowing the couple per unit twist.

 Maxwell’s Vibrating needle method :

A hollow tube, open at both ends is suspended at the middle with the torsion
wire whose modulus of rigidity is to be measured. It is suspended vertically from a
support and a small piece of mirror attached to it, as shown in figures 1.11

Page 15 of 33
 Fig: 1.11

As shown in fig.1.11(a), two hollow and two solid cylinder of equal length fitted
into tube end to end. The solid cylinders are first into the inner position and hollow
cylinders in the outer position as shown in fig.(a). The time period of a given system is
given by
I
t = 2π … … … … … … (1.58)
C
Where I1 is the moment of inertia of the loaded tube and C is couple per unit
twist of the wire.
Now, the position of hollow and solid cylinder are interchanged as shown in
fig.1.11(b), Then, time period t2 of second adjustment is given by
I
t = 2π … … … … … … (1.59)
C
Where, I2 is the moment of inertia of the tube in new position.

Squaring equation (1.58) and (1.59), we set

4π I
t = … … … … … … (1.60)
C

4π I
And t = … … … … … … (1.61)
C

Subtracting (1.60) from (1.61), we have

4π
t −t = (I − I ) … … … … … … (1.62)
C

Now, let m1 be the mass of each hollow cylinder and m2 be the mass of each solid
cylinder. Let the length of tube be 2a. Hence, the length of each solid or hollow cylinder
is𝑎 2. Then the centers of mass of the inner and outer cylinders lie at distance
𝑎 and3𝑎 .Hence, in changing from first to second position an extra mass (m2 – m1)
4 4
transferred from a distance 𝑎 4 to 3𝑎 4.
By the application of the principal of parallel axes, we have

a 3a
I = I + 2I + 2m + 2I + 2m … … … . … .. (1.63)
4 4
And,
a 3a
I = I + 2I + 2m + 2I + 2m … … … . … .. (1.64)
4 4
Where, 𝐼 , 𝐼 , and 𝐼 are the moment of inertia of the hollow tube, solid cylinder and
hollow cylinder about the axis of rotation respectively.
Now, subtracting equation (1.63) from (1.64), we get
3a a
I − I = 2(m − m ) − 2 (m − m )
4 4
3a a
∴ I − I = 2(m − m ) −
4 4
Page 16 of 33
 9a a
∴ I − I = 2(m − m ) −
16 16

8a
∴ I − I = 2(m − m )
16

∴ I − I = ( m − m )a … … … … … … (1.65)

Substituting this value of I2 – I1 in equation (1.62) we get

4π
t −t = (m − m )a
C

4π
= (m − m )a
πηr
2l
8lπ a
= (m − m )
πηr

8πla (m − m )
∴η= … … … … … … (1.66)
r (t − t )

Thus, if we know l, a, m1, m2, t1, t2, and r, the modulus of rigidity (η) of the wire
can be determined.

 Advantage :
1. The total suspended mass from the wire remains same, hence value of C
remains unchanged.
2. There is no need to find the moment of inertia of the system, hence the
question of uncertainty does not arise.

1.12 Bending of Beams :

A beam is a rod or a bar of uniform cross-section of a homogeneous, isotropic
elastic material whose length is very large compared to its thickness. When a beam is
fixed at one end and loaded at the other end as shown in figure 1.12(a) within the elastic
limit, it will bend and couple produced inside it. The upper surface of the beam gets
stretched and becomes a convex shape and lower surface gets compressed and becomes
a concave form.

Fig: 1.12
Page 17 of 33
All the longitudinal filaments in its upper half are extended and those in lower half are
compressed. The extension is maximum in the uppermost filament and the compression
is maximum in the lower most filaments. The amount of extension and compression
decreases towards the axis of the beam. Thus filament EF neither extended nor
compressed. This surface is called Neutral surface. The plane in which all filaments are
bent to form circular arcs is called the plane of bending. Thus in figure 1.12(b), plane
ABCD is the plane of bending. The line perpendicular to the plane of bending is called
the axis of bending. Thus, line EF is the neutral axis.

1.13 Bending Moment :

Fig: 1.13
Let a beam AB be fixed at A and loaded at B as shown in figure 1.13(a). EF is the
neutral axis of the beam. Let us consider a section PBCP’ cut by a plane PP’ at right
angles to its length. An equal and opposite reaction force W must be acting vertically
upward direction along PP’. The beam bend or rotate in clock wise direction. The couple
produced in the beam due to the load applied to the free end of the beam is called the
bending couple and the moment of this couple is called the bending moment.
Let a small part of the beam bent in the form of a circular arc as shown in figure
1.13(b). This are subtending angle 𝜃 at 0. Let R be the radius of curvature of this part of
the neutral axis. Let a’b’ be an element at a distance Z from the neutral axis.
We know that , arc = Radius X angle subtended
∴ a b = (R + Z) ∙ θ
The original length ab = R ∙ θ
∴ Increase in length = a b − ab
= (R + Z) ∙ θ − R ∙ θ
= Z∙θ … … … … … … (1.67)

Change in length
Now, strain =
Original length

𝑍∙𝜃 𝑍
= = … … … … (1.68)
𝑅∙𝜃 𝑅

Hence, the strain is proportional to the distance from the natural axis.
Now, consider a small area δa at a distance Z from the natural axis.

Stress
Young s Modulus Y=
Strain

Page 18 of 33
 ∴ Stress = Y x Strain

F Z
∴ = Yx
δa R
Z
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 δa = Y x x δa … … … … (1.69)
R

Then, the moment of this force = Force x distance

Z
= Yx x δa x Z
R
Z
= Yx x δa … … … … … … (1.70)
R

Then, the total moment of forces acting on all the filament is given by

Y ∙ δa ∙ Z Y
= δa ∙ Z … … … … … … (1.71)
R R

Here, ∑ δa ∙ Z is called the geometrical moment of inertia Ig of the section.

∴I = δa ∙ Z = ak … … … … (1.72)

Where ‘a’ is the area of the surface and ‘k’ is the radius of gyration.

Y
∴ The moment of forces = ∙ ak
R
Y
= ∙ Ig … … … … … … (1.73)
R

This is called the restoring couple or the bending moment of the beam.
∴ The bending moment M of beam is

Y
M= ∙ Ig … … … … … … (1.74)
R

Here, the quantity Y ∙ I = Y ∙ ak is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.

 For rectangular cross section, a = b x d, and k =

d bd
∴ I = ak = bd x =
12 12

∴ The bending moment for rectangular cross section

Ybd
M= … … … … … … (1.75)
12R

Page 19 of 33
  For circular cross section, a = πr and k =
r πr
∴ I = ak = πr x =
4 4

Y ∙ πr
∴ M= … … … … … … (1.76)
4R

From above equation it is clear that, the bending moment M is directly proportional to
the Young’s modulus (Y) of the beam.

1.14 The cantilever :

Definition: A beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other end is called
cantilever.

 When the weight of the beam is ineffective :

Let AB be the natural axis of the
cantilever of length L as shown in
Figure 1.14. It is fixed at end and
loaded at B with a weight W. Then the
end B is depressed into the position B’
and the natural axis takes up the
position AB’. Consider a section P of
the beam at a distance ‘x’ from the
fixed end A.
The bending moment = W x PB
Fig: 1.14 = W (L − 𝑥 )
Since the beam is in equilibrium.
∴ We can write
YI Yak
W (L − x) = = … … … … … … (1.77)
R R

Where, R is the radius of curvature.

Thus, for point Q at a small distance dx from P, we have
PQ = R ∙ dθ
∴ dx = R ∙ dθ
dx
∴R=
dθ

∴ Equation (1.77) becomes,

Y. ak . dθ
W (L − x) =
dx

W (L − x). dx
∴ dθ = … … … … … … (1.78)
Y. ak

Now, the depression of Q below P is equal to CD or equal to𝑑𝑦, then

dy = (L − x)dθ

Page 20 of 33
 (𝐿 − x) ∙ 𝑊(𝐿 − x) ∙ 𝑑x
=
𝑌𝑎𝑘

𝑊 ∙ (𝐿 − x) ∙ 𝑑x
dy = … … … … … … (1.79)
𝑌𝑎𝑘

Now, the total depression

W (L − x) dx
y= dy =
Y ∙ ak

W
= (L − 2Lx + X )dx
Y ∙ ak

W x x
= L x − 2L +
Y ∙ ak 2 3

W L
= L −L +
Y ∙ ak 3

WL WL
∴ y= = … … … … … … (1.80)
3Yak 3YI
This is the expression of depression produced in the beam.

1.15 Depression of a beam supported at the ends :

(When the beam is loaded at the center):
Let a beam be supported on
two knife edges at its two ends A and
B, and let it be loaded in the middle at
C with weight W as shown in figure
1.15.Since the middle part of the beam
is horizontal, then the beam may be
considered as equivalent to two
inverted cantilevers, fixed at C and
loaded at ends A and B by
weightW 2.If L is the length of the
beam AB, then the length of each
cantileverisL 2.
Fig: 1.15
Then the depression of C below A and B is given by

W L
y= 2 ∙ 2
3 ∙ Y ∙ ak

WL WL
∴y= = … … … … … … (1.81)
48 Y ∙ ak 48 Y ∙ I

 If the beam is having a circular cross section,

Page 21 of 33
 πr
then, I = ak =
4

WL 4 WL
y= ∙ = … … … … … … (1.82)
48 ∙ Y πr 12 πr ∙ Y
Where, r is the radius of cross section.
 If the beam is having a rectangular cross section,

bd
then, I = ak =
12

WL 12 WL
y= ∙ = … … … … … … (1.83)
48 ∙ Y bd 4Y ∙ bd

Solved Numerical

Ex-1.1
The Young’s modulus of a metal is 2 X 1011 N/m2 and its breaking stress is 1.078
X109N/m2. Calculate the maximum amount of energy per unit volume which can
be stored in the metal when stretched.

Sol: Here, Y = 2 X 1011 N/m2

Maximum stress = 1.078 X 109 N/m2
1
Energy stored per unit volume = stress × strain
2
1 stress
= [1.078 × 10 ] ×
2 Y

1 1.078 × 10
= × 1.078 × 10 ×
2 2 × 10

= 2.90 × 10 J⁄m

Ex-1.2
Find the work done in stretching a wire of 1 sq. mm cross section and 2 m long
through 0.1 mm. Given Y = 2 X 1011 N/m2.

Sol: As we know
1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ
2
1
= ×𝐹×𝑙
2
1 𝑌𝑎𝑙
= × ×𝑙
2 𝐿
Here, Y = 2 X 1011 N/m2
L = 2 m.
l = 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
a = 1 sq.mm = 10-6 m2
Page 22 of 33
 1 2 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
∴ 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × = 5 × 10 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠.
2 2

Ex: 1.3
The modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio of the material of a wire are 2.87 x
1010 N/m2 and 0.379 respectively. Find the value of Young’s modulus of the
material of the wire.

Sol: Here, η = 2.87 x 1010 N/m2 and σ = 0.379

We know that,
Y
η=
(1
2 + σ)

∴ Y = 2η (1 + σ)

∴ Y= 2 x 2.87 x 1010( 1 + 0.379 )

∴Y = 7.915 x 1010 N/m2
Ex:1.4
A steel wire, 1 meter long and 1 mm square in cross section, supports a mass of
6kg. By how much does it stretch? (Give Y = 20 x 1010 N/m-2 )

Sol: Here, L = 1 m
A = 1 sq. mm = 10-6 sq. m
m = 6 kg.
l=?

The stretching force F = mg = 6 x 9.8 = 58.8 N

⁄
Young modulus𝑌 = ⁄

𝐹𝐿
∴𝑙=
𝑎𝑦

58.8 × 1
∴𝑙=
10 × 20 × 10

∴ 𝑙 = 2.94 × 10 𝑚

∴ The increase in length of wire = 0.294 m

Ex: 1.5
A bronze bar 1.7 m long and 50 mm in diameter is subjected to a tensile stress of
70 Mega Newton / m2. Calculate the extension produced in the bar and work
done during the process. The value of Young’s modulus for the material of the
bar may be taken to be 85 x 109 N / m2.
Sol:
Since Y = stress/strain, we have strain = stress / Y

And
Extension produced = strain x length
Page 23 of 33
 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 70 × 10
= × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = × 1.7 = 14 × 10 𝑚 = 1.4 𝑚𝑚
𝑌 85 × 10

Now work done during stretch = 0.5 x stretching force x stretch

Here stretching force = tensile stress x area of cross section of the rod

= ( 70 × 10 ) × 𝜋 × 50 × 10 /4

1 ( 70 × 10 ) × 𝜋 × 50 × 10
∴ 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = × × 14 × 10
2 4

7 × 𝜋 × 35
= = 96.23 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
8

Ex: 1.6
Calculate the twisting couple on a solid shaft of length 1.5 m and diameter 120
mm
when it is twisted through an angle0.6 . The coefficient of rigidity for the
material
of the shaft may be taken to be 93 x 109 N/m2.
Sol:
𝜋𝜂𝑟 𝜃
𝐶=
2𝑙

Here, 𝜃 = 0.6 = x 0.6 radian

l = 1.5 m

r = = 60 mm = 0.06 m

𝜂 = 93 x 109 N/m2

𝜋 × 93 × 10 × (0.06) × 0.6 𝜋
∴ 𝐶=
2 × 1.5 × 180

∴ 𝐶 = 1.322 × 10 𝑁 𝑚

Ex:1.7
A sphere of mass 0.8 kg and radius 0.03 m is suspended from a wire of length 1
m
and radius 5 x 10-4 m. If the period of torsional oscillations of this system is 1.23
sec. Calculate the modulus of rigidity of the wire.
Sol:

Here,
I
t = 2π
C
But
Page 24 of 33
 2
I= MR for sphere
5
and,
𝜋𝜂𝑟
𝐶=
2𝑙

4𝑀𝑅 𝑙
∴ 𝑡 = 2𝜋
5𝜋𝜂𝑟
Squaring,
16𝜋𝑀𝑅 𝑙
𝑡 =
5𝜂𝑟

16𝜋𝑀𝑅 𝑙
∴ 𝜂=
5𝑡 𝑟
Here, M = 0.8 kg
R = 0.03 m
l=1m
r = 5 x 10-4 m
t = 1.23 sec.

16𝜋 × 0.8 × (0.03) × 1

∴ 𝜂=
5 × (1.23) × (5 × 10 )

∴ 𝜂 = 7.654 × 10 𝑁 ⁄𝑚

Ex: 1.8
A cylindrical rod of diameter 14 mm rests on two knife – edges 0.8 m apart and a
load of 1 kg is suspended from its mid-point. Neglecting the weight of the rod,
calculate the depression of the mid-point if Y for its material be 2.04 x 1011 N /
m2.

Sol: We know that the depression y of the mid-point of a beam of circular cross-
section, supported at the ends loaded in the middle is given by

WL
y=
12 πr ∙ Y
Here, L = 0.8 m,
r = 0.014/2 = 0.007 m,
W = 1 x 9.81 N
And, Y = 2.04 x 1011 N/m2

So that the depression of the mid-point of the beam is given by

9.81 × (0.8)
𝑦= = 0.000272 𝑚 = 0.272 𝑚𝑚
12 × 𝜋 × (0.007) × 2.04 × 10

Ex: 1.9
A brass bar 1 cm square in cross section is supported on two knife edge 100 cm

Page 25 of 33
 apart. A load of 1 kg at the center of the bar depresses that point by 2.51 mm.
What
is Young’s modulus for brass?
Sol: We know that the depression of the mid – point of the bar is given by

WL
y=
48 Y ∙ I
Now, for a bar of rectangular cross – section, l g = b d3 / 12
Here, b = d = 1 cm, ∴b d3 = 1
W = mg= 1000 x 981 dynes
L = 100 cm
y = 2.51 mm = 0.251 cm
Therefore,

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿
𝑦= =
48 𝑌 × 𝑏 𝑑 / 12 4 𝑌 × 𝑏 𝑑

𝑊𝐿 981 × 10
∴𝑌= = = 9.77 × 10 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠/𝑐𝑚
4𝑦 ×𝑏𝑑 4 × 0.251

Ex:1.10
A square metal bar of 2.51 cm side, 37.95 cm long, and weighing 826 gm is
suspended by a wire 37.85 cm long and 0.0501 cm radius. It is observed to make
50 compete swings in 335.7 sec. What is the rigidity coefficient of the wire?
Sol:
Here, time period of the bar
t = 335.7 / 50 = 6.714 sec.
L=37.95 cm, B= 2.51 cm, M=826 gm, r=0.0501 cm and l=37.85 cm
Now, time period of a body executing a torsional vibration is given by
𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝐼⁄𝐶 , ……………….(1)

The moment of inertia of rectangular bar is 𝐼 = 𝑀

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ + 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ (37.95) × (2.51)

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 826 ×
12 12

1446.3
∴ 𝐼 = 826 × = 99540 𝑔𝑚 𝑐𝑚
12

Substituting the value of periodic time t and moment of inertia I in equation (1),
We have,
∴ 6.714 = 2𝜋 99540 / 𝐶

Squaring which, we have

𝐶 = 4 𝜋 × 99540 / (6.714)

But, 𝐶 =𝜂𝜋𝑟 /2𝑙

Page 26 of 33
 𝜂𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋 × 99540
∴ =
2𝑙 (6.714)

𝜂 × 𝜋(0.0501) 4 𝜋 × 99550
∴ =
2 × 37.85 (6.714)

Then, coefficient of rigidity,

8 𝜋 × 99540 × 37.85
𝜂= = 3.357 × 10 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 / 𝑐𝑚
(0.0501) × (6.714)

Exercise

(1) A wire 300 cm long and .625 sq. cm in cross – section is found to stretch 0.3 cm
under a tension of 1200 kilograms. What is the Young’s modulus of the material
of the wire?(Ans.: 2.3 x 1012 dynes / sq.cm.)
(2) Calculate the work done in stretching a uniform metal wire of area of cross
section 10-6 m2 and length 1.5 m through 4 x 10-3 m. Given Y = 2 x 1011 N / m2.
(Ans.: 1.066 Joule)
(3) Calculate the Poisson’s ratio for the material given, Y = 12.25 x 1010 N / m2 and 𝜂
= 4.55 x 1010 N / m2. (Ans.: 0.346)
(4) A uniform metal disc of diameter 0.1 m and mass 1.2 kg is fixed symmetrically to
the lower end of a torsion wire of length 1 m and diameter 1.44 x 10-3 m whose
upper end is fixed. The time period of torsional oscillations is 1.98 sec. Calculate
the modulus of the rigidity of the material of the wire.
(Ans.: 3.579 x 1010 N / m2)
(5) What couple must be applied to a wire, 1 meter long, 1 mm diameter, in order to
twist one end of it through 900, the other end remaining fixed? The rigidity
modulus is 2.8 x 1011dynes cm-2. ( Ans. : 4.3 x 106 dynes cm )
(6) What couple must be applied to a wire 1 meter long and 2 mm in diameter in
order totwist one of its ends through 450 when the other remains fixed.
Given 𝜂 = 5 x 1011 dynes / cm2. (Ans.: 6.1 x 105 dynes cm )

Question Bank

Multiple Choice Questions:

(1) Hooke’s law essentially defines ________
(a) Stress (b) Strain
(c) Yield point (d) Elastic limit
(2) The dimensional formula of stress is _______
(a) [M L T ] (b) [M L T ]
(c) [M L T ] (d) [M L T ]
(3) The nearest approach to the perfectly elastic body is _________
(a) Quarts fibre (b) Putty
(c) Silver (d) Platinum

Page 27 of 33
(4) _______ is the perfectly plastic material
(a) Quarts fibre (b) Putty
(c) Silver (d) Platinum
(5) The restoring force per unit area is called _________
(a) Stress (b) Strain
(c) Elasticity (d) Plasticity
(6) The change per unit dimension of the body is called ________
(a) Stress (b) Strain
(c) Elasticity (d) Plasticity

(7) The restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface is called _________
(a) Longitudinal Stress (b) Tangential Stress
(c) Normal Stress (d) Tensile Stress
(8) The restoring force per unit area parallel to the surface is called _________
(a) Longitudinal Stress (b) Lateral Stress
(c) Normal Stress (d) Tensile Stress
(9) Compressibility of a material is reciprocal of ______________
(a) Modulus of rigidity (b) Young Modulus
(c) Bulk Modulus (d) Coefficient of rigidity
(10) The work done per unit volume in stretching the wire is equal to _________
(a) Stress x strain (b) (1/2) stress x strain
(c) Stress / strain (d) Strain / stress
(11) The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known as
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Bulk modulus
(c) Poisson’s ratio (d) Hooke’s Law
(12) Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between __________
(a) -1 and + 0.5 (b) - 1 and -2
(c) -0.5 and +1 (d) -1 and 0
(13) Which of the following relations is true?
(a) 3𝐾 −  (b) 3𝐾 + 
3𝛼 = 3𝛼 =
3𝐾 3𝐾
(c) 3𝐾 +  (d) 3𝐾 − 
𝛼= 𝛼=
3𝐾 3𝐾
(14) The relationship between Y,  and  is ____________
(a) Y = 2 (1 + ) (b)  = 2Y (1 + )
(c)  = 2Y / (1 + ) (d) Y =  (1 + )
(15) The Poisson’s ratio cannot have the value _________
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.2
(c) 0.1 (d) -0.52
(16) The Poisson’s ratio can have the value __________
(a) 0.7 (b) -1.1
(c) 1.0 (d) 0.49
(17) Units of modulus of elasticity is _________
(a) dyne/cm (b) dyne/cm2
(c) N/m (d) Dyne
Page 28 of 33
(18) The relation between K, α and β is __________
(a) 1 (b) 1
𝐾= 𝐾=
2(𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) 3(𝛼 − 2𝛽 )
(c) 1 (d) 1
𝐾= 𝐾=
(𝛼 − 2𝛽 ) 3(𝛼 + 2𝛽 )
(19) In Bulk modulus, there is a change in the volume of the body but no change in ____
(a) Size (b) Shape
(c) Line (d) Angle

(20) Increase in the length of a wire is always accompanied by a decrease in _________

(a) Length (b) Breadth
(c) Cross section (d) Height
(21) The ratio of Longitudinal stress to linear strain is called ________
(a) Modulus of rigidity (b) Young Modulus
(c) Bulk Modulus (d) Coefficient of rigidity
(22) The ratio of Tensile stress to shear strain is called ________
(a) Modulus of rigidity (b) Young Modulus
(c) Bulk Modulus (d) Poisson’s ratio
(23) The twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends on __________
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Bulk modulus
(c) Modulus of rigidity (d) Poisson’s ratio
(24) If the material of a beam is _____, no bending should be produced.
(a) Homogenous (b) Isotropic
(c) Elastic (d) Plastic
(25) The unit of twisting couple is __________
(a) dynes/cm (b) N  m
(c) N m
2 (d) Nm2
(26) On which of the followings the twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder
depends?
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Bulk modulus
(c) Modulus of rigidity (d) Poisson’s ratio
(27) The time period of the torsional vibrations(pendulum) is given by __________
(a) (b)
𝐶 𝐼
𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑡 = 2π
𝐼 C
(c) (d)
𝐼 𝐶
𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑡 = 2𝜋
𝑌 𝐾
(28) In which part of cantilever the extension is maximum?
(a) Lowermost (b) Uppermost
(c) Middle (d) None of these
(29) The line of intersection of the plane of bending with the neutral surface
perpendicular to is called the _________
(a) Neutral surface (b) Plane of bending
(c) Neutral axis (d) Axis of bending
(30) The material of a beam should not be __________
(a) Homogenous (b) Isotropic
(c) Elastic (d) Plastic
Page 29 of 33
(31) The bending moment of a beam depends on only ________
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Bulk modulus
(c) Modulus of rigidity (d) Poisson’s ratio
(32) Let y is depression produced in the free end of cantilever when weight W is
loaded at other end of the beam. If the weight is doubled, the depression y will be
(a) y/2 (b) Y
(c) 2y (d) 4y
(33) Let y is depression produced in the free end of cantilever when weight W is
loaded at other end of the beam. If the length of the beam is doubled, the
depression y will be _______
(a) y/8 (b) 2y
(c) 8y (d) 4y
(34) Let y is depression produced in the free end of cantilever when weight W is
loaded at other end of the beam. If the length of the beam is reduced to L/2 and
weight W/2, the depression y will be _________
(a) y/16 (b) 8y
(c) 16y (d) 4y
(35) The torsional rigidity of a cylinder is equal to ________
(a) Ig (b) R
Y Y
R Ig
(c) Y x R×Ig (d) None of above
(36) The twisting couple per unit twist of wire or cylinder is also called __________
(a) Young Modulus (b) Modulus of rigidity
(c) Bulk Modulus (d) Torsional rigidity
(37) The twisting couple is equal and opposite to the _______
(a) Force (b) Pure shear
(c) Work (d) Restoring couple
(38) The periodic time of torsional pendulum depends on _________
(a) Young Modulus (b) Torsional rigidity
(c) Bulk Modulus (d) Amplitude of the oscillation
(39) The time period of a torsional pendulum is directly proportional to the square
root of ___________
(a) Distance (b) Vibrations
(c) Moment of inertia (d) Force
(40) The upper end of a wire of radius 4 mm and length 100 cm is clamped and its
other end is twisted through an angle of 300. Then angle of shear is _______
(a) 120 (b) 0.120
(c) 1.2 0 (d) 0.0120
(41) The depression produced in the free end of a cantilever is ________
(a) W2L (b) 3WL
y= y=
3𝑌I 𝑌I
(c) WL (d) LW
y= y=
3𝑌I 3𝑌I
(42) Mathematical expression of flexural rigidity is ________
(a) Y2ak (b) Ya2k
(c) Ya k
2 2 (d) Yak2
(43) The geometrical moment of inertia is given by _________
(a) Ig = a2k (b) Ig = ak2
(c) Ig = a /k
2 (d) Ig = k/ a2

Page 30 of 33
Short Questions:

(1) Explain (i) elasticity and (ii) plasticity.

(2) Explain: (i) load (ii) stress and (iii) strain.
(3) Explain: (i) Normal stress and (ii) Tangential stress.
(4) Explain: (i) linear strain (ii) volume strain and (iii) Shear strain.
(5) Define Young’s modulus and Bulk Modulus.
(6) Define Modulus of rigidity
(7) Explain: Young Modulus and Modulus of rigidity
(8) State and explain Hook’s law
(9) Define and explain Poisson’s ratio
(10) Show that the value of Poisson’s ratio lies between -1 and + 0.5.
(11) Describe stress-strain diagram for elongation of a wire.
(12) Derive relation between Young’s modulus (Y), Modulus of rigidity (η) and
Poisson’s ratio (σ)
(13) Prove the relation, (i) = 1 + σ and (ii) = 1 − 2σ.
(14) Define torsional pendulum and write the expression of its time period.
(15) Write the expression of torsional rigidity of wire.
(16) What is statical method?
(17) What is dynamical method?
(18) State the drawbacks of statical method of determination of modulus of rigidity.
(19) List the methods of determination of modulus of rigidity of a cylindrical rod or a
wire.
(20) Discuss advantages of dynamical method for determination of modulus of
rigidity.
(21) Define and explain bending moment.
(22) Define: cantilever and bending of beam.
(23) Explain the basic assumptions for the theory of bending.
(24) What is cantilever? Write expressions for depression of cantilever when the load
is fixed at the center for rectangular and circular bar.
(25) Write name of the two experimental methods to determine (i) Young’s modulus
and (ii) modulus of rigidity.
(26) The upper end of a wire of radius 4 mm and length 100 cm is clamped and its
other end is twisted through an angle of 300. Calculate the angle of shear.
(27) Define and discuss the terms ( i) bending of a beam and (ii) Bending moment.
(28) Write only the equations for the depression of the mid-point of rectangular and
cylindrical beams loaded at the centre and supported at ends.

Long Questions:

(1) Derive the formula for the work done per unit volume in stretching a wire.
(2) Prove that the work done per unit volume in stretching the wire is equal to
(stress × strain ).

(3) Explain three elastic constants in detail.

(4) Show the bulk modulus of elasticity is K =

( )

Page 31 of 33
(5) Derive the expression of bulk modulus for deformation of a cube
(6) 1
Derive the relation η = for deformation of cube
2(α + β)
(7) Derive the expression of modulus of rigidity for deformation of a cube
(8) Discuss the case of deformation of a cube and derive the necessary expression for
Three elastic constants and hence prove that = +
(9) Define Poisson’s ratio and describe a method of determination. Derive the
formula used.
(10) Define Poisson’s ratio (σ) and derive formula of it to determine experimentally, i.
e. σ = 1 −

(11) Derive the relation between three types of elastic module Y, K and η
(12) Define Poisson’s ratio. Describe an experiment with necessary theory to
determine the Poisson’s ratio for rubber.
(13) Derive an expression for torsional rigidity of the cylinder or a rod of uniform
circular section.
(14) Derive the equation for the couple per unit twist produced in a cylindrical wire or
shaft with the help of necessary figures.
(15)
Derive an expression for periodic time of a torsional pendulumT = 2 π
(16) Define torsional pendulum and derive the equation for its time period.
(17) Discuss the torsional pendulum and derive its equation of motion.
(18) Explain the statical method of determination of modulus of rigidity and also
mention its drawbacks.
(19) Describe dynamical method for determination of modulus of rigidity. Also discuss
advantages of this method.
(20) Describe statical method (horizontal twisting apparatus for a rod) of
determination of modulus of rigidity. Discuss drawbacks of the method.
(21) Describe dynamical method (Maxwell’s vibrating needle method) of
determination of modulus of rigidity.
(22) What is cantilever? Derive the equation for the depression produced in the free
end of the cantilever if the weight of the beam is ineffective.
(23) What is bending moment? Derive the equation for the bending moment of beams
having rectangular and circular cross-sections.
(24) Derive an expression for the depression of free loaded end neglecting weight of
cantilever.
(25) Explain the concept of bending moment on the basis of theory of banding.
(26) What is bending moment? Show that the bending moment of a beam is M = I .
(27) Derive an expression for the depression of free loaded end neglecting weight of
cantilever.
(28) Prove that the bending moment of beam is directly proportional to the Young
Modulus.
(29) Obtain the formula for the depression of a beam supported at the ends and
loaded at the centre.
(30) Derive an expression for depression of cantilever, when the load is fixed at the
center. Also find the expression for rectangular and circular cross sections.
(31) Derive the expression bending of a tube supported at the 2 ends & loaded in the
middle.

Page 32 of 33
Answer key of MCQ:
(1) (d) (2) (c) (3) (a) (4) (b)
(5) (a) (6) (b) (7) (c) (8) (d)
(9) (c) (10) (b) (11) (c) (12) (a)
(13) (b) (14) (a) (15) (a) (16) (d)
(17) (b) (18) (b) (19) (b) (20) (c)
(21) (b) (22) (a) (23) (c) (24) (d)
(25) (b) (26) (c) (27) (b) (28) (b)
(29) (c) (30) (d) (31) (a) (32) (a)
(33) (c) (34) (a) (35) (a) (36) (d)
(37) (d) (38) (b) (39) (c) (40) (b)
(41) (c) (42) (d) (43) (b)

Page 33 of 33